Lifestyle and Education
Khurasani was born inTheological Influence and Opinions
After Mirza Shirazi moved toBooks
Akhund Khurasani wrote the following books:Definition of Ijtihad
Akhund Khurasani says that Ijtihad is a process in which jurist “exerts his full capacity in order to arrive at an opinion based on a legitimate legal judgement.” According to Akhund, a jurist is obliged to take whatever time he needs to read and research into a matter before giving a reasonable judgement. He says that if his effort produces no result, the jurist must not give his opinion. In such a case, the jurist should obtain further knowledge. Followers are free to decide whom to emulate, and the most important traits of the Source of Emulation (Marja) are his openness towards contemporary issues and willingness to explore traditional and non-traditional knowledge to address needs of the community.Ijtihad must be time-sensitive
As science and technology progress, social circumstances and lifestyle also change. Language evolves and new concepts emerge. Akhund Khurasani believed that jurisprudential judgement must be time-sensitive. Also, the jurist should be willing to change his opinions based on the needs of the ever changing society. However, he should not interfere in all aspects of people's life, beyond religious affairs. As for the social issues, he favored those reformers who were ready to think outside the box and consider scholarly inputs from other parts of the world. However, his version of secularism was different from western modernists, it was based on the Shia doctrine ofJurist as a social activist
Like his mentor Ayatullah Murtaza Ansari, Akhund believed that a jurist was not different from ordinary people in the matters of politics, as Shia school of thought didn't allow for special political status of jurists. Rather, he believed that scholars could act as "warning voices in society" and criticize the officials who were not doing their responsibilities correctly. He compared the role of scholars with "salt of the earth" in the sense that they prevent "decay of power", should fight against injustice and that they are against "autocratic attitudes". A Marja should act as a social activist, using his rational approach to guide the masses while preserving the pillars of Shia doctrine.The idea of nation-state
ASecular democracy during Occultation
en, “According to Shia doctrine, only the infallible Imam has the right to govern, to run the affairs of the people, to solve the problems of the Muslim society and to make important decisions. As it was in the time of the prophets or in the time of the caliphate of the commander of the faithful, and as it will be in the time of the reappearance and return of theMahdi The Mahdi ( ar, ٱلْمَهْدِيّ, al-Mahdī, lit=the Guided) is a Messianism, messianic figure in Islamic eschatology who is believed to appear at the Eschatology, end of times to rid the world of evil and injustice. He is said to be a de .... If the absolute guardianship is not with the infallible then it will be a non-islamic government. Since this is a time of occultation, there can be two types of non-islamic regimes: the first is a just democracy in which the affairs of the people are in the hands of faithful and educated men, and the second is a government of tyranny in which a dictator has absolute powers. Therefore, both in the eyes of the Sharia and reason what is just prevails over the unjust. From human experience and careful reflection it has become clear that democracy reduces the tyranny of state and it is obligatory to give precedence to the lesser evil.” , sign=Muhammad Kazim Khurasani, source=, title=As “sanctioned by sacred law and religion”, Akhund believes, a theocratic government can only be formed by the infallible Imam. Aqa Buzurg Tehrani also quoted Akhund Khurasani saying that if there was a possibility of establishment of a truly legitimate Islamic rule in any age, God must end occultation of the Imam of Age. Hence, he refuted the idea of absolute guardianship of jurist. Therefore, according to Akhund, Shia jurists must support the democratic reform. He prefers collective wisdom () over individual opinions, and limits the role of jurist to provide religious guidance in personal affairs of a believer. He defines democracy as a system of governance that enforces a set of “limitations and conditions” on the head of state and government employees so that they work within “boundaries that the laws and religion of every nation determines”. Akhund believes that modern secular laws complement traditional religion. He asserts that both religious rulings and the laws outside the scope of religion confront “state despotism”. Constitutionalism is based on the idea of defending the “nation's inherent and natural liberties”, and as absolute power corrupts, a democratic distribution of power would make it possible for the nation to live up to its full potential.
Democracy protects religion
Akhund believes that democracy provides necessary safeguards for faith to prevail. As it depends on the will of the people and treats all citizens equally, it would respect the religion of the people. A similar argument appears in Ayatullah Sistani's political thought in post-Saddam Iraq. Commenting on the conspiracy theories that Islam was in danger and democracy was intended to make the masses faithless, Akhund Khurasani said that people should benefit from the freedom to organize and create religious societies to preach and make sure that the laws passed by their representatives are based on Ja'fari jurisprudence.
