Ore Pulp

Froth flotation is a process for selectively separating hydrophobic materials from hydrophilic. This is used in mineral processing, paper recycling and waste-water treatment industries. Historically this was first used in the mining industry, where it was one of the great enabling technologies of the 20th century. It has been described as "the single most important operation used for the recovery and upgrading of sulfide ores". The development of froth flotation has improved the recovery of valuable minerals, such as copper- and lead-bearing minerals. Along with mechanized mining, it has allowed the economic recovery of valuable metals from much lower grade ore than previously.

Industries

Froth flotation is applied to a wide range of separations. An estimated 1B tons of materials are processed in this manner annually.

Mineral processing

Froth flotation is a process for separating minerals from gangue by exploiting differences in their hydrophobicity. Hydrophobicity differences between valuable minerals and waste gangue are increased through the use of surfactants and wetting agents. The flotation process is used for the separation of a large range of sulfides, carbonates and oxides prior to further refinement. Phosphates and coal are also upgraded (purified) by flotation technology. "Grade-recovery curves" are tools in weighing the trade-off of producing a high grade of concentrate vs cost. These curves only compare the grade-recovery relations of a specific feed grade and feed rate.

Waste water treatment

The flotation process is also widely used in industrial waste water treatment plants, where it removes fats, oil, grease and suspended solids from waste water. These units are called dissolved air flotation (DAF) units. In particular, dissolved air flotation units are used in removing oil from the wastewater effluents of oil refineries, petrochemical and chemical plants, natural gas processing plants and similar industrial facilities.

Principle of operation

The ore to be treated is ground into particles (comminution). In the idealized case, the individual minerals are physically separated, a process known as full ''liberation''. The particle sizes are typically in the range 2-500 microns in diameter. For froth flotation, an aqueous slurry of the ground ore is treated with the frothing agent. An example is sodium ethyl xanthate as a collector in the flotation of galena (lead sulfide) to separate it from sphalerite (zinc sulfide). The polar part of xanthate anion attaches to the ore particles and the non-polar hydrocarbon part forms a hydrophobic layer. The particles are brought to the water surface by air bubbles. About 300 g/tonne of ore is required for efficient separation. The efficiency of the hydrophobic action increases, but the selectivity to ore type decreases with increasing length of the hydrocarbon chain in xanthates. The chain is shortest in sodium ethyl xanthate that makes it highly selective to copper, nickel, lead, gold, and zinc ores. Aqueous solutions (10%) with pH=7–11 are normally used in the process.Report 5 (1995) p. 13 This slurry (more properly called the ''pulp'') of hydrophobic particles and hydrophilic particles is then introduced to tanks known as ''flotation cells'' that are aerated to produce bubbles. The hydrophobic particles attach to the air bubbles, which rise to the surface, forming a froth. The froth is skimmed from the cell, producing a concentrate ("conc") of the target mineral.

The minerals that do not float into the froth are referred to as the ''flotation tailings'' or ''flotation tails''. These tailings may also be subjected to further stages of flotation to recover the valuable particles that did not float the first time. This is known as ''scavenging''. The final tailings after scavenging are normally pumped for disposal as mine fill or to tailings disposal facilities for long-term storage.

Flotation is normally undertaken in several stages to maximize the recovery of the target mineral or minerals and the concentration of those minerals in the concentrate, while minimizing the energy input.J Pease,
Increasing the energy efficiency of grinding
" Presented at: ''Crushing and Grinding, Brisbane, September 2007.'' Accessed 24 May 2013.

Flotation stages

The first stage is called ''roughing'', which produces a ''rougher concentrate''. The objective is to remove the maximum amount of the valuable mineral at as coarse a particle size as practical. Grinding costs energy. The goal is to release enough gangue from the valuable mineral to get a high recovery. Some concentrators use a ''preflotation'' step to remove low density impurities such as carbonaceous dust.T Smith, D Lin, B Lacouture and G Anderson
"Removal of organic carbon with a Jameson Cell at Red Dog Mine,"
in: ''Proceedings of the 40th Annual Meeting of the Canadian Mineral Processors, Ottawa, Ontario, 22–24 January 2008'' The rougher concentrate is normally subjected to further stages of flotation to reject more of the undesirable minerals that also reported to the froth, in a process known as ''cleaning''. The resulting material is often subject to further grinding (usually called ''regrinding''). Regrinding is often undertaken in specialized ''regrind mills'', such as the IsaMill.. The rougher flotation step is often followed by a ''scavenger'' flotation step that is applied to the rougher tailings to further recover any of the target minerals.

