The Mukti Bahini ( bn, মুক্তিবাহিনী, translates as 'freedom fighters', or liberation army), also known as the Bangladesh Forces, was the guerrilla

resistance movement A resistance movement is an organized effort by some portion of the civil population of a country to withstand the legally established government or an occupying power and to disrupt civil order and stability. It may seek to achieve its objective ...

consisting of the Bangladeshi military, paramilitary and civilians during the

War of Liberation Wars of national liberation or national liberation revolutions are conflicts fought by nations to gain independence. The term is used in conjunction with wars against foreign powers (or at least those perceived as foreign) to establish separat ...

that transformed

East Pakistan East Pakistan was a Pakistani province established in 1955 by the One Unit Scheme, One Unit Policy, renaming the province as such from East Bengal, which, in modern times, is split between India and Bangladesh. Its land borders were with India ...

into

Bangladesh Bangladesh (}, ), officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It is the eighth-most populous country in the world, with a population exceeding 165 million people in an area of . Bangladesh is among the mos ...

in 1971. They were initially called the Mukti Fauj. On 7 March 1971

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Sheikh Mujibur Rahman ( bn, শেখ মুজিবুর রহমান; 17 March 1920 – 15 August 1975), often shortened as Sheikh Mujib or Mujib and widely known as Bangabandhu (meaning ''Friend of Bengal''), was a Bengalis, Beng ...

issued a call to the people of East Pakistan to prepare themselves for an all-out struggle. Later that evening resistance demonstrations began, and the military began a full-scale retaliation with

Operation Searchlight Operation Searchlight was the codename for a planned military operation carried out by the Pakistan Army in an effort to curb the Bengali nationalist movement in former East Pakistan in March 1971. Pakistan retrospectively justified the opera ...

, which continued through May 1971. A formal military leadership of the resistance was created in April 1971 under the

Provisional Government of Bangladesh The Provisional Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh, popularly known as the Mujibnagar Government, was established following the Bangladeshi Declaration of Independence, declaration of independence of East Pakistan as Banglades ...

. The military council was headed by General

M. A. G. Osmani Muhammad Ataul Goni Osmani ( bn, মুহাম্মদ আতাউল গণি ওসমানী; 1 September 1918 – 16 February 1984), also known as ''Bangabir'' (the Hero of Bengal), was a Bengali military leader. Osmani's career ...

''Unconventional Warfare in South Asia: Shadow Warriors and Counterinsurgency'', Gates and Roy, Routledge, 2016 and eleven sector commanders.''The Colonel Who Would Not Repent: The Bangladesh War and Its Unquiet Legacy'',

Salil Tripathi Salil Tripathi is an American author and editor. He is Chair of PEN International's Writers in Prison Committee. He is a contributing editor to ''The Caravan''. and Mint. Biography Tripathi was born in Mumbai. He was educated at the New Era Sch ...

, Yale University Press, 2016, p. 146. The

Bangladesh Armed Forces The Bangladesh Armed Forces ( bn, বাংলাদেশ সশস্ত্র বাহিনী, Bangladesh Sashastra Bahinī) are the Armed forces, combined military forces of the Bangladesh, People's Republic of Bangladesh. It consists ...

were established on 4 April 1971. In addition to regular units, such as the

East Bengal Regiment The East Bengal Regiment ( bn, ইস্ট বেঙ্গল রেজিমেন্ট) is an infantry regiment ( regimental system type) and the largest military formation of the Bangladesh Army. History The East Bengal Regiment was for ...

and the

East Pakistan Rifles East or Orient is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from west and is the direction from which the Sun rises on the Earth. Etymology As in other languages, the word is formed from the f ...

, the Mukti Bahini also consisted of the civilian

Gonobahini Gonobahini ( bn, গণবাহিনী "''People's Army''") was the armed wing of the Jatiya Samajtantrik Dal. The group was mainly composed of former Mukti Bahini members from the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War. History In 1972, a section ...

(People's Force). The most prominent divisions of the Mukti Bahini were the Z Force led by Major

Ziaur Rahman Lt. General Ziaur Rahman (19 January 1936 – 30 May 1981), was a Bangladeshi military officer and politician who served as the President of Bangladesh from 1977 to 1981. He was assassinated on 30 May 1981 in Chittagong in an army coup d' ...

, the

K Force Australia entered the Korean War on 28 September 1950, following the invasion of South Korea by North Korea. The war's origins began in the context of Japan's defeat in World War II which heralded the end to 35 years of Japanese occupation of ...

led by Major

Khaled Mosharraf Khaled Mosharraf, Bir Uttom ( bn, খালেদ মোশাররফ; 9 November 1937 – 7 November 1975) was a Bangladeshi military officer known for his role in the Bangladesh Liberation War. Khaled was the Sector Commander of Bangladesh ...

and the S Force led by Major

K M Shafiullah Kazi Mohammed Shafiullah Bir Uttam (born 2 September 1934), also known as K. M. Shafiullah, is a retired Bangladeshi general, former Chief of Army Staff of the Bangladesh Army, and former Member of Parliament. As the Second in Command of Second ...

Awami League In Urdu language, Awami is the adjectival form for '' Awam'', the Urdu language word for common people. The adjective appears in the following proper names: *Awami Colony, a neighbourhood of Landhi Town in Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan *Awami Front, wa ...

student leaders formed militia units, including the

Mujib Bahini The Mujib Bahini, also known as Bangladesh Liberation Force (BLF), was an armed force formed during the Bangladesh Liberation War to fight against Pakistan in 1971. The force was mainly composed of activists drawn from the Awami League and its st ...

, the

Kader Bahini Kader may refer to: * ''Kader'' (film), a 2006 Turkish drama film *Kader Group, a toy manufacturer of Hong Kong People with the given name * Kader Abdolah (born 1954), Iranian-Dutch writer, poet and columnist. *Kader Asmal (1934–2011), South Af ...

and

Hemayet Bahini Hemayet Bahini ( bn, হেমায়েত বাহিনী; The Hemayet Force) was a guerrilla militia force of Bangladesh in the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971. This small force was known by the name of its leader and organizer Mohammad ...

. The

Communist Party of Bangladesh The Communist Party of Bangladesh ( bn, বাংলাদেশের কমিউনিস্ট পার্টি) is a Marxist–Leninist communist party in Bangladesh. History After the partitioning of India in 1947, during the 2nd ...

, led by Comrade

Moni Singh Moni Singh ( bn, মনি সিংহ; 28 June 1901, Durgapur Upazila, Netrokona – 31 December 1990, Dhaka) was a preeminent Bengali Communist politician popularly known as ''Comrade Moni Singh''. He was the founder of the Communist Party of ...

, and activists from the

National Awami Party The National Awami Party (NAP), translated from Urdu to English as National People's Party, was the major left-wing political party in East and West Pakistan. It was founded in 1957 in Dhaka, erstwhile East Pakistan (present-day Bangladesh), by A ...

also operated several guerrilla battalions. Using

guerrilla warfare Guerrilla warfare is a form of irregular warfare in which small groups of combatants, such as paramilitary personnel, armed civilians, or Irregular military, irregulars, use military tactics including ambushes, sabotage, Raid (military), raids ...

tactics, the Mukti Bahini secured control over large parts of the Bengali countryside. It conducted successful "

ambush An ambush is a long-established military tactics, military tactic in which a combatant uses an advantage of concealment or the element of surprise to attack unsuspecting enemy combatants from concealed positions, such as among dense underbru ...

and

sabotage Sabotage is a deliberate action aimed at weakening a polity, effort, or organization through subversion, obstruction, disruption, or destruction. One who engages in sabotage is a ''saboteur''. Saboteurs typically try to conceal their identitie ...