Democracy should include minority voices
Many scholars believe that protection of minority rights is an essential element that distinguishes democracy from majoritarianism and prevents fascist persecution of minorities. During the democratic revolution, those who supported dictatorship against democracy, started to portray democracy as a conspiracy of non-Muslim minorities. This resulted in violent attacks against them from thugs, backed by the imperial court's clerical employee Shaykh Fazlullah Nuri. Akhund Khurasani issued a fatwa that made it obligatory for Muslims to protect the rights of non-Muslims. He said:“In the name of Allah, terrorizing or insulting the Zoroastrians or other non-Muslims living in peace is forbidden. Muslims are obliged to be kind and generous towards them and protect their lives and properties, as advised by the last prophet, Muhammad (PBUH), by the grace of God.” , sign=Muhammad Kazim Khurasani, source=, title=Akhund Khurasani is praised by Iran's Zoroastrians for his positive role in protecting their rights during the constitutional movement. His legacy was carried on by major Shia jurists that followed. Ayatullah Khoei showed great flexibility and tolerance, for example he considered non-Muslims as equal citizens of the nation-state, stopped the harsh punishments like stoning and favored the use of holy books other than Quran for oaths taken from non-Muslims. In modern Iraq, Ayatullah Sistani has also associated legitimacy of democratic process with inclusion of minority voices. Sistani helped Sunni, Christian, and Yazidi displaced families during the ISIS takeover of Iraq's cities. Ayatullah Fayyad said that the source of emulation has a role to play in equality and unity among Iraq's citizen irrespective of their religion.
Economic independence
Akhund Khurasani believed that economic dependency on colonial powers is one of the major hurdles in achieving maximum liberty. In 1898, a rich trader from Isfahan, Hajj Kaziruni, established a textile company, shirkat-i-islami, and requested Akhund Khurasani for support. He issued a decree stopping his followers from buying British cloth in an attempt to protect the interests of Iranian traders in tough competition. A similar economic boycott was also practiced by indians and other anti-colonial movements of the 20th century as a means of resistance against economic exploitation. Akhund Khurasani supported the idea of establishment of a national bank to facilitate trade, and he kept reminding his followers about the need for economic reforms. He said:“The ruling that the learning of modern military skills, establishment of public education school system and creation of a national bank are collective obligation, is issued by me, the humble servant of the religious law, as written and explained in the separate paper.”
, sign=Muhammad Kazim Khurasani, source=, title=
Views on modern knowledge
Akhund believed that it was obligatory for believers to attain necessary level of education and skill to be able to protect national and religious interests. He saw democracy as a means to efficient governance that would bring prosperity and prevent colonial influence. He kept pressing for the need for modern schools to provide education to all children, modern economics, establishment of a national bank and industrialization. He believed that modernity would prevent savagery. After describing the need for modern reforms, he said:
“Those who do not accept this fact are either ignorant subordinates or adversaries of the noble Muslim religion.” , sign=Muhammad Kazim Khurasani, source=, title= He emphasized on the need for establishment of nation-wide school system that would teach modern sciences and operate according to Islamic ethics.
Military and defense
Modernization of the military was of the utmost importance to him, so that the nation-state built in Iran after revolution could defend itself against adversaries. A similar argument can be found in Ayatullah Sistani's stress on state monopoly over violence.
