Definition and etymology
In the Arabic language ''naskh'' ( ar, نسخ) can be defined as abolition, abolishment, abrogation, cancellation, invalidation, copying, transcription, according to the ''Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic''. As an Islamic term, there is a lack of agreement among scholars on what exactly ''al-Naskh'' is, (according to several sources). *According to Louay Fatoohi, "the term ''naskh'' never appears in the Qur'an in the meaning it acquired in Islamic law". A detailed examination of the two Quranic verses "seen by scholars as providing support to the principle of abrogation", shows that neither actually refers to "the concept of abrogation". *Israr Ahmad Khan states that those who have read "the works of Abu Ubayd, al-Nahhas, Makki, Ibn al-Arabi, Ibn al-Jawzi, al-Zarkashi, al-Suyuti, and al-Dehlawi on the issue of abrogation will be confused regarding its definition". *John Burton complains that the "greatest imaginable confusion reigns as to the definition of the term ''naskh''", and that "an appalling degree of muddle" surrounds the meaning of verse Q.2:106 Burton, "The Exegesis of Q.2:106", 1985: p. 452 — "the Abrogation verse". And that "the constant confusion of 'suppression' with 'supersession'" causes the reader "endless difficulty". Burton, "The Exegesis of Q.2:106", ''BSOAS'', 48, 1985: p. 468 *Ahmad Ali Al-Imam states "most scholars ... differ on many points", of naskh, "particularly on its meaning, modes, and examples". Disputes over what defines ''naskh'' include *whether the ''wording'' of the Quran can be abrogated while the ''ruling'' based on it is not (most scholars believe the ruling must be abrogated also), *whether a verse in the ''Qur'an'' can abrogate a ruling in the ''Sunnah'', and *whether any ''Islamic'' revelation may be abrogated at all, or whether when God talks about replacing revelation (in "the abrogation verses" of the Qur'an: Q.2:106 and Q.16:101, see below) He is referring ''only'' to revelation which came ''before'' the Quran Hasan, "The Theory of Naskh", ''Islamic Studies'', 1(1), 1965: p. 188 Another issue was how broadly naskh should be defined, with early Muslim scholars having including things that later scholars did not consider ''naskh'', such as: Hasan, "The Theory of Naskh", ''Islamic Studies'', 1965: p. 185 #exceptions to earlier verses,Ibn Qayyim, ''I'lam al-Musaqq'in'', Delhi, 1313 A.H., I:12 #particularization of the meaning of a verse (known as ''taksees'', see below), and #clarifications of earlier verses. Definitions of ''naskh'' given by Islamic scholars include: *"abrogation, revocation, repeal. Theoretical tool used to resolve contradictions in Quranic verses, hadith literature, ''tafsir'' (Quranic exegesis), and ''usul al-fiqh'' (roots of law), whereby later verses (or reports or decisions) abrogate earlier ones," (Oxford Dictionary of Islam); *an exegetical (explaining) theory of the repeal or abolition of a law for divine commands in the Quran and theScriptural basis
Quran
According to non-Muslim scholar of Islam John Burton, "no single verse" in the Quran "unequivocally points to the naskh of any other verse", (nor does any "irreproachable"Verses of abrogation
Q2:106 and Q16:101 are the two "verses of abrogation" contained in the Quran.Harald Motzki (2006), in ''The Cambridge Companion to the Qur'ān'', Editor: Jane Dammen McAuliffe, Cambridge University Press, , pp. 59-67Wael B. Hallaq (2009), Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations, Cambridge University Press, , pp. 96-97 Rippin, "Al-Zuhrī, ''Naskh al-Qur'ān''", ''BSOAS'', 47, 1984: pp. 22-43 They establish the principle in Islam that an olderSatanic verses and abrogation
The one other Quranic verse using ''naskh'' in sense of abrogation is Q22:52. * This verse is cited by historian and exegete Tabarī in connection with the incident of the so-called "Sunnah/hadith
Hadith/commentary abrogating Quranic verses
Evidence for the abrogation (or not) of Quranic verses comes from collections of hadith, and tafsir. Eight hadith inHistory
In "general terms", the idea of a divine process whereby the decisions of a monotheist God can be superseded by His later decisions precedes "even the foundation of Islam itself," (according to John Burton), being found in ''"the position taken by all the modern scholars whom I have met, or listened to, or whose works I have read, is contrary to the understanding of naskh that became so widespread among the later exegetes, namely that there exists naskh (if accepted) as meaning the abrogation of verses of the Qur'an."Two lesser known scholars who wrote work and spoke against naskh of Islamic revelation in more depth in the 20th century were Muhammad Amin (an Azhar graduate, active at the beginning of the 20th century),Mustafa, Muhammad Salih 'Ali. "Al-Naskh fi al-Qur'an al-Karim: Mafhumuhu, Wa Tarikuhu, wa Da'awahu." Damascus: Dar al-Qalam, 1988: 17 and 'Abd al-Muta'al al-Jabri (who wrote his Master's thesis—entitled ''Naskh As I Understand It In The Islamic Shari'ah''—at the University of Cairo in 1949).Mustafa, Muhammad Salih 'Ali. "Al-Naskh fi al-Qur'an al-Karim: Mafhumuhu, Wa Tarikuhu, wa Da'awahu." Damascus: Dar al-Qalam, 1988: 16