Science of flotation

To be effective on a given ore slurry, the collectors are chosen based upon their selective wetting of the types of particles to be separated. A good collector will adsorb, physically or chemically, with one of the types of particles. The wetting activity of a surfactant on a particle can in principle be quantified by measuring the contact angles of the liquid/bubble interface. Another important measure for attachment of bubbles to particles is induction time, the time required for the particle and bubble to rupture the thin film separating the particle and bubble. This rupturing is achieved by the surface forces between the particle and bubble.

The mechanisms for the bubble-particle attachment is complex but is viewed as consisting of three steps: collision, attachment, and detachment. The collision is achieved by particles being within the collision tube of a bubble and this is affected by the velocity of the bubble and radius of the bubble. The collision tube corresponds to the region in which a particle will collide with the bubble, with the perimeter of the collision tube corresponding to the grazing trajectory.

The attachment of the particle to the bubble is controlled by the induction time of the particle and bubble. The particle and bubble need to bind and this occurs if the time in which the particle and bubble are in contact with each other is larger than the required induction time. This induction time is affected by the fluid viscosity, particle and bubble size and the forces between the particle and bubbles.

The detachment of a particle and bubble occurs when the force exerted by the surface tension is exceeded by shear forces and gravitational forces. These forces are complex and vary within the cell. High shear will be experienced close to the impeller of a mechanical flotation cell and mostly gravitational force in the collection and cleaning zone of a flotation column.

Significant issues of entrainment of fine particles occurs as these particles experience low collision efficiencies as well as sliming and degradation of the particle surfaces. Coarse particles show a low recovery of the valuable mineral due to the low liberation and high detachment efficiencies.

Flotation equipment

Flotation can be performed in rectangular or cylindrical mechanically agitated cells or tanks, flotation columns, Jameson Cells or deinking flotation machines. Classified by the method of air absorption manner, it is fair to state that two distinct groups of flotation equipment have arisen:pneumatic and mechanical machines. Generally pneumatic machines give a low-grade concentrate and little operating troubles.

Mechanical cells use a large mixer and diffuser mechanism at the bottom of the mixing tank to introduce air and provide mixing action. Flotation columns use air spargers to introduce air at the bottom of a tall column while introducing slurry above. The countercurrent motion of the slurry flowing down and the air flowing up provides mixing action. Mechanical cells generally have a higher throughput rate, but produce material that is of lower quality, while flotation columns generally have a low throughput rate but produce higher quality material.

The Jameson cell uses neither impellers nor spargers, instead combining the slurry with air in a downcomer where high shear creates the turbulent conditions required for bubble particle contacting.

Chemicals of flotation

Collectors

For many ores (e.g. those of Cu, Mo, W, Ni), the collectors are anionic sulfur ligands. Particularly popular for sulfide minerals are xanthate salts, including potassium amyl xanthate (PAX), potassium isobutyl xanthate (PIBX), potassium ethyl xanthate (KEX), sodium isobutyl xanthate (SIBX), sodium isopropyl xanthate (SIPX), sodium ethyl xanthate (SEX). Related collectors include related sulfur-based ligands: dithiophosphates, dithiocarbamates. Still other classes of collectors include the thiourea thiocarbanilide. Fatty acid carboxylates, alkyl sulfates, and alkyl sulfonates have also been used for oxide minerals.

For some minerals (e.g., sylvinite for KCl), fatty amines are used as collectors.

Frothers

A variety of compounds are added to stabilize the foams. These additives include pine oil, various alcohols ( methyl isobutyl carbinol (MIBC)), polyglycols, xylenol (cresylic acid).

Modifiers

A variety of other compounds are added to optimize the separation process, these additives are called modifiers. Modifying reagents react either with the mineral surfaces or with collectors and other ions in the flotation pulp, resulting in a modified and controlled flotation response.