" campaigns, and included the nascent

Bangladesh Air Force The Bangladesh Air Force (BAF) ( bn, বাংলাদেশ বিমান বাহিনী, Bangladesh Biman Bahini) is the aerial warfare branch of the Bangladesh Armed Forces. The Air Force is primarily responsible for air defence of B ...

and the

Bangladesh Navy The Bangladesh Navy ( bn, বাংলাদেশ নৌবাহিনী, Bangladesh Nou Bahini) is the naval warfare branch of the Bangladesh Armed Forces, responsible for Bangladesh's of maritime territorial area, and the defence of imp ...

. The Mukti Bahini received training and weapons from

India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...

, where people in

West Bengal West Bengal (, Bengali: ''Poshchim Bongo'', , abbr. WB) is a state in the eastern portion of India. It is situated along the Bay of Bengal, along with a population of over 91 million inhabitants within an area of . West Bengal is the fourt ...

shared a common Bengali ethnic and linguistic heritage with East Pakistan. During the

Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 The Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 was a military confrontation between India and Pakistan that occurred during the Bangladesh Liberation War in East Pakistan from 3 December 1971 until the Pakistani capitulation in Dhaka on 16 Decem ...

, the Mukti Bahini became part of the Bangladesh-India Allied Forces. It was instrumental in securing the

Surrender of Pakistan The Pakistani Instrument of Surrender ( bn, পাকিস্তানের আত্মসমর্পণের দলিল, translit=Pākistānēr Atmasamarpaṇēr Dalil) was a written agreement between India, Pakistan, and the Provisional ...

and the liberation of

Dacca Dhaka ( or ; bn, ঢাকা, Ḍhākā, ), formerly known as Dacca, is the capital and largest city of Bangladesh, as well as the world's largest Bengali-speaking city. It is the eighth largest and sixth most densely populated city ...

and other cities in December 1971.

Organization

The "Mukti Bahini" was divided into two groups; the "Niomito Bahini" or "regular forces" who came from the paramilitary, military and police forces of

, and the Gonnobahini or "people's forces" who were civilians. These names were given and defined by the

Government of Bangladesh The Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh ( bn, গণপ্রজাতন্ত্রী বাংলাদেশ সরকার — ) is the central executive government of Bangladesh. The government was constituted by the Con ...

. The Indians referred to the Niomito Bahini as "Mukti Fauj", and the Gonnobahini were called "freedom fighters".

Background

East Pakistan campaigned against the usage of

Urdu Urdu (;"Urdu"
''

official language An official language is a language given supreme status in a particular country, state, or other jurisdiction. Typically the term "official language" does not refer to the language used by a people or country, but by its government (e.g. judiciary, ...

of Pakistan. The

had won the majority in the 1970 Pakistan election. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, as the leader of the Awami League, was prevented from forming a government.

Bengali Bengali or Bengalee, or Bengalese may refer to: *something of, from, or related to Bengal, a large region in South Asia * Bengalis, an ethnic and linguistic group of the region * Bengali language, the language they speak ** Bengali alphabet, the w ...

was the only language in Pakistan not written in the Persian-Arabic script. The administrative change that

merged Mergers and acquisitions (M&A) are business transactions in which the ownership of companies, other business organizations, or their operating units are transferred to or consolidated with another company or business organization. As an aspect ...

the administrative provinces of West Pakistan into one "unit" caused great suspicion in East Pakistan. Pakistan's unwillingness to give autonomy to East Bengal and Bengali nationalism are both cited as reasons for the separation. The 1970 Bhola Cyclone had caused the death of 500,000 people while the infrastructure, transport and other services were severely damaged. The central government of Pakistan was blamed for the slow response and misuse of funds. It created resentment in the population of East Pakistan. The resentment allowed

to win 160 of the 162 parliamentary seats allocated to East Pakistan which made the Awami League the majority party in the 300 seat parliament of Pakistan. After the 1971 elections, Yahya Khan hoped for a power sharing agreement between Mujib and Bhutto, though talks between them did not result in a solution. Mujib wanted full autonomy, Bhutto advised Yahya to break off talks. In March, General Yahya Khan suspended the

National Assembly of Pakistan The National Assembly ( ur, , translit=Aiwān-e-Zairīñ, , or ur, قومی اسمبلی, Romanization, romanized: ''Qaumi Assembly'') is the lower house, lower legislative house of the bicameralism, bicameral Parliament of Pakistan, which al ...

. On 7 March 1971, Sheikh Mujib made his now famous speech in Ramna Race course ( Suhrawardy Udyan) where he declared "The struggle this time is for our freedom. The struggle this time is for our independence". East Pakistan television broadcasters started broadcasting Rabindranath songs, a taboo in Pakistan, while reducing the air-time of shows from West Pakistan. Civilian interaction with the Pakistan Army were decreased and they were increasingly seen as an occupying force, while local contractors stopped providing supplies to the Pakistan Army. The Pakistan Army also tried to disarm and dismiss personnel of

origin in the

, the police and the regular army. The Bengali officers

mutinied Mutiny is a revolt among a group of people (typically of a military, of a crew or of a crew of pirates) to oppose, change, or overthrow an organization to which they were previously loyal. The term is commonly used for a rebellion among members ...

against the Pakistan Army, and attacked officers from

West Pakistan West Pakistan ( ur, , translit=Mag̱ẖribī Pākistān, ; bn, পশ্চিম পাকিস্তান, translit=Pôścim Pakistan) was one of the two Provincial exclaves created during the One Unit Scheme in 1955 in Pakistan. It was d ...

. The Pakistan Army's crackdown on the civilian population had contributed to the revolt of East Pakistani soldiers. The East Pakistani soldiers moved to India and formed the main body of Mukti Bahini. Sheikh Mujib on 26 March 1971 declared the independence of Bangladesh, while Pakistan's president Yahya Khan declared Mujib a traitor during a national broadcast on the same day. The Pakistan Army moved infantry and armoured units to East Pakistan in preparation for the coming conflicts.

Early resistance

On 25 March,

martial law Martial law is the imposition of direct military control of normal civil functions or suspension of civil law by a government, especially in response to an emergency where civil forces are overwhelmed, or in an occupied territory. Use Marti ...

was declared,

was arrested and

started in East Pakistan. Foreign journalists were expelled and the

was banned. Members of the Awami league, the

, the

and others thought to be disloyal to Pakistan were attacked by the Pakistan army. The survivors of the attack would form the backbone of the Mukti Bahini. When the Pakistan Army started the military crackdown on the Bengali population, they did not expect prolonged resistance. Five battalions of the

mutinied and initiated the war for liberation of Bangladesh. On 27 March, Major Ziaur Rahman declared Bangladesh's independence from Pakistan and fought his way out of Chittagong City with his unit of Bengali soldiers. The East Pakistan Rifles and the East Pakistan Police suffered heavy casualties while challenging the

Pakistan Army The Pakistan Army (, ) is the Army, land service branch of the Pakistan Armed Forces. The roots of its modern existence trace back to the British Indian Army that ceased to exist following the partition of India, Partition of British India, wh ...