Need and scope
Dealing with apparent contradictions
Islam teaches that the Quran was revealed to Muhammad over 23 years (609-632 CE) until the year of his death. The customs and practices of Muhammad over this same period are known as the Sunnah, and reports of them are known asRationale
At least in part in answer to these criticisms, some explanations and defenses have been offered for the theory of abrogation — principally that the revising of commands by God to his creatures is all done according to a plan.: *aspects of the Quran's message and the Prophet's teachings had to change as circumstances changed in the Muslim community encountered over the course of Muhammad's more than two decade term as prophet **"one rule might not always be suitable for every situation. Far from Allah changing his mind, abrogation demonstrates the wisdom of Allah in legislating rules for their appropriate time and context. For most rules in Islam, there exist circumstances that warrant an exception to the rule." (Abu Amina Elias) **Rather than a way for scholars to deal with contradictions in scripture, preachers argued that ''naskh'' was God's way of dealing with different situations theAlcohol
:see:'' Khamr#Scriptural basis'' The "classical" and oft cited example of how naskh was used in stages to guide a major change in the behavior of the faithful was the banning of alcohol, implemented in three verses. It has been described as an act of wisdom, needed because an abrupt total ban would have been too harsh and impractical. "Arab society in the beginning was not ready to abandon drinking alcohol. They needed to strengthen their faith in order to overcome their desire to drink." The first verse gently discouraged Muslims from drinking alcohol: * The second prohibited Muslims from being drunk during one kind of activity—prayingRatio of enemy warriors to Muslims
Two verses Imam Al-Shafi'i cites as "the clearest evidence" for naskh concern the number of enemies each Muslim warrior is expected to vanquish. (Unlike with those concerning alcohol, the abrogating verse is more lenient not more strict.) Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: p. 30The Sword verse(s)
A verse(s) of major importance in Muslim-non-Muslim relations is the "Sword verse" (as, to a lesser extent, are similar verses such as ). Among "medieval exegetes and jurists" there was "a broad consensus that and abrogated "all the other statements" in the Quran "on the issue of waging war". In modern times, the sword verse has been used by extremist groups and individuals to justify their killing of non-Muslims civilians, according to Lohay Fatoohi (although some dispute this), and Mahfuh Halimi argues extremist advocates of violence maintain the verse of the sword Q.9:5 abrogates "more than a hundred" verses of the Quran advising or advocating "peace, coexistence, patience, tolerance, and forgiveness as the basis for relations between Muslims and non-Muslims." Critics have called this a case of passages called for killing abrogating ones calling for tolerance. and a classic example of determining the validity of a verse by determining when it was revealed.Burton, ''Naskh'', '' Encyclopaedia of Islam (EI)²'' Verses counseling patience and forbearance that are said to be abrogated by 9:5 (according to Fatoohi) include: * * * Similarly verse Q.9:29 is considered by Nahhās "to have abrogated virtually all verses calling for patience or forgiveness toward theLength of the period (''`
Questions raised
In reply to the rationale of gradual introduction of the ban on alcohol, some (Farooq Ibrahim) have noted that while hadith often explain events that the Quran refers to cryptically, there is no explanation or mention of a strategy of gradual banning of alcohol consumption found in anyLimits of application
Scholars have proposed some limits on the application of abrogation. Naskh concerns itself with only revelations pertaining to positive laws — commandments (''amr'') or prohibitions (''nahy'').) Abdul-Rahim, "Demythologizing the Qur'an Rethinking Revelation Through Naskh al-Qur'an", ''GJAT'', 7, 2017: p. 58 In Tabarī's words: (However, according to John Burton, this was not true among "some of the oldest exegetes" who "included indiscriminately under ''naskh'' all and every verse where they noted a degree of contradiction, however slight ..." Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: p. 2) Naskh is applied almost exclusively to the Qur'an and the Sunnah. According to Mohammad Hashim Kamali, its application to ''Types/varieties
Implicit and explicit naskh
Most cases of naskh are "implicit" (''dimni'') — i.e. as noted above they depend on "the agreement of scholars" (''ijma'') to determine if a verse was abrogated. However, a few revelations involve "explicit" (''sarih'') naskh, specifically mentioning some earlier command to be abrogated and replaced with another J.A.C. Brown, ''Misquoting Muhammad'', 2014: p. 99 — though none of them use any form of the word ''naskh''. *Quranic verses 2:143-50 commands Muhammad and the Muslims to turn their faces away from 'the direction of prayer that you faced before' (Jerusalem) to a new one, one that 'pleases your heart,' (by which is meant the ''Total and partial naskh