* pH modifiers include lime (used as quicklime CaO, or more commonly as slaked lime, a slurry of Ca(OH)₂), Soda ash (Na₂CO₃), Caustic soda (NaOH), sulfuric and hydrochloric acid (H₂SO₄, HCl).

* Anionic modifiers include phosphates, silicates, and carbonates.
* Organic modifiers include the thickeners dextrin, starch, glue, and CMC.

Specific applications

Sulfide ores

Copper (see copper extraction) and copper-molybdenum  Sebenik, Roger F. ''et al''. (2005) "Molybdenum and Molybdenum Compounds" in ''Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology''. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. Lead-Zinc  
Prior to 1907, nearly all the copper mined in the US came from underground vein deposits, averaging 2.5 percent copper. By 1991, the average grade of copper ore mined in the US had fallen to only 0.6 percent.

Nonsulfide ores

Flotation is used for purification of potassium chloride from sodium chloride and clay minerals. The crushed mineral is suspended in brine in the presence of fatty ammonium salts. Because the ammonium head group and K⁺ have very similar ionic radii (ca. 0.135, 0.143 nm respectively), the ammonium centers exchange for the surface potassium sites on the particles of KCl, but not on the NaCl particles. The long alkyl chains then confer hydrophobicity to the particles, which enable them to form foams.Elizabeth R. Burkhardt "Potassium and Potassium Alloys" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley-VCH, 2006.

Coal

Waste water treatment

Chemical compounds for deinking of recycled paper

Froth flotation is one of the processes used to recover recycled paper. In the paper industry this step is called deinking or just flotation. The target is to release and remove the hydrophobic contaminants from the recycled paper. The contaminants are mostly printing ink and stickies. Normally the setup is a two-stage system with 3,4 or 5 flotation cells in series.

* pH control: sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide
* Calcium ion source: hard water, lime or calcium chloride
* Collector: fatty acid, fatty acid emulsion, fatty acid soap and/or organo-modified siloxane

Environmental considerations

As in any technology that has long been conducted on the multi-million ton per year scale, flotation technologies have the potential for threatening the environment beyond the disruption of the mining. Froth flotation employs a host of organic chemicals and relies of elaborate machinery. Some of the chemicals (cyanide) are acutely toxic but hydrolyze to innocuous products. Naturally occurring fatty acids are widely used. Tailings and effluents are contained in lined ponds. Froth flotation is "poised for increased activity due to their potential usefulness in environmental site cleanup operations" including recycling of plastics and metals, not to mention water treatment.

History

Flotation process are described in ancient Greek and Persian literature. During the late 19th century, the process basics were discovered through a slow evolutionary phase. During the first decade of the 20th century, a more rapid investigation of oils, froths, and agitation led to proven work-place applications, especially at Broken Hill, Australia, that brought the technological innovation known as “froth flotation.” During the early 20th century, froth flotation revolutionized mineral processing.

Initially, naturally occurring chemicals such as fatty acids and oils were used as flotation reagents in a large quantity to increase the hydrophobicity of the valuable minerals. Since then, the process has been adapted and applied to a wide variety of materials to be separated, and additional collector agents, including surfactants and synthetic compounds have been adopted for various applications.

19th century

Englishman William Haynes patented a process in 1860 for separating sulfide and gangue minerals using oil. Later writers have pointed to Haynes's as the first "bulk oil flotation" patent, though there is no evidence of its being field tested, or used commercially. In 1877 the brothers Bessel (Adolph and August) of Dresden, Germany, introduced their commercially successful oil and froth flotation process for extracting graphite, considered by some the root of froth flotation. However, the Bessel process became uneconomical after the discovery of high-grade graphite in Sri Lanka and was largely forgotten.

Inventor Hezekiah Bradford of Philadelphia invented a "method of saving floating material in ore-separation” and received US patent No. 345951 on July 20, 1886. He would later go on to patent the Bradford Breaker, currently in use by the coal industry, in 1893. His "Bradford washer," patented 1870, was used to concentrate iron, copper and lead-zinc ores by specific gravity, but lost some of the metal as float off the concentration process. The 1886 patent was to capture this "float" using surface tension, the first of the skin-flotation process patents that was eclipsed by oil froth flotation.