Dhaka Dhaka ( or ; bn, ঢাকা, Ḍhākā, ), formerly known as Dacca, is the capital and largest city of Bangladesh, as well as the world's largest Bengali-speaking city. It is the eighth largest and sixth most densely populated city ...

, where West Pakistani forces began the

1971 Bangladesh genocide The genocide in Bangladesh began on 25 March 1971 with the launch of Operation Searchlight, as the government of Pakistan, dominated by West Pakistan, began a military crackdown on East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) to suppress Bengali peopl ...

with the massacre at Dhaka University. Civilians took control of arms depots in various cities and began resisting Pakistani forces with the acquired weapons supply.

Chittagong Chittagong ( /ˈtʃɪt əˌɡɒŋ/ ''chit-uh-gong''; ctg, চিটাং; bn, চিটাগং), officially Chattogram ( bn, চট্টগ্রাম), is the second-largest city in Bangladesh after Dhaka and third largest city in B ...

experienced heavy fighting between rebel Bengali military units and Pakistani forces. The

Bangladeshi Declaration of Independence The independence of Bangladesh was declared on 26 March 1971 at the onset of the Bangladesh Liberation War by Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman; the following day the declaration was broadcast by Major Ziaur Rahman in a radio broadcast. On ...

was broadcast from

Kalurghat Kalurghat ( bn, কালুরঘাট) is located several miles north of the port city of Chittagong, Bangladesh, and is mostly famous for several heavy industries located there. A bridge near Kalurghat on the Karnaphuli River connects Chittago ...

Radio Station in Chittagong by Major Rahman on behalf of Sheikh Rahman. Bengali forces took control of numerous districts in the initial months of the war, including

Brahmanbaria Brahmanbaria ( bn, ব্রাহ্মণবাড়িয়া, Brāhmaṇabāṛiẏā) is a city of Bangladesh and the capital of Brahmanbaria Sadar Upazila as well as Brahmanbaria District. It is the second largest city after Cumilla ...

, Faridpur,

Barisal Barisal ( or ; bn, বরিশাল, ), officially known as Barishal, is a major city that lies on the banks of the Kirtankhola river in south-central Bangladesh. It is the largest city and the administrative headquarter of both Barisal Di ...

Mymensingh Mymensingh ( bn, ময়মনসিংহ) is the capital of Mymensingh Division, Bangladesh. Located on the bank of Brahmaputra River, about north of the national capital Dhaka, it is a major financial center and educational hub of north ...

Comilla Comilla (; bn, কুমিল্লা, Kumillā, ), officially spelled Cumilla, is the fifth largest city of Bangladesh and second largest in Chittagong division. It is the administrative centre of the Comilla District. The name Comilla was ...

and Kushtia among others. With the support of the local population, many towns remained under the control of Bengali forces until April and May 1971. Notable engagements during this period included the

Battle of Kamalpur The Battle of Kamalpur (কামালপুরের যুদ্ধ), launched against the Pakistan Army, is one of the most significant battles fought by Bangladesh Forces in 1971 during its war of independence from Pakistan. The Pakistan Ar ...

, the

Battle of Daruin Mustafa Kamal ( bn, মোস্তফা কামাল), better known as Shaheed Sipahi Mustafa Kamal was a sepoy in the Bangladesh Army during the Liberation War. He was born on 16 December 1947 in Hajipur village of Daulatkhan upazila un ...

and the

Battle of Rangamati-Mahalchari waterway Munshi Abdur Rouf ( bn, মুন্সী আবদুর রউফ; 8 May 1943 – 8 April 1971) was a Lance Nayek in the East Pakistan Rifles during the Bangladesh Liberation War. He enlisted in the East Pakistan Rifles on 8 May 1963, and was ...

in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. On 18 April, the Deputy High Commission of Pakistan in

Kolkata Kolkata (, or , ; also known as Calcutta , the official name until 2001) is the capital of the Indian state of West Bengal, on the eastern bank of the Hooghly River west of the border with Bangladesh. It is the primary business, comme ...

defected and hoisted the

flag of Bangladesh The national flag, national flag of Bangladesh, was adopted officially on 17 January 1972. It consists of a red disc or sun on top of a dark green banner. The red disc is offset slightly toward the hoist so that it appears centered when the flag i ...

. On 17 April, the

Mujibnagar Government The Provisional Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh, popularly known as the Mujibnagar Government, was established following the declaration of independence of East Pakistan as Bangladesh on 10 April 1971. Headed by prime minis ...

was formed. During May, Foreign Minister

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Zulfikar (or Zulfiqar) Ali Bhutto ( ur, , sd, ذوالفقار علي ڀٽو; 5 January 1928 – 4 April 1979), also known as Quaid-e-Awam ("the People's Leader"), was a Pakistani barrister, politician and statesman who served as the fourt ...

asked General Yahya Khan to hand over power in West Pakistan to his party. Khan refused on the grounds that doing so would support the view of Mukti Bahini and the Provisional Government of Bangladesh that East Pakistan was a colony of West Pakistan. Tensions were raised when Bhutto told his followers that "by November ewould either be in power or in jail". On 9 June, Mukti Bahini members hijacked a car and launched a grenade attack on Dhaka Intercontinental Hotel, the office of the Pro-Junta Morning Post and the house of

Golam Azam Ghulam Azam ( bn, গোলাম আযম; 7 November 192223 October 2014) was a Bangladeshi Islamist politician. He was the former Emir, leader of Bangladesh Jamaat-e-Islami, the largest Islamist political party in Bangladesh. Azam was arre ...

July–November

July

The Mukti Bahini divided the war zone into eleven sectors. The war strategy included a huge guerrilla force operating inside Bangladesh that targeted Pakistani installations through raids,

es and

sabotaging Sabotage is a deliberate action aimed at weakening a polity, effort, or organization through subversion, obstruction, disruption, or destruction. One who engages in sabotage is a ''saboteur''. Saboteurs typically try to conceal their identitie ...

West Pakistani-controlled shipping ports, power plants, industries, railways and warehouses. The wide dispersion of West Pakistani forces allowed Bengali guerrillas to target smaller groups of enemy soldiers. Groups ranging in size from five to ten guerrillas were assigned specific missions. Bridges, culverts, fuel depots and ships were destroyed to decrease the mobility of the Pakistan Army. However, the Mukti Bahini failed in its Monsoon Offensive after Pakistani reinforcements successfully countered Bengali engagements. Attacks on border outposts in Sylhet, Comilla and Mymensingh had limited success. The training period slowed the momentum of the Bangladesh Forces, which began to pick up after August. After the

monsoon A monsoon () is traditionally a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation but is now used to describe seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with annual latitudinal oscil ...

, the Mukti Bahini became more effective while the Indian army created a number of bases inside East Pakistan for the Mukti Bahini. The railways in East Pakistan were almost completely shut down due to the Mukti Bahini's sabotage. The provincial capital, Dhaka, had become a ghost town with gun-fire and explosions heard throughout the day.