Political activism
The city ofNajaf Najaf ( ar, ٱلنَّجَف) or An-Najaf al-Ashraf ( ar, ٱلنَّجَف ٱلْأَشْرَف), also known as Baniqia ( ar, بَانِيقِيَا), is a city in central Iraq about 160 km (100 mi) south of Baghdad. Its estimated popula ...has played the role of nerve center in Shia world through centuries. At the dawn of constitutional revolution, it was here that the political ideas were discussed and the religious secularity of Shia jurisprudence took shape. Many periodicals of the time, especially ''al-Ghura'', ''Durat al-Najaf'', and ''Najaf'', published from the city, reflect the nature of the intellectual exchange during the movement. Other publications, such as the Calcutta-based ''Habl al-Matin'' also reached the residents of Najaf. Najaf had developed its own taste of modernity, distinct from west. These publications advocated the concepts of personal liberty, nation-state, modern sciences, constitutional monarchy and democracy. But they also viewed western colonial advance as intimidating and understood that the only way to fight back was creating a strong and progressive nation. Akhund Khurasani saw his role as an activist scholar who would interpret the religion according to the needs of the time to persuade the masses to constructive action. He was the main legitimizing force behind modern reforms. He did not shy away from analyzing what the western scholarship had to offer and incorporate it into his doctrine. However, he had his own theoretical foundations for those reforms and his own terminology, based in Shi'i doctrine. He understood how mismanagement, nepotism and corruption had engulfed Iran's economy. He supported a powerless monarch as a symbol of Iran's history but he was also confident in the legacy that he carried of clerical tradition as the guide. Therefore, he was in a position to offer scholarly criticism and evaluation of governance and social conditions. He protected the parliament by issuing clarifications and religious rulings, when it needed his support against the fanatic anti-constitutionalists. Not only that, he gave instructions to different orators and organized clerics of different ranks to stand behind the cause.
The call to political reform
In a letter dated August 7, 1902, Akhund Khurasani and the other two Marja's as co-signatories, wrote to the Crown Prince Muhammad Ali Mirza stressing the need for joining the world community in anticipating modern social reform and uprooting corruption. Referring to the Prince's visit to the west, he said that the old monarchical system of government was going to collapse all over the world and reform was need of the hour. The monarchy could only survive if its powers were limited by constitution. He stressed the idea of unification of nation and state, and as a rationalUsuli Usulis ( ar, اصولیون, fa, اصولیان) are the majority Twelver Shi'a Muslim group. They differ from their now much smaller rival Akhbari group in favoring the use of ''ijtihad'' (i.e., reasoning) in the creation of new rules of ''fiq ...jurist, he was able to think out of the box and understand how other nations had progressed as a result of democratic reforms. In the same letter, he presented the idea of nation-state, i.e. unity of the people and government (). In a letter dated 27 July 1903, he inquired about King's mismanagement of financial sources and lack of funds for financial reforms and military. He also questioned the slow pace of building of the dam in Ahwaz.
The constitutional revolution
The fourth Qajar King,Naser al-Din Shah Naser al-Din Shah Qajar ( fa, ناصرالدینشاه قاجار; 16 July 1831 – 1 May 1896) was the fourth Shah of Qajar Iran from 5 September 1848 to 1 May 1896 when he was assassinated. He was the son of Mohammad Shah Qajar and Male ...was assassinated byMirza Reza Kermani Mirza Reza Kermani (Persian: میرزا رضا کرمانی) ( Born in 1854 in Kerman, Persia (modern Iran) - 10 August 1896 in Tehran) was an adherent of Jamal al-Din al-Afghani and an Iranian who assassinated King Nasser-al-Din.Dabashi, Hamid. ..., a follower of Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī, when he was visiting and praying in the Shah Abdul-Azim Shrine on 1 May 1896. At Mozaffar al-Din Shah's accession Persia faced a financial crisis, with annual governmental expenditures far in excess of revenues as a result of the policies of his father. During his reign, Mozzafar ad-Din attempted some reforms of the central treasury; however, the previous debt incurred by theQajar Qajar Iran (), also referred to as Qajar Persia, the Qajar Empire, '. Sublime State of Persia, officially the Sublime State of Iran ( fa, دولت علیّه ایران ') and also known then as the Guarded Domains of Iran ( fa, ممالک م ...court, owed to bothEngland England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Wales