Abrogation may be divided into two more types: total abrogation and partial abrogation: ;"Total abrogation" In the case of "total abrogation" (or ''naskh kulli''), all of the specific statement within the Quran or hadith that the ruling is based on (the '' nass'') is abrogated by another, and a new ruling (''hukm'') is enacted to replace the entire old ruling. An example is found in two Qur'anic verses on the waiting period (''`Naskh of ruling, Naskh of verse, or both
Another set of types of naskh are those divided by what is abrogated — ruling, text, or both. (John Burton calls these the three "modes" of the theory of ''naskh''.) :1. ''naskh al-hukm dūna al-tilāwa'' , also 'supersession' or ''ibdal''. The types of naskh mentioned above involve abrogation of an Islamic regulation/ruling (''hukm''), but not the text it is based on. If the regulation/ruling is based on a Qur'ānic verse, that verse is still found in the ''...the Qur'ān was revealed so that its rulings might be known and their implementation rewarded; but... the Qur'ān is also recited with reverence, since it is the word of God, for whose recitation the pious Muslim is likewise rewarded. Further, to leave the wording, following the abrogation of the ruling was to provide for men a constant reminder of the compassion and mercy shown by their gracious Lord 'ar-Rahman''Who had lightened the burden of some his previous requirements.2) the verses were "a reminder of God's mercy", since abrogation "was generally directed to making things easier", Muslim could read them and see how their burden had been eased by God's abrogation. Another question raised is whether abrogating rulings (''al-hukm'') but not Quranic wording (''al-tilawa'') contradicts the verse of abrogation Q.2:106 which states "any ''ayah'' We cause to be superseded or forgotten, We replace with something better or similar", and not "any ''hukm'' We cause to be superseded or forgotten ..." The Arabic word '' Ayah'', is the word used in the Quran for verses in that book, although it is also used for other of God's "signs". If God intended for sharia rulings and not wording to be abrogated why wouldn't verse Q.2:106 say so? Tafsir scholar Tabarī ingeniously explains this problem away by noting that the faithful believe that no one part of the Quran can be "superior" to any other part (because the Qur'an was composed by the divine author and is ''Mu'jaz'', or so miraculous it is impossible to imitate). However 2:106 talks of God replacing ''ayah'' "with something better or similar". Since all verses of the Quran are all equally wondrous, ayah in this context cannot be referring to the words of the Quran. The principle of ''mu'jaz'', however, does not carry over to shari'a law whose ''wording'' is not divine (those its substance is) and whose quality may vary in excellence. Thus, by process of elimination, John Burton explains, "the only other thing it 'ayah'' in Q.2:106can refer to is the ruling derived from the verse," i.e. "the rulings of the shari'a", ''hukm''. Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: pp. 89-90 Still another issue was how ayah could be forgotten ("cause to be forgotten") when a prophet like Muhammad was meant to be protected from flaws like forgetting. This was explained by modifying the definition of "cause to be forgotten" ('aw nasaha) to "defer" or "leave". Burton, ''Islamic Theories of Abrogation'', 1990: p. 55 2. ''naskh al-tilāwa dūna al-hukm'' This form of naskh — abrogation of the wording (''al-tilāwa'') of some part of the Quran but not the ruling (''al-hukm'') based on that part — is acknowledged "only by a minority of scholars". The traditional evidence offered for it is the lack of verses for ''rajm'' toning adulterers and ''rada'' inship from breastfeedingin the Quran, notwithstanding the fact that both are generally accepted parts of traditional Islamic law. Abdul-Rahim, "Demythologizing the Qur'an Rethinking Revelation Through Naskh al-Qur'an", ''GJAT'', 7, 2017: p. 72 In the first case, a punishment of stoning to death (lapidation) for adultery is found in the Islamic law of the founders of all four surviving schools of Sunni fiqh (''
`Roslan Abdul-Rahim argues "the cases of ''rajm'' toning and ''rada'' inship from breastfeedingdo not support this form of abrogation:Umar ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb ( ar, عمر بن الخطاب, also spelled Omar, ) was the second Rashidun caliph, ruling from August 634 until his assassination in 644. He succeeded Abu Bakr () as the second caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate o ...said, "I am afraid that after a long time has passed, people may say, "We do not find the Verses of the Rajam (stoning to death) in the Holy Book," and consequently they may go astray by leaving an obligation that Allah has revealed. Lo! I confirm that the penalty of Rajam be inflicted on him who commits illegal sexual intercourse, ...