August

After a visit to East Pakistan refugee camps in India in August 1971, US Senator

Ted Kennedy Edward Moore Kennedy (February 22, 1932 – August 25, 2009) was an American lawyer and politician who served as a United States senator from Massachusetts for almost 47 years, from 1962 until his death in 2009. A member of the Democratic ...

believed that Pakistan was committing a genocide.

called for Pakistan to attack India and to annexe

Assam Assam (; ) is a state in northeastern India, south of the eastern Himalayas along the Brahmaputra and Barak River valleys. Assam covers an area of . The state is bordered by Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh to the north; Nagaland and Manipur ...

in retaliation for India providing help to the Mukti Bahini. Azam accused India of shelling East Pakistani border areas on a daily basis.

Oxfam Oxfam is a British-founded confederation of 21 independent charitable organizations focusing on the alleviation of global poverty, founded in 1942 and led by Oxfam International. History Founded at 17 Broad Street, Oxford, as the Oxford Co ...

predicted the deaths of over one hundred thousand children in refugee camps and that more could die from food shortages in East Pakistan because of the conflict.

September

Regular Mukti Bahini battalions were formed in September 1971, increasing the effectiveness of the Mukti Bahini. Sabotage and ambush missions continued to be carried out, demoralising the Pakistan army.

October

In October, conventional Bangladesh Forces mounted various successful offensives, capturing 90 of the 300 border outposts. The Mukti Bahini intensified

guerrilla attacks Guerrilla warfare is a form of irregular warfare in which small groups of combatants, such as paramilitary personnel, armed civilians, or irregulars, use military tactics including ambushes, sabotage, raids, petty warfare, hit-and-run tacti ...

inside Bangladesh while Pakistan increased reprisals on Bengali civilians, though the movement of Mukti Bahini into, out of, and inside East Pakistan became easier and more common.

November

In November, Indian involvement increased, with the Indian

artillery Artillery is a class of heavy military ranged weapons that launch munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry firearms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach defensive walls and fortifications during siege ...

and

Indian Air force The Indian Air Force (IAF) is the air arm of the Indian Armed Forces. Its complement of personnel and aircraft assets ranks third amongst the air forces of the world. Its primary mission is to secure Indian airspace and to conduct aerial w ...

providing direct cover for the Mukti Bahini in some offensives. Attacks on infrastructure and the increase in the reach of the provisional government weakened the control of the Pakistan government.

Air operations

The

(BAF) was established on 28 September 1971 under the command of Air Commodore

A. K. Khandker Air Vice Marshal (Retd.) Abdul Karim Khandker, Bir Uttom (born 1930) is a former planning minister of the Government of Bangladesh. He is a retired diplomat and was the Deputy Chief of Staff of the Bangladesh Armed Forces during the Banglad ...

. It initially operated from a jungle airstrip near

Dimapur Dimapur () is the largest city in the Indian state of Nagaland. As of 2011, the municipality had a population of 122,834. The city is the main gateway and commercial centre of Nagaland. Located near the border with Assam along the banks of the ...

in Nagaland, India. When taking over liberated territories, the Bangladesh Forces gained control of World War II airstrips in

Lalmonirhat Lalmonirhat ( bn, লালমনিরহাট) is a town and district headquarters of Lalmonirhat District in the division of Rangpur, Bangladesh Bangladesh (}, ), officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in Sout ...

, Shalutikar, Sylhet and

in November and December. The BAF launched " Kilo Flights" under the command of Squadron Leader Sultan Mahmud on 3 December 1971.

Sortie A sortie (from the French word meaning ''exit'' or from Latin root ''surgere'' meaning to "rise up") is a deployment or dispatch of one military unit, be it an aircraft, ship, or troops, from a strongpoint. The term originated in siege warfare. ...

s by Otter DHC-3 aircraft destroyed Pakistani fuel supplies in Narayanganj and Chittagong where targets included the Burmah Oil Refinery, numerous ships and oil depots.

Naval operations

The Bangladesh naval forces took shape in July.

Operation Jackpot The Operation Jackpot was a codename for three operations undertaken by Bengali ''Mukti Bahini'' in former East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) against the Federation of Pakistan during the climax of the Bangladesh Liberation War.''Surrender at Da ...

was launched by the Bangladesh Forces on 15 August 1971.

commandos sank vessels of the

Pakistan Navy ur, ہمارے لیے اللّٰہ کافی ہے اور وہ بہترین کارساز ہے۔ English language, English: Allah is Sufficient for us - and what an excellent (reliable) Trustee (of affairs) is He!(''Quran, Qur'an, Al Imran, 3:173' ...

in Mongla, Chittagong, Chandpur and Narayanganj. The operation was a major propaganda success for Bangladeshi forces, as it exposed to the international community the fragile hold of the West Pakistani occupation. The Bangladesh Navy commandos targeted patrol craft and ships carrying ammunition and commodities. With Indian aid, the Mukti Bahini acquired two vessels, the Padma and Palash, which were retrofitted into gunboats with

mine Mine, mines, miners or mining may refer to: Extraction or digging * Miner, a person engaged in mining or digging *Mining, extraction of mineral resources from the ground through a mine Grammar *Mine, a first-person English possessive pronoun ...

-laying capabilities. The boat crews extensively mined the Passur River in the Sundarbans, reducing the ability of Pakistani forces to operate from the

Port of Mongla The Port of Mongla is a link sea port, located at Mongla Upazila, Khulna Division, Bangladesh.It is a sea port of Khulna city which is located near to the north. It is the second largest and second busiest seaport of Bangladesh. Mongla port lie ...

but were mistakenly bombed by Indian Air Force troops that resulted in the loss of both vessels and some of the lives of the Mukti Bahini and Indian personnel on board. The developing Bangladesh Navy carried out attacks on ships and used

sea mines A naval mine is a self-contained explosive device placed in water to damage or destroy surface ships or submarines. Unlike depth charges, mines are deposited and left to wait until they are triggered by the approach of, or contact with, any ve ...

to prevent supply ships from docking in East Pakistani ports.

Frogmen A frogman is someone who is trained in scuba diving or swimming underwater in a tactical capacity that includes military, and in some European countries, police work. Such personnel are also known by the more formal names of combat diver, comb ...

were deployed to damage and sabotage ships.

Organization

, a

veteran A veteran () is a person who has significant experience (and is usually adept and esteemed) and expertise in a particular occupation or field. A military veteran is a person who is no longer serving in a military. A military veteran that has ...

of the

British Raj The British Raj (; from Hindi ''rāj'': kingdom, realm, state, or empire) was the rule of the British Crown on the Indian subcontinent; * * it is also called Crown rule in India, * * * * or Direct rule in India, * Quote: "Mill, who was himsel ...

forces in

World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...

and the Pakistan army, established the

on 4 April 1971. The

placed all Bangladeshi forces under the command of Osmani, who was appointed as the

defence minister A defence minister or minister of defence is a cabinet official position in charge of a ministry of defense, which regulates the armed forces in sovereign states. The role of a defence minister varies considerably from country to country; in som ...

with the rank of Commander-in-Chief as a

four star general A four-star rank is the rank of any four-star officer described by the NATO OF-9 code. Four-star officers are often the most senior commanders in the armed services, having ranks such as (full) admiral, (full) general, colonel general, army g ...