to its west and Scotland to its north. The Irish Sea lies northwest and the Celtic Sea to the southwest. It is separated from continental Europe b ...andRussia Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia, Northern Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the ..., significantly undermined this effort. He awardedWilliam Knox D'Arcy William Knox D'Arcy (11 October 18491 May 1917) was a British businessman who was one of the principal founders of the oil and petrochemical industry in Persia (Iran). The D’Arcy Concession was signed in 1901 and allowed D'Arcy to explore, o ..., a British subject, the rights to oil in most of the country in 1901. Widespread fears amongst the aristocracy, educated elites, and religious leaders about the concessions and foreign control resulted in some protests in 1906. The three main groups of the coalition seeking a constitution were the merchants, the ''ulama In Islam, the ''ulama'' (; ar, علماء ', singular ', "scholar", literally "the learned ones", also spelled ''ulema''; feminine: ''alimah'' ingularand ''aalimath'' lural are the guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious ...'', and a small group of radical reformers. They shared the goal of ending royal corruption and ending dominance by foreign powers. These resulted in the Shah accepting a suggestion to create aMajles The Islamic Consultative Assembly ( fa, مجلس شورای اسلامی, Majles-e Showrā-ye Eslāmī), also called the Iranian Parliament, the Iranian Majles (Arabicised spelling Majlis) or ICA, is the national legislative body of Iran. The P ...(National Consultative Assembly) in October 1906, by which the monarch's power was curtailed as he granted a constitution and parliament to the people. King Mozaffar ad-Din Shah signed the 1906 constitution shortly before his death. The members of newly formed parliament stayed constantly in touch with Akhund Khurasani and whenever legislative bills were discussed, he was telegraphed the details for a juristic opinion. In a letter dated June 3, 1907, the parliament told Akhund about a group of anti-constitutionalists who were trying to undermine legitimacy of democracy in the name of religious law. The trio replied:
The Nuri affair
Meanwhile, the new Shah had understood that he could not roll back the constitutional democracy by royalist ideology, and therefore he decided to use the religion card. The parliament came under attack from imperial court's cleric, Shaykh Fazlullah Nuri and other anti-democracy clerics. Nuri was a rich and high-ranking Qajar court official responsible for conducting marriages and contracts. He also handled wills of wealthy men and collected religious funds. Nuri was opposed to the very foundations of the institution of parliament. He led a large group of followers and began a round-the-clock sit-in in the Shah Abdul Azim shrine on June 21, 1907 which lasted till September 16, 1907. He generalized the idea of religion as a complete code of social life to push for his own agenda. He believed democracy will allow for “teaching of chemistry, physics and foreign languages”, that would result in spread ofAtheism Atheism, in the broadest sense, is an absence of belief in the existence of deities. Less broadly, atheism is a rejection of the belief that any deities exist. In an even narrower sense, atheism is specifically the position that there no d .... He bought a printing press and launched a newspaper of his own for propaganda purposes, “Ruznamih-i-Shaikh Fazlullah”, and published leaflets. He believed that the ruler was accountable to no institution other than God and people have no right to limit the powers or question the conduct of the King. He declared that those who supported democratic form of government were faithless and corrupt, andapostates Apostasy (; grc-gre, ἀποστασία , 'a defection or revolt') is the formal disaffiliation from, abandonment of, or renunciation of a religion by a person. It can also be defined within the broader context of embracing an opinion that .... He hated the idea offemale education Female education is a catch-all term of a complex set of issues and debates surrounding education (primary education, secondary education, tertiary education, and health education in particular) for girls and women. It is frequently called girl ...and said that girls schools were brothels. Alongside his vicious propaganda against women education, he also opposed allocation of funds for modern industry, modern ways of governance, equal rights for all citizens irrespective of their religion and freedom of press. He believed that people were cattle, but paradoxically, he wanted to “awaken the muslim brethren”.Arjomand, Said Amir (16 November 1989)
The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran.
Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 51.ISBN 978-0-19-504258-0 . The anti-democracy clerics incited violence and one such cleric said that getting in the proximity of the parliament was a bigger sin than adultery, robbery and murder. In Zanjan, Mulla Qurban Ali Zanjani mobilized a force of six hundred thugs who looted shops of pro-democracy merchants and took hold of the city for several days and killed the representative Sa'd al-Saltanih. Nuri himself recruited mercenaries from criminal gangs to harass the supporters of democracy. On December 22, 1907, Nuri led a mob towards Tupkhanih Square and attacked merchants and looted stores. Nuri's ties to the court of monarchy and landlords reinforced his fanaticism. He even contacted the Russian embassy for support and his men delivered sermons against democracy in mosques, resulting in chaos. Akhund Khurasani was consulted on the matter and in a letter dated December 30, 1907, the three Marja's said: However, Nuri continued his activities and a few weeks later Akhund Khurasani and his fellow Marja's argued for his expulsion from Tehran: One major concern of Akhund Khurasani and other Marja's was to familiarize the public with the ideas of a democratic nation-state and modern constitution. Akhund Khurasani asked Iranian scholars to deliver sermons on the subject to clarify doubts seeded by Nuri and his comrades. Hajj Shaikh Muhammad Va'iz Isfahani, a skillful orator of Tehran, made concerted efforts to educate the masses. Another scholar, Sayyid Jamal al-Din Va'iz continuously refuted Nuri's propaganda and said that religious tyranny was worse than the temporal tyranny as the harm that the corrupt clerics inflict upon Islam and Muslims is worse. He advised the Shia masses to not pay attention to everyone with a turban on his head, rather they should listen to the guidelines of the sources of emulation inNajaf Najaf ( ar, ٱلنَّجَف) or An-Najaf al-Ashraf ( ar, ٱلنَّجَف ٱلْأَشْرَف), also known as Baniqia ( ar, بَانِيقِيَا), is a city in central Iraq about 160 km (100 mi) south of Baghdad. Its estimated popula ....Mirza Ali Aqa Tabrizi Mirza Ali-Aqa Tabrizi, () known as Thiqat-ul-Islam Tabrizi (; January 19, 1861 - December 31, 1911) was an Iranian nationalist who lived in Tabriz, Iran, during the Iranian Constitutional Revolution and was a reformist Shia cleric. He was hanged b ..., the enlightened Thiqa tul-islam from Tabriz, wrote a treatise “''Lalan''”(). He opposed Nuri saying that only the opinion of the sources of emulation is worthy of consideration in the matters of faith. He wrote: And He firmly opposed the idea of a supervisory committee of Tehran's clerics censoring the conduct of the parliament, and said that: As far as Nuri's argument was concerned, Akhund Khurasani refuted it in a light tone by saying that he supported the “parliament at Baharistan Square”, questioning the legitimacy of Nuri's assembly at Shah Abdul Azim shrine and their right to decide for the people. Responding to a question about Nouri's arguments, Akhund Muhammad Kazim Khurasani said:
en, “If the absolute guardianship is not with the infallible then it will be a non-islamic government. Since this is a time of occultation, there can be two types of non-islamic regimes: the first is a just democracy in which the affairs of the people are in the hands of faithful and educated men, and the second is a government of tyranny in which a dictator has absolute powers. Therefore, both in the eyes of the Sharia and reason what is just prevails over the unjust.” , sign=Muhammad Kazim Khurasani, source=, title= Akhund made it clear that a truly islamic government can only be formed by the infallible Imam, anyone claiming otherwise is mislead. His close associate and student, who later rose to the rank of Marja, Muhammad Hussain Naini, wrote a book, “''Tanbih al-Ummah wa Tanzih al-Milla”''(), to counter the propaganda of Nuri group. He devoted many pages to distinguish between tyrannical and democratic regimes. In democracies, power is distributed and limited through constitution. He maintained that in the absence of Imam Mahdi, all governments are doomed to be imperfect and unjust, and therefore people had to prefer the bad over the worse. Hence, the constitutional democracy was the best option to help improve the condition of the society as compared to absolutism, and run the worldly affairs with consultation and better planning. he saw the elected members of the parliament as representatives of the people, not deputies of the Imam, hence they didn't need a religious justification for their authority. He said that both the “tyrannical Ulema” and the radical societies who promoted majoritarianism were a threat to both Islam and democracy. The people should avoid the destructive, corrupt and divisive forces and maintain national unity. He devoted large section of his book to definition and condemnation of religious tyranny. He then went on to defend people's freedom of opinion and expression, equality of all citizens in eyes of the nation-state regardless of their religion, separation of the legislative, executive and judicial powers, accountability of the King, people's right to share power. Another student of Akhund who too raised to the rank of Marja, Shaykh Isma'il Mahallati, wrote a treatise “''al-Liali al-Marbuta fi Wajub al-Mashruta''”(). In his view, during the occultation of the twelfth Imam, the governments can either be imperfectly just or oppressive. Since it was duty of a believer to actively fight injustice, it was necessary to strengthen democratic process. he insisted on the need for reforming the economic system, modernizing the military, installing a functional education system, and guaranteeing the rights of civilians. He said: Nuri interpreted Sharia in a self-serving and shallow way, unlike Akhund Khurasani who, as a well received source of emulation, viewed the adherence to religion in a society beyond one person or one interpretation. While Nuri confused Sharia with written constitution of a modern society, Akhund Khurasani understood the difference and the function of the two. Nuri founded his arguments on myths and reached illogical conclusion. He had a narrow understanding of modernity and had no alternative to offer. He perceived the new social contract as a threat to his own prestige and lavish lifestyle.