On August 24, 1886, Carrie Everson received a patent for her process calling for oil but also an acid or a salt, a significant step in the evolution of the process history. By 1890, tests of the Everson process had been made at Georgetown and Silver Cliff, Colorado, and Baker, Oregon. She abandoned the work upon the death of her husband, and before perfecting a commercially successful process. Later, during the height of legal disputes over the validity of various patents during the 1910s, Everson's was often pointed to as the initial flotation patent - which would have meant that the process was not patentable again by later contestants. Much confusion has been clarified recently by historian Dawn Bunyak.

First commercial flotation process

The generally recognized first successful commercial flotation process for ''mineral'' sulphides was invented by Frank Elmore who worked on the development with his brother, Stanley. The Glasdir copper mine at Llanelltyd, near Dolgellau in North Wales was bought in 1896 by the Elmore brothers in conjunction with their father, William. In 1897, the Elmore brothers installed the world's first industrial size commercial flotation process for mineral beneficiation at the Glasdir mine. The process was not froth flotation but used oil to agglomerate (make balls of) pulverised sulphides and buoy them to the surface, and was patented in 1898 (revised 1901). The operation and process was described in the April 25, 1900 ''Transactions'' of the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy of England, which was reprinted with comment, June 23, 1900, in the ''Engineering and Mining Journal'', New York City. By this time they had recognized the importance of air bubbles in assisting the oil to carry away the mineral particles. As modifications were made to improve the process, it became a success with base metal ores from Norway to Australia.

The Elmores had formed a company known as the Ore Concentration Syndicate Ltd to promote the commercial use of the process worldwide. In 1900, Charles Butters of Berkeley, California, acquired American rights to the Elmore process after seeing a demonstration at Llanelltyd, Wales. Butters, an expert on the cyanide process, built an Elmore process plant in the basement of the Dooley Building, Salt Lake City, and tested the oil process on gold ores throughout the region and tested the tailings of the Mammoth gold mill, Tintic district, Utah, but without success. Because of Butters’ reputation and the news of his failure, as well as the unsuccessful attempt at the LeRoi gold mine at Rossland, B. C., the Elmore process was all but ignored in North America.

Developments elsewhere, particularly in Broken Hill, Australia by Minerals Separation, Limited, led to decades of hard-fought legal battles and litigations for the Elmores who, ultimately, lost as the Elmore process was superseded by more advanced techniques. Another flotation process was independently invented in the early 1900s in Australia by Charles Vincent Potter and around the same time by Guillaume Daniel Delprat.
This process (developed circa 1902) did not use oil, but relied upon flotation by the generation of gas formed by the introduction of acid into the pulp. In 1902, Froment combined oil and gaseous flotation using a modification of the Potter-Delprat process. During the first decade of the twentieth century, Broken Hill became the center of innovation leading to the perfection of the froth flotation process by many technologists there borrowing from each other and building on these first successes.

Yet another process was developed in 1902 by Arthur C. Cattermole, who emulsified the pulp with a small quantity of oil, subjected it to violent agitation, then slow stirring which coagulated the target minerals into nodules which were separated from the pulp by gravity. The Minerals Separation Ltd., formed in Britain in 1903 to acquire the Cattermole patent, found that it proved unsuccessful. Metallurgists on the staff continued to test and combine other discoveries to patent in 1905 their process, called the Sulman-Picard-Ballot process after company officers and patentees. The process proved successful at their Central Block plant, Broken Hill that year. Significant in their "agitation froth flotation" process was the use of less than 1% oil and an agitation step that created small bubbles, which provided more surface to capture the metal and float into a froth at the surface. Useful work was done by Leslie Bradford at Port Pirie and by William Piper, Sir Herbert Gepp and Auguste de Bavay.

Mineral Separation also bought other patents to consolidate ownership of any potential conflicting rights to the flotation process - except for the Elmore patents. In 1910, when the Zinc Corporation replaced its Elmore process with the Minerals Separation (Sulman-Picard-Ballot) froth flotation process at its Broken Hill plant, the primacy of the Minerals Separation over other process contenders was assured. Henry Livingston Sulman was later recognized by his peers in his election as President of the (British) Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, which also awarded him its gold medal.

20th century

Developments in the United States had been less than spectacular. Butters's failures, as well as others, was followed after 1904, with Scotsman Stanley MacQuisten's process (a surface tension based method), which was developed with a modicum

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