. Osmani designated the composition of the Mukti Bahini into several divisions. It included the regular armed forces which covered the Army, Navy and Air Forces; as well as special brigades including the Z Force. Paramilitary forces, including the East Pakistan Rifles and police, were designated as the ''Niyomito Bahini'' (Regular Forces). They were divided between forward battalions and sector troops. Another civilian force was raised and known as the ''Gonobahini'' (People's Forces) consisting of lightly trained civilian brigades under military command; the Gonobahini also consisted of battalions created by political activists from the pro-Western

, the pro-Chinese and socialist

, led by

Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani (12 December 1880 – 17 November 1976), often shortened as Maulana Bhashani, was a Bengali politician. His political tenure spanned the British colonial India, Pakistan and Bangladesh periods. Maulana Bhashani was pop ...

, and the pro-Soviet Communist Party of East Pakistan. The guerrilla movement was composed of three wings: well-armed Action Groups which took part in frontal attacks;

military intelligence Military intelligence is a military discipline that uses information collection and analysis approaches to provide guidance and direction to assist commanders in their decisions. This aim is achieved by providing an assessment of data from a ...

units; and guerrilla bases. The first conference of sector commanders was held during July 1971, starting on 11 July and ending 17 July. Prominent sector commanders included defector officers and soldiers from the Pakistan Armed Forces, including Major Ziaur Rahman, Major

, Major

, Captain

A. N. M. Nuruzzaman A.N.M Nuruzzaman (December 1938 – 16 March 1993) was a Bangladeshi army officer, who was also a sector commander in the Bangladesh Liberation War, Bangladeshi War of Liberation. After the war he served as the first and only director general of ...

, Major

Chitta Ranjan Dutta Chitta Ranjan Dutta Bir Uttom (1 January 1927 – 26 August 2020), also known as C R Dutta, was a Bangladeshi war hero who served as major-general of the Bangladesh Army. He was a key sector commander of the Mukti Bahini during the Bangladesh ...

, Wing Commander M Khademul Bashar, Major

Nazmul Huq Major Nazmul Huq (11 August 1938 — 27 September 1971) was the first sector commander of the 7th sector in the Bangladesh Liberation War. He is also called "The Lost Sector Commander" of Bangladesh Liberation War. Life Huq was born in Amirab ...

, Major

Quazi Nuruzzaman Kazi Nuruzzaman Bir Uttom (24 March 1925 – 6 May 2011) was a Bangladeshi war hero and secular nationalist, who served as one of the principal commanders of the Mukti Bahini during the Bangladesh Liberation War. He also rejected Bir Uttam Award a ...

, Major Abu Osman Chowdhury, Major

Abul Manzoor Muhammed Abul Manzur (24 February 1940 – 1 June 1981) was a Bangladeshi military officer who commanded the Bangladesh Forces operations in Sector 8 during the Bangladesh Liberation War against Pakistan in 1971. He was allegedly involved in t ...

, Major

M. A. Jalil Mohammad Abdul Jalil was a freedom fighter and Mukti Bahini Sector Commander of Sector 9 of during the Bangladesh liberation war in 1971. He was also one of the founding members of political party Jatiyo Samajtantrik Dal. Early years Mohammad ...

, Major

Abu Taher Abu Taher ( bn, আবু তাহের) (14 November 1938 – 21 July 1976) was a Bengalis, Bengali military serviceman, who served in the Pakistan Army, and later in Bangladesh Forces, BDF. He crossed into India around early August and r ...

and Squadron Leader

M. Hamidullah Khan Muhammad Hamidullah Khan, TJ, Sitara-e-Harb, BP ( bn, এম হামিদুল্লাহ খান; 11 September 1938 – 30 December 2011) was a military leader in two wars fought in South Asia: the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 and t ...

. The

was led by Awami League youth leaders

Serajul Alam Khan Serajul Alam Khan (also known as "Dada" and "Dadabhai"; born January 6, 1941) is a Bangladeshi political analyst, philosopher and writer. He is one of the founders of Swadhin Bangla Biplobi Parishad (English: Independent Bengal Revolutionary C ...

, Sheikh Fazlul Huq Moni, Tofael Ahmed and

Abdur Razzak ʻAbd al-Razzāq (ALA-LC romanization of ar, عبد الرزاق) is a male Muslim given name, and in modern usage, surname. It is built from the Arabic words '' ʻabd'' and ''al-Razzāq'', one of the names of God in the Qur'an, which give rise to ...

. An Australian war veteran, William A. S. Ouderland, organised guerrilla warfare in Dacca and provided vital intelligence to the Bangladesh Forces. He was awarded the

Bir Protik Bir Protik ( bn, বীর প্রতীক ''Bīr Pratīk'', "Symbol of Bravery or Idol of Courage") is the fourth highest gallantry award in Bangladesh. Recipients This award was declared on 15 December 1973. A total of 426 people have rece ...

for his actions by the government of Bangladesh. Left-wing politicians

Kader Siddique Abdul Kader Siddique ( bn, আবদুল কাদের সিদ্দিকী) is a Bangladeshi politician. He is popularly known under the title of Bangabir. He served as a Mukti Bahini member and organizer of the Bangladesh Liberation ...

, Hemayet Uddin and

created several guerrilla units. Kader Siddique operated in the

Tangail District Tangail ( bn, টাঙ্গাইল জেলা) formerly a small Mohokuma of Greater Mymensingh district is a district (''zila'') in the central region of Bangladesh. In 1969, Tangail district was created by Tangail Mohokuma from its 237 ...

. Hemayet was a former soldier in East Pakistan and his Bahini was raised almost entirely on local supplies. Moni Singh was a communist leader in East Pakistan. The Independent Bangladesh Radio Station was one of the cultural wings of the Mukti Bahini. The Bangladesh liberation movement released five prominent propaganda posters which promoted the independence struggle irrespective of religious affiliations and gender. One of the posters famously portrayed Pakistan's military ruler, Yahya Khan, as a

demon A demon is a malevolent supernatural entity. Historically, belief in demons, or stories about demons, occurs in religion, occultism, literature, fiction, mythology, and folklore; as well as in media such as comics, video games, movies, ani ...

. The Mukti Bahini operated

field hospital A field hospital is a temporary hospital or mobile medical unit that takes care of casualties on-site before they can be safely transported to more permanent facilities. This term was initially used in military medicine (such as the Mobile A ...

s, wireless stations, training camps and prisons.

Equipment

The Mukti Bahini benefited from the early control of Pakistani arms depots, which were overtaken by Bengali forces during March and April 1971. The Mukti Bahini purchased large quantities of military-grade equipment through the arms market in Calcutta, including Italian

howitzers A howitzer () is a long-ranged weapon, falling between a cannon (also known as an artillery gun in the United States), which fires shells at flat trajectories, and a mortar, which fires at high angles of ascent and descent. Howitzers, like oth ...