Minor Tyranny
The sixth Qajar KingMohammad Ali Shah Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar ( fa, محمدعلی شاه قاجار; 21 June 1872 – 5 April 1925, San Remo, Italy), Shah of Iran from 8 January 1907 to 16 July 1909. He was the sixth shah of the Qajar dynasty. Biography Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar ...abolished the constitution and bombarded the parliament in 1908 with Russian and British support. After the Shah's victory and dissolvement of the parliament, many constitutionalists were arrested by the Shah's forces.Mirza Jahangir Khan Mirzā Jahāngir Khān (≈1870, or 1875, Shiraz — June 23, 1908, Tehran) ( fa, میرزا جهانگیرخان), also known as Mirzā Jahāngir Khān Shirāzi and Jahāngir-Khān-e Sūr-e-Esrāfil, was an Iranian writer and intellectual, and ..., Malek al-Mutakallemin, Sayyid Jamal al-Din Va'iz, Mirza Ebrahim Tabrizi, Ahmad Ruhul-qudus and Qazi Ardaqi were arrested, tortured and killed. The period from the destruction of the first parliament under the orders of Mohammad Ali shah on June 23, 1908, to the Shah's deposition on July 16, 1909, is called as the period of “Lesser Despotism” or “Minor Tyranny” (Persian Persian may refer to: * People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language ** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples ** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...: استبداد صغیر) in the history of modern Iran. The shah repeatedly delayed the elections under the guise of fighting sedition and defending Islam. Mohammad Ali shah wrote letters to the sources of emulation in Najaf, seeking their support against the perceived conspiracies of Babis and other heretics. However the trio, Akhund Khurasani, Mirza Tehrani and Abdullah Mazandarani responded by affirming the religious legitimacy of democracy and advised the shah to work within the constitutional framework in improving the conditions of society and defending the country against colonial influence. Nuri, on the other hand, sided with the coup and tried to convince people that democracy had failed and that closure of parliament was necessary to save Islam.
Call for restoration of democracy
Akhund Khurasani responded to Muhammad Ali Shah's coup by calling his rule a “bloody tyranny” and asking people to stop paying taxes and fight the tyrant. In a statement, co-signed by the other two jurists, he said: The Shah was ousted on July 16, 1909 and democracy was restored.
Death
He died of astroke A stroke is a medical condition in which poor blood flow to the brain causes cell death. There are two main types of stroke: ischemic, due to lack of blood flow, and hemorrhagic, due to bleeding. Both cause parts of the brain to stop functionin ..., when he aimed to leave Iraq for Iran in order to support constitutionalists' resistance to the Anglo-Russian invasion in 1911.
Legacy
He authored many books hence called "the Renewer" (''al-mujaddid'') of ''Usul al-fiqh''. Kifayat al-usul, Khorasani's most important book, is taught in advanced classes at the shia seminaries as the main text on the philosophy of religious law. It has received "hundreds of commentaries". The book suppressed ''Qvanin al-Osul'' by Qummi, one of seminary main texts taught at higher level. Also, he wrote one of the most important commentaries on Shaykh Morteza al-Ansari's ''Durar al-fawaid fi sharh al-Faraid'', also taught alongside Kifayat al-usul. Among his prominent students were Ayatullah Mirza Hussein Naini, Ayatullah Muhammad Hossein Qaravi, Aqa Zia ud-Din Araqi, Shaikh Abdul Karim Ha'iri,Aqa Najafi Quchani Seyyed Mohammad Hassan Hosseini Quchani ( fa, سید محمد حسن حسینی قوچانی), known as Aqa Najafi Quchani ( fa, آقا نجفی قوچانی) was one of the Islamic scholars and jurists of the fourteenth century AH. He was one ..., Sayyid Husayn Burujurdi, Sayyid Muhsin al-Hakim, Aqa Buzurg Tehrani, Ayatullah Ismail Mahallati, Sayyid Muhammad-Taqi Fakhr-i Da'i Gilani, Ayatullah Mohsin Alaa al Mohadithien, Mirza Abdul-Hassan Mishkini, Shaykh Muhammad Hussayn Kashif al-Ghita’, Shaykh Muhammad Jawad Ballaghi, Aqa Shaykh Muhammad Ali Shahabadi, Sayyid Muhsin Amin ‘Amili, Aqa Sayyid Abdul-Hassan Isfahani, Ayatullah Hussayn Qumi, Sayyid Muhammad Taqi Khunsari, and the famous Sayyid Hassan Mudarris.