The trouble with this understanding however is, Q.2:106, the report of Ubayy questioning the Prophet, and the exchange between 'Abd Allah ibn Zubayr with 'Uthman ibn 'Affan, all suggest that naskh is not synonymous with forgetfulness, disappearance of revelations or the exclusion of revelatory texts from the Qur'an.('Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, once allegedly asked 'Uthman why Q.2:240 was still included in the Qur'an despite having been repealed. 'Uthman reportedly answered, "O my nephew, I will not change anything from it (Qur'an) from its place", suggesting abrogated verses were not deleted.) Abdul-Rahim, "Demythologizing the Qur'an Rethinking Revelation Through Naskh al-Qur'an", ''GJAT'', 7, 2017: p. 64 This form of ''naskh'' also poses the question of why a verse important enough to be the basis of immutable ''hukm'' (ruling) dealing with life and death would disappear from the written Quran (''mus'haf''), and what scripture allows it. Another report used to support ''naskh al-tilāwa dūna al-hukm'' — where Aisha states that a Quranic verse requiring only five suckling of a child to establish foster-parentship was abrogated but which later became the basis of a certain rule in Islamic law — is argued against by Ahmad Hasan on the grounds that rule was rejected by "the ancient schools of slamiclaw". Hasan also argues against the report that some surahs (''muawwadhatdn'') were not included in the ''mus'haf'' saying that "certain companions" heard Muhammad reciting a ''
Abrogation of Quran and Sunnah by one another
Yet another way of classifying naskh is by what ''kind of revelation'' is abrogated and what kind is abrogating. Some scholars (a minority) believe that different types of revelation cannot abrogate each other — a part of the Sunnah can never abrogate a verse of the Quran and vice versa. Distinguishing between which of the two kinds of revelations are involved in abrogating and in being abrogated creates four variations of ''naskh'' in this classification: #a ruling from a verse of the Quran is abrogated by another conflicting ruling from another verse in the Quran (almost all the examples of naskh mentioned above are this form); #a ruling in the Sunnah is abrogated by another conflicting ruling from the hadith (the two examples of Explicit Abrogation mentioned above — visiting graves and storing sacrificial meat — are examples of this form of ''naskh''); #a ruling from a verse of the Quran is abrogated by a conflicting hadith (an example being the abrogation of the ayah of bequest in al-Baqarah 2:180 explained below): #when a ruling from the Sunnah is abrogated by a conflicting ruling from a verse in the Qur'an (an example being the change in theArguments on abrogation between sources
While abrogation by the same type of revelation — i.e. varieties #1 and #2 — are accepted by all scholars (i.e. all who support the orthodox theory of abrogation), abrogation between types of revelation — #3 and #4 — are not. The scope of Naskh doctrine between sources has been one of the major differences between theAbrogation of Jewish and Christian texts
One type of abrogation over which there is little dispute among Muslims is "external naskh", the abrogation of earlier Jewish and Christian religious laws handed down in theQuantity
There has never been a consensus among Islamic jurists about which and how many Quranic passages84Robinson/> (or Sunnah in the Hadiths) naskh affects. Neal Robinson sees scholars estimation of the number of abrogating verses waxing and then waning over the centuries.Az-Zuhri (d.742), an early authority in the subject, held that 42 ayas had been abrogated. After his time, the number steadily increased until an upper limit was reached in the eleventh century, with Ibn Salama claiming that there were 238 abrogated ayas, and al-Farisi claiming that there were 248. In subsequent generations, a reaction set in: Egyptian polymath al-Suyuti (d.1505) claimed that there were only 20, and Shah Wali Allah of Delhi (d.1762) whittled the number down to 5.84Robinson>David S. Power gives a higher peak number of abrogated verses of over 550 at around the 