, Alouette III helicopters, "Dakota" DC-3 aircraft and "Otter" DHC-3 fighter planes. The Mukti Bahini also received a limited supply of equipment from the Indian military, as New Delhi allowed the Bangladeshi forces to operate an independent weapons supply through

Calcutta Port Port of Kolkata or Kolkata Port, officially known as Syama Prasad Mookerjee Port Trust (formerly Kolkata Port Trust), is the only riverine major port of India, located in the city of Kolkata, West Bengal, around from the sea. It is the olde ...

. The Mukti Bahini used Sten Guns,

Lee–Enfield The Lee–Enfield or Enfield is a bolt-action, magazine-fed repeating rifle that served as the main firearm of the military forces of the British Empire and Commonwealth during the first half of the 20th century, and was the British Army's sta ...

rifles and Indian-made

hand grenades A grenade is an explosive weapon typically thrown by hand (also called hand grenade), but can also refer to a shell (explosive projectile) shot from the muzzle of a rifle (as a rifle grenade) or a grenade launcher. A modern hand grenade ge ...

. Some of the arms and equipment used by Mukti Bahini are given below: *

Smith & Wesson Model 10 The Smith & Wesson Model 10, previously known as the Smith & Wesson .38 Hand Ejector Model of 1899, the Smith & Wesson Military & Police or the Smith & Wesson Victory Model, is a K-frame revolver of worldwide popularity. In production since 1899 ...

Revolver * SKS rifle * British

L1A1 SLR The L1A1 Self-Loading Rifle, officially "Rifle, 7.62mm, L1A1", also known just as the SLR (Self-Loading Rifle), by the Canadian Army designation C1A1 (C1) or in the US as the "inch pattern" FAL,Especially on the American surplus market. is a Br ...

rifle (Mostly obtained from India) * Sterling submachine gun *

Type 56 The Type 56 (; literally; "Assault Rifle, Model of 1956") is a Chinese 7.62×39mm rifle. It is a variant of the Soviet-designed AK-47 (specifically Type 3) and AKM rifles.Miller, David (2001). ''The Illustrated Directory of 20th Century Guns' ...

Chinese assault rifle * Lee-Enfield .303 Rifle * British

Sten The STEN (or Sten gun) is a family of British submachine guns chambered in 9×19mm which were used extensively by British and Commonwealth forces throughout World War II and the Korean War. They had a simple design and very low production cost ...

sub-machine gun * HE-36 Grenade * MG 42 Machinegun * 105mm Howitzer * Bren gun * British

Lewis .303 Machine gun Lewis may refer to: Names * Lewis (given name), including a list of people with the given name * Lewis (surname), including a list of people with the surname Music * Lewis (musician), Canadian singer * "Lewis (Mistreated)", a song by Radiohead ...

* 120mm Heavy Mortar *

ZB-53 The ZB-53 was a Czechoslovak machine gun. A versatile weapon, it was used both as a squad support weapon, as a mounted machine gun for tanks and other armoured vehicles, and on fixed positions inside Czechoslovak border fortifications. Adopted b ...

Czechoslovakian machine gun * G3 * Type 53 machine gun * M40 recoilless rifle *

ENERGA anti-tank rifle grenade The Energa anti-tank rifle grenade is a rifle-launched anti-tank grenade that is propelled by a ballistite-filled blank cartridge. The name ''Energa'' comes from the firm in Liechtenstein that designed it, the ''Anstalt für die ENtwicklung von ER ...

M18 Recoilless Rifle The M18 recoilless rifle is a 57 mm shoulder-fired, anti-tank recoilless rifle that was used by the U.S. Army in World War II and the Korean War. Recoilless rifles are capable of firing artillery-type shells at reduced velocities comparable to t ...

* Tula Tokarev 33 Pistol, * Italian 9mm 3842

Beretta Model 38 The MAB 38 (''Moschetto Automatico Beretta Modello 1938''), ''Modello'' 38, or Model 38 and its variants were a series of official submachine guns of the Royal Italian Army introduced in 1938 and used during World War II. The guns were also use ...

Sub-machine gun * SA 44 Rifle See:

Bangladesh-India Allied Forces

The launch of

Operation Chengiz Khan Operation Chengiz Khan was the code name assigned to the preemptive strikes carried out by the Pakistani Air Force (PAF) on the forward airbases and radar installations of the Indian Air Force (IAF) on the evening of 3 December 1971, and marke ...

North India North India is a loosely defined region consisting of the northern part of India. The dominant geographical features of North India are the Indo-Gangetic Plain and the Himalayas, which demarcate the region from the Tibetan Plateau and Central ...

finally drew India into the Bangladesh conflict and a joint command structure was established between the Bangladeshi and Indian forces. Three

corps Corps (; plural ''corps'' ; from French , from the Latin "body") is a term used for several different kinds of organization. A military innovation by Napoleon I, the formation was first named as such in 1805. The size of a corps varies great ...

of the Indian Armed Forces were supported by three

brigade A brigade is a major tactical military formation that typically comprises three to six battalions plus supporting elements. It is roughly equivalent to an enlarged or reinforced regiment. Two or more brigades may constitute a division. Br ...

s of the Mukti Bahini and the Bengali guerrilla army. The Mukti Bahini and its supporters guided the Indian army and provided them with information about Pakistani troop movements. The Indian and Mukti Bahini greatly outnumbered the three Pakistani army divisions of East Pakistan. The

Battle of Sylhet The Battle of Sylhet ( bn, সিলেটের যুদ্ধ ''Silet-er Juddho'') was a major battle fought between the advancing Mitro Bahini and the Pakistani defences at Sylhet during the Bangladesh Liberation War. The battle took pla ...

, the

Battle of Garibpur The Battle of Garibpur was a battle that was fought by the Pakistan Army against the Indian Army on 20–21 November 1971. This battle was fought 12 days before India officially joined the war against Pakistan. The battle started after an Indian ...

, the

Battle of Boyra The Battle of Boyra, on 22 November 1971, was a Ground and aerial battle that was fought between the India and Pakistan The Pakistani Army was engaged in combat against the Mukti Bahini (Bengali Guerrilla fighters) and a Division size detachment ...

, the Battle of Hilli and the

Battle of Kushtia The Battle of Kushtia can refer to two incidents during the Bangladesh Liberation War, both of which happened in what is now Bangladesh: *A battle on 19 April 1971 between East Bengali rebels and Pakistani forces. *An Indian attack from West Benga ...

were major joint engagements for the Bangladeshi and Indian forces, who swiftly captured surrounding land by selectively engaging or bypassing heavily defended strongholds. For example, the

Meghna Heli Bridge Meghna Heli Bridge, codenamed Operation Cactus Lilly, was an aerial operation of the Indian Air Force during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, commencing India's involvement in Bangladesh Liberation War. It took place on 9 December, when the I ...

airlifted Bangladeshi and Indian forces from

Narsingdi Narsingdi /Narsingdi Sadar ( bn, নরসিংদী) is a city and headquarters of Narsingdi District in the division of Dhaka, Bangladesh. The Dhaka-Sylhet highway connects Narsingdi with the capital and other major cities. The district is ...

over Pakistani defences in

Ashuganj Ashuganj or Ashugonj ( bn, আশুগঞ্জ) is a town in the Brahmanbaria District of Chittagong Division of Bangladesh in the Meghna River delta. Its altitude is 10 meters (36 feet). The city is known for the Port of Ashuganj and for its pow ...