See also
*Mirza Husayn Tehrani Ayatollah Mirza Husayn Khalili Tehrani (Persian: میرزا حسین خلیلی تهرانی) was an Usuli Shi'a jurist and among the four sources of emulation at the time of Iranian Constitutional Revolution. He worked alongside Akhund Khurasan ...* Abdullah Mazandarani *Muhammad Hossein Naini Grand Ayatollah Sheikh Mohammad-Hossein Naini Gharavi ( fa, ; May 25, 1860 – August 14, 1936) was Iranian Shia marja'. His father Mirza Abdol Rahim and grandfather Haji Mirza Saeed, both one were Sheikhs of Nain and Mohammad Hussein proved him ...*Mirza Ali Aqa Tabrizi Mirza Ali-Aqa Tabrizi, () known as Thiqat-ul-Islam Tabrizi (; January 19, 1861 - December 31, 1911) was an Iranian nationalist who lived in Tabriz, Iran, during the Iranian Constitutional Revolution and was a reformist Shia cleric. He was hanged b ...*Mirza Sayyed Mohammad Tabatabai Mirza Seyyed Mohammad Tabatabai (Persian: آیت الله میرزا سید محمد طباطبائی, also known as Mohammad Sang-e-laji,;''Sang-e-laj'' (سَنگِلَج) is one of the neighbourhoods of the Old Tehran, not far from the Grand Baz ...*Seyyed Abdollah Behbahani Seyyed Abdollah Behbahani ( fa, سیدعبدالله بهبهانی, 1840–1910) was a Shi'a theologian and a prominent leader of the constitutional movement. He was born in Najaf and was educated by scholars such as Morteza Ansari. During the c ...*Iranian Constitutional Revolution The Persian Constitutional Revolution ( fa, مشروطیت, Mashrūtiyyat, or ''Enghelāb-e Mashrūteh''), also known as the Constitutional Revolution of Iran, took place between 1905 and 1911. The revolution led to the establishment of a par ...* Intellectual movements in Iran *Mirza Malkom Khan Mirza Melkum Khan - Joseph (Hovsep) Melkumyan (1834–1908), also spelled as ''Melkum Khan'', was an Iranian modernist writer, diplomat, and publicist. He is known for his social reform efforts, as well as for being the first Christian to adopt th ...* Kifayat al-Usul
References
Bibliography
AḴŪND ḴORĀSĀNĪ
Encyclopædia Iranica ''Encyclopædia Iranica'' is a project whose goal is to create a comprehensive and authoritative English language encyclopedia about the history, culture, and civilization of Iranian peoples from prehistory to modern times. Scope The ''Encycl ...* * * * * * *
External links
ARABIC BOOKS BY KHURASANI, MUHAMMAD KAZIM
Bilingual Lecture Series on Iran: Shi’ism and Popular Leadership in the Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 1906-1911: The Case of Muhammad Kazim Khurasani
Khurāsānī,_Muḥammad_Kāẓim_1839_or_1840-1911,_WorldCat
.html" ;"title="WorldCat">Khurāsānī, Muḥammad Kāẓim 1839 or 1840-1911, WorldCat
">WorldCat">Khurāsānī, Muḥammad Kāẓim 1839 or 1840-1911, WorldCat
* (in Persian) {{DEFAULTSORT:Khorasani, Mohammad Kazem 1839 births 1911 deaths 19th-century Iranian politicians Iranian writers People of the Persian Constitutional Revolution Iranian grand ayatollahs Burials at Imam Ali Mosque 20th-century Iranian politicians Iranian emigrants to the Ottoman Empire Persian Constitutional Revolution Iranian democracy movements 20th-century revolutions Anti-monarchists Iranian revolutionaries Iraqi grand ayatollahs Islamic democracy activists Iranian Shia clerics