10th century CE. According to John Burton, the number of verses alleged to have been expunged from the ''mus'haf'' (internal naskh within the Quran or '' naskh al-hukm wa-'l-tilāwa'') was higher—564 verses or almost 1/10 of the total content of the ''mus'haf'' Far smaller tallies include: *The 10th century scholar Abu Ja'far an-Nahaas and 16th century Islamic scholar Al-Suyuti both found only 20 cases of abrogation. *Az-Zarqaani concludes that only 12 cases of abrogation have occurred. *The 18th century Muslim scholar Shah Wali Allah, have suggested that just five instances of abrogation exist in the Quran. *The 19th century Islamic scholar Sayyid Ahmad Khan stated that "no verse of the Quran is abrogated". While himself disagreeing with them by citing the works of modern Egyptian scholars that claim that there is no Naskh at all in the Quran and that the Naskh verse came within a specific occasion, that being the changing of the Qibla, concluding that the theory grew out of desire of the Ulama to establish
The general meaning of the righteous predecessors when using the words 'abrogating' and 'abrogated' is sometimes the complete removal of the previous ruling – and this is the technical term of the latter generations – or sometimes the removal of the general, absolute, and outward meaning, whether by specification, restriction, interpreting an absolute as limited, or by explanation and clarification. Even they would refer to is as exceptional and conditional.
Scholarly questions and alternatives
Questions/criticism
Muslim
While belief in the theory of ''naskh'' of Islamic revelation is part of Sunni Muslim orthodoxy, there are more than a few scholars who do not accept it, including most twentieth centurythe recourse of those mediocre and narrow-minded jurists whose hearts God had not illuminated with his Light. They could not perceive all the interpretive possibilities in the words of God and the Prophet … By taking the shortcut of stamping Quranic verses or Hadiths 'abrogated', such ulama had restricted the interpretive plurality that God had intended in the Shariah. For Sha'rani only when a Hadith included the Prophet's own clear abrogation, like his report about visiting graves, could it be considered Naskh.Although not a denier of naskh, Abdul-Rahim notes thatShah Wali Allah Quṭb-ud-Dīn Aḥmad Walīullāh Ibn ʿAbd-ur-Raḥīm Ibn Wajīh-ud-Dīn Ibn Muʿaẓẓam Ibn Manṣūr Al-ʿUmarī Ad-Dehlawī ( ar, ; 1703–1762), commonly known as Shāh Walīullāh Dehlawī (also Shah Wali Allah), was an Islamic ...was similarly skeptical of the ulama's excessive indulgence in abrogation to explain the relationship between Quranic verses or hadiths. In all but five cases, he found explanations for how to understand the relationship between scriptural passages without recourse to abrogation. J.A.C. Brown, ''Misquoting Muhammad'', 2014: pp. 102-3.
not only were the early Muslims unable to agree on every alleged instance of naskh, they also could not agree on the details of the alleged instances, the number of instances; and the classification of the instances.Among the arguments Islamic Modernist mufti Muhammad Abduh offers against naskh of the Quran (mentioned earlier) is that "the Quran nowhere announced that verse so-and-so is naskh, or that verse such-and-such is Mansukh". Nor is Naskh an article of faith of Islam, like belief in the prophets, angels, books of Allah. It is "merely a technique employed by the exegetes of the first century." Since an abrogating verse must have been revealed after an abrogated verse, being able to determined which verse came first is crucial, but (according to Abduh) scholars do not
"possess an undeniable indication that one verse is earlier or later than any other verse, ... They merely asserted without proof that one verse was later than another. ... even more surprising is the absence of a single agreed hadith from the Prophet which might be taken to be a certain documentary proof that verse so-and-so is the nasikh of verse so-and-so."This raises the question of whether human scholars deciding what had been abrogating are not introducing a "man-made" element into divine revelation.