. The cities of

Jessore Jessore ( bn, যশোর, jôshor, ), officially Jashore, is a city of Jessore District situated in Khulna Division. It is situated in the south-western part of Bangladesh. It is the administrative centre (headquarter) of the eponymous district ...

, Sylhet, Kushtia,

Noakhali Noakhali ( bn, নোয়াখালী, , New canal), historically known as Bhulua ( bn, ভুলুয়া), is a district in southeastern Bangladesh, located in the Chittagong Division. It was established as district in 1821, and officia ...

and

Moulvibazar Moulvibazar ( bn, মৌলভীবাজার) is a town in north-eastern Bangladesh just south of Sylhet. It is the capital of Moulvibazar Sadar Upazila and Moulvibazar District, and is located on the banks of the Manu River. The town has ...

quickly fell to the Mukti Bahini-Indian joint forces. In Dhaka, the Pakistan Army and its supporting militias began the mass murder of Bengali intellectuals and professionals in a final attempt to eliminate the Bengali

intelligentsia The intelligentsia is a status class composed of the university-educated people of a society who engage in the complex mental labours by which they critique, shape, and lead in the politics, policies, and culture of their society; as such, the in ...

. Historian Yasmin Saikia writes that the Mukti-Bahini, Indian forces, the Pakistani Army, and pro-Pakistani militias looted, raped, and killed civilians in East Pakistan. The Mukti Bahini liberated most of the Dhaka District by mid-December. In Western Pakistan, Indian forces advanced deep into Pakistani territory as the

Port of Karachi The Port of Karachi ( ur, , ''Bandar gāh Karāchī'') is one of South Asia's largest and busiest deep-water seaports, handling about 60% of the nation's cargo (25 million tons per annum) located in Karachi, Pakistan. It is located on the Kar ...

was subjected to a

naval blockade A navy, naval force, or maritime force is the branch of a nation's armed forces principally designated for naval and amphibious warfare; namely, lake-borne, riverine, littoral, or ocean-borne combat operations and related functions. It includ ...

by the Indian Navy. Pakistani generals surrendered to the Mukti Bahini-Indian forces in Dhaka on 16 December 1971.

Relations with India

Ten million Bengali refugees fled into neighbouring India because of famine and ravages of the Pakistan army, where the regions of

, Tripura and the

Barak Valley The Barak Valley is located in the southern region of the Indian state of Assam. The region is named after the Barak river. The Barak valley consists of three administrative districts of Assam - namely Cachar, Karimganj, and Hailakandi. The ...

shared strong

ethnic An ethnic group or an ethnicity is a grouping of people who identify with each other on the basis of shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups. Those attributes can include common sets of traditions, ancestry, language, history, ...

linguistic Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. It is called a scientific study because it entails a comprehensive, systematic, objective, and precise analysis of all aspects of language, particularly its nature and structure. Linguis ...

and

cultural Culture () is an umbrella term which encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and Social norm, norms found in human Society, societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, Social norm, customs, capabilities, and habits of the ...

links with East Pakistan. The war sparked an unprecedented level of unity in the Bengali-speaking world. There was strong support for Bengalis and Mukti Bahini from the Indian media and public. India feared that if the movement for Bangladesh came to be dominated by communists then it would adversely affect its own fight with the left-wing Naxalites. It also did not want the millions of refugees to be permanently stranded in India. Indian Prime Minister,

Indira Gandhi Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi (; Given name, ''née'' Nehru; 19 November 1917 – 31 October 1984) was an Indian politician and a central figure of the Indian National Congress. She was elected as third prime minister of India in 1966 ...

, authorised diplomatic, economic and military support to the Bangladesh Forces in April 1971. The Provisional Government of Bangladesh established its secretariat in exile in

Calcutta Kolkata (, or , ; also known as Calcutta , List of renamed places in India#West Bengal, the official name until 2001) is the Capital city, capital of the Indian States and union territories of India, state of West Bengal, on the eastern ba ...

. The

Indian Armed Forces The Indian Armed Forces are the military forces of the Republic of India. It consists of three professional uniformed services: the Indian Army, Indian Navy, and Indian Air Force.—— Additionally, the Indian Armed Forces are supported by ...

provided substantial training and the use of its bases for the Bangladesh Forces. The Bangladesh liberation guerrillas operated training camps in the Indian states of

Bihar Bihar (; ) is a state in eastern India. It is the 2nd largest state by population in 2019, 12th largest by area of , and 14th largest by GDP in 2021. Bihar borders Uttar Pradesh to its west, Nepal to the north, the northern part of West Be ...

, Arunachal Pradesh,

, Nagaland,

Mizoram Mizoram () is a state in Northeast India, with Aizawl as its seat of government and capital city. The name of the state is derived from "Mizo people, Mizo", the endonym, self-described name of the native inhabitants, and "Ram", which in the Mizo ...

, Meghalaya, Tripura and West Bengal. Mukti Bahini were allowed by India to cross the border at will. Some Mukti Bahini, especially those who served in the security services of Pakistan, were suspicious of Indian involvement and wished to minimise its role. They also resented the formation of the

by India which was composed of

Sheikh Mujib Sheikh (pronounced or ; ar, شيخ ' , mostly pronounced , plural ' )—also transliterated sheekh, sheyikh, shaykh, shayk, shekh, shaik and Shaikh, shak—is an honorific title in the Arabic language. It commonly designates a chief of a ...

-loyalists but was not under the command of Mukti Bahini or the provisional government of Bangladesh. On 6 December 1971, India officially recognised Bangladesh as an independent country only hours after Bhutan did the same.

International reactions

The genocide by Pakistani forces caused widespread international outrage against West Pakistan. In the United States, Democratic senator

led a chorus of strong domestic criticism against the

Nixon administration Richard Nixon's tenure as the 37th president of the United States began with his first inauguration on January 20, 1969, and ended when he resigned on August 9, 1974, in the face of almost certain impeachment because of the Watergate Scanda ...

for ignoring the genocide of Bengalis in East Pakistan. The Mukti Bahini enjoyed significant international public support. The Bangladeshi provisional government considered setting up an "International Brigade" with European and North American students. French Minister of Cultural Affairs

André Malraux Georges André Malraux ( , ; 3 November 1901 – 23 November 1976) was a French novelist, art theorist, and minister of cultural affairs. Malraux's novel ''La Condition Humaine'' (Man's Fate) (1933) won the Prix Goncourt. He was appointed by P ...

vowed to fight on the battlefield alongside the Bangladesh Forces. The

Soviet Union The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen national ...

threw its weight behind the Bangladesh Forces and India after being convinced of Pakistan's unwillingness for a political solution. Separately, US efforts to woo China through Pakistan led to India signing a friendship treaty with Moscow in August 1971. India increased support to Mukti Bahini after the signing of the treaty. For India, the treaty was an important insurance policy against a possible Chinese intervention on the side of Pakistan. China had fought a brief war with India in 1962. Both the US and China, however, ultimately failed to mobilise adequate support for Pakistan.

