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Moles are small mammals adapted to a subterranean lifestyle. They have cylindrical bodies, velvety fur, very small, inconspicuous eyes and ears, reduced hindlimbs, and short, powerful forelimbs with large paws adapted for digging. The word “mole” refers to any species in the family Talpidae, which means “mole” in Latin. Moles are found in most parts of North America, Europe and Asia. Moles may be viewed as pests to gardeners, but they provide positive contributions to soil, gardens, and ecosystem, including soil aeration, feeding on slugs and small creatures that eat plant roots, and providing prey for other wildlife. They eat earthworms and other small invertebrates in the soil.


Terminology

In Middle English, moles were known as ''moldwarp''. The expression "don't make a mountain out of a molehill" (which means "exaggerating problems") was first recorded in Tudor times. By the era of
Early Modern English