Non-Muslim
John Burton argues that the theory of naskh was an "invention of fiqh scholars", used not to develop fiqh but to validated already existing fiqh doctrine. (Burton is among those in the "mainstream" of the Islamic studies field of fiqh/Islamic law led byDefense
The principle of ''naskh'' is acknowledged by both Sunnis and Shī'a, and the vast majority of their scholars accept that there are significant contradictions within the Quran, within the Hadiths, between the Quran and the Hadiths, and that the doctrine of abrogation as revealed by the Quran is necessary to establish Sharia. Scholar Roslan Abdul-Rahim defends the concept of naskh pointed out the numerous Islamic scholars who have studied and written on the subject Abdul-Rahim, "Demythologizing the Qur'an Rethinking Revelation Through Naskh al-Qur'an", ''GJAT'', 7, 2017: pp. 53-5 and how "very elaborate, sophisticated and ... complex" scholarly discussion of naskh became. "Over seventy" scholars — both classical and contemporary — have written "solely on naskh". Critics have noted the lack of consensus on what verses or Quran and hadith are abrogated, but Abdul-Rahim replies that while "the Muslim scholars of antiquity" may have disagreed about what revelations of the Qur'an were abrogated, at "the conceptual level of definition" they agreed. He asks rhetorically "How could a long tradition established by a community bounded by faith and integrity, and supported by continuity and sustainability be so wrong? ... Could they have not understood or simply misunderstood something that is naturally ingrained in the language of their own culture?" While it is true that scholars have not been able to agree on the instances, number, details or classification of naskh, this is no reason to conclude that naskh "as a theory and a phenomenon is false" and he quotes philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn: "failure to achieve a solution discredits only the scientist and not the theory".Khun, Thomas S. (1996). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 3rd edition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, p. 80 Some orthodox scholars, such as Ibn Hilal al-Nahwi found the theory so crucial to Islamic belief that they declared"an act of clear disbelief, a repudiation of Islam, and denial of Allah the Glorious and His Prophet on whom be peace ... It is obligatory upon the governing authority to have that man brought to the courts and ask that he retract his statements, and to rule upon him according to that which the pure Shari'ah summons".ibn Baz, Abd al-'Aziz bin Abdullah. "Clear Proof Of The Disbelief Of Whoever Claims It Is Allowable For Anyone To Leave the Shari'ah Of Muhammad" ''Al-Dawah Magazine'', Edited by Al-'Issa, 'Abd al-Aziz bin 'Abd al-Karim. Riyadh: Al-Dawah Press, February 1995, 1478: 44(Ibn Baz having called for the execution of Muslims guilty of what he considered acts of unbelief on other occasions.)
Alternative Theories
Among those who deny the orthodox theory of ''Naskh'' out of concerns over how God would change his eternal will, some Islamic scholars have used rationalization and reinterpretation to deal with contradictory verses.Louay Fatoohi (2012), Abrogation in the Qurʼan and Islamic Law, Routledge, , pp. 3-6, Ch. 3 and 4 In addition, theories have been developed as to how to deal with contradictions in the Quran and/or Sunnah, and what Q.2:106 ("None of Our revelations do We abrogate or cause it to be forgotten, but We substitute something better or similar ...") is referring to if not orthodox naskh of the Quran. ;Naskh as abrogation of Jewish and Christian texts As mentioned above, the idea that Islamic revelation abrogates earlier Jewish and Christian religious laws handed down by monotheist messengers before Muhammad, is widely accepted among Muslims. However, an argument advanced by (at least some of) the minority of scholars who oppose the idea of abrogation of the Quran is that ''naskh'' in Q.2:106 refers to ''only'' to "the abrogation of the codes of law revealed to the earlier Prophets", and ''not'' to abrogation of the Quran. John Burton, Muhammad al-Ghazali, Ahmad Hasan argue that the abrogation verse Q.2:106 was revealed after a series of verses talking about theis an error. ''Ayah'' literally means 'a sign', token, or mark by which a person or thing is known and is synonymous with ''`alamah''. It, by implication, also means 'a message, or communication sent from one person or party to another' and is in this sense synonymous with ''risalah''.
Resolving contradictions without chronology
Two theories have been proposed to deal with contradictory commands of revelation without the chronology of verses and the abrogation of earlier ayat in favor of later ones: ;Abrogation of (later) Medinan verses, not earlier ones The Quran has been divided by scholars into those verses revealed while Muhammad was in Mecca (theLiterature
In addition to being discussed within general works ofWorks
The following is a list of classical examples of the genre: * "See also
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
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