Honours

Bir Sreshtho (The Most Valiant Hero) is the highest military honour in Bangladesh and was awarded to seven Mukti Bahini fighters. They were Ruhul Amin,

Mohiuddin Jahangir Captain Mohiuddin Jahangir ( bn, মহিউদ্দীন জাহাঙ্গীর) was a Pakistan Army office who joined the Mukti Bahini during the 1971 Liberation War. He was born on 7 March 1949 in the village of Rahimgonj under Babu ...

, Mostafa Kamal, Hamidur Rahman,

Munshi Abdur Rouf Munshi Abdur Rouf ( bn, মুন্সী আবদুর রউফ; 8 May 1943 – 8 April 1971) was a Lance Nayek in the East Pakistan Rifles during the Bangladesh Liberation War. He enlisted in the East Pakistan Rifles on 8 May 1963, and was ...

Nur Mohammad Sheikh Nur Mohammad Sheikh ( bn, নূর মোহাম্মদ শেখ; 26 February 1936 – 5 September 1971) was a Lance Nayek in East Pakistan Rifles during the Liberation War. He was killed in an engagement with the Pakistan Army while provid ...

and Matiur Rahman. The other three gallantry awards in decreasing order of importance are

Bir Uttom Bir Uttom ( bn, বীর উত্তম, lit=Great Valiant Hero) is the second highest award for individual gallantry in Bangladesh after the Bir Sreshtho and the highest gallantry award for a living individual. Since the independence of Bang ...

Bir Bikrom Bir Bikrom ( bn, বীর বিক্রম, lit=Valiant hero, translit=) is the third highest gallantry award in Bangladesh. Like the other gallantry awards, this was introduced immediately after the Bangladeshi Liberation War. Bir Bikrom was ...

and

. In the Section 2(11) of the '' Bangladesh Freedom Fighters Welfare Trust Act, 2018 (Act No. 51 of 2018)'' everyone participated in the liberation war is defined as Bir Muktijoddha (

: বীর মুক্তিযোদ্ধা). The government issued an order by gazette notification on 29 October 2020 saying that the word Bir (heroic) will have to be added to the term freedom fighter. To compulsorily comply with the law, in the 13th meeting of the Standing Committee, the

Ministry of Liberation War Affairs The Ministry of Liberation War Affairs ( bn, মুক্তিযুদ্ধ বিষয়ক মন্ত্রণালয়) (abbreviated as MoLWA) is the ministry responsible for the preservation of war memorials and the welfare of Fre ...

of the 11th National Parliament issued another order by gazette notification on 18 December 2021 stating that the word Bir (heroic) must be used as an honorific prefix before the names of freedom fighters and the English synonym for Bir Muktijoddha will be Heroic Freedom Fighter.

Women

Women had served in the Mukti Bahini during the

Bangladesh Liberation War The Bangladesh Liberation War ( bn, মুক্তিযুদ্ধ, , also known as the Bangladesh War of Independence, or simply the Liberation War in Bangladesh) was a revolution and War, armed conflict sparked by the rise of the Benga ...

. The Mukti Bahini trained several female battalions for guerrilla warfare.

Taramon Bibi Taramon Bibi Bir Protik ( – 1 December 2018) was one of the two female freedom fighters in Bangladesh obtaining the Bir Protik award. She engaged in direct combat during the liberation war of Bangladesh in 1971 as a member of the Mukti Bahini ...

is one of the two female wars heroes of the Bangladesh Liberation War. Captain

Sitara Begum Dr. Captain Sitara Begum is a Bangladeshi doctor, Army officer, and War hero. She is one of two women in Bangladesh who has received Bir Protik award. She played a magnificent role in Sector 2 during Liberation War of Bangladesh in 1971. Early lif ...

is noted for setting up field hospitals for injured Mukti Bahini fighters. Professor Nazma Shaheen, University of Dhaka, and her sister were female members in the Mukti Bahini.

Post-war

Aparajeyo Bangla - 1979 CE - Sculpture by Syed Abdullah Khalid - University of Dhaka Campus - Dhaka 2015-05-31 2369

The Mukti Bahini was succeeded by the Bangladesh Armed Forces, the

Bangladesh Rifles Border Guards Bangladesh (BGB) are a paramilitary force responsible for the border security of Bangladesh. The force is known as "The Vigilant Sentinels of the National Frontier". The BGB is entrusted with the responsibility to defend the borde ...

and the

Bangladesh Police The Bangladesh Police ( bn, বাংলাদেশ পুলিশ) of the People's Republic of Bangladesh is a law enforcement agency, operating under the Ministry of Home Affairs. It plays a crucial role in maintaining peace, and enforcemen ...

. Civilian fighters were provided with numerous privileges, including reservations in government jobs and universities. The Bangladesh Freedom Fighters Assembly was formed to represent former guerrillas. Bangladesh Liberation War ministry is responsible for looking after the welfare of Mukti Bahini members. The widespread availability of arms created serious law and order concerns for the Bangladesh government after the war. A few militia units are alleged to have taken part in reprisal attacks against the Urdu-speaking population following the Pakistani surrender.

Indemnity

On 28 February 1973 the

government of Bangladesh The Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh ( bn, গণপ্রজাতন্ত্রী বাংলাদেশ সরকার — ) is the central executive government of Bangladesh. The government was constituted by the Con ...

enacted the National Liberation Struggle (Indemnity) Order to provide indemnity "to those persons in respect of acts done in connection with the national liberation struggle, the maintenance or restoration of order" which was to be enforced retrospectively from 26 March 1972.

Criticism

Human rights violations

The Mukti Bahini has been accused of human rights violations by historians on West Pakistanis and

Biharis The Biharis () is a demonym given to the inhabitants of the Indian state of Bihar. Bihari people can be separated into three main Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic groups, Bhojpuris, Maithils and Magadhis. They are also further divided into a v ...

. On 27 March 1971, members of the Mukti Bahini were alleged to have massacred 15000

in the town of

Santahar Santahar ( bn, সান্তাহার) is a railway junction in Adamdighi Upazila in Bogra District of Rajshahi Division in Bangladesh. History From 1878, the railway route from Kolkata, then called Calcutta, to Siliguri was in two laps. T ...

in the district of Naogaon. They are also accused of raping Bihari women during the war. This was in retaliation to

. Mukti Bahini, the Bengali resistance force, backed by Indian government, from East Pakistan, killed non-Bengalis (primarily West Pakistanis and Biharis) in the aftermath of the Bangladesh Liberation War. After the

Liberation War of Bangladesh The Bangladesh Liberation War ( bn, মুক্তিযুদ্ধ, , also known as the Bangladesh War of Independence, or simply the Liberation War in Bangladesh) was a revolution and armed conflict sparked by the rise of the Bengali n ...

ended, many people who had been denied repatriation to Pakistan were forcefully relocated to refugee camps, were referred to as Stranded Pakistanis and denied citizenship of

. Since 2007, Biharis living in Bangladesh have been granted full citizenship and voting rights.

Cultural legacy

The Mukti Bahini has been the subject of numerous artwork, literature, films and television productions.

Organization

Background

Early resistance

July–November

July

August

September

October

November

Air operations

Naval operations

Organization

Equipment

Bangladesh-India Allied Forces

Relations with India

International reactions

Honours

Women

Post-war

Indemnity

Criticism

Human rights violations

Cultural legacy

See also

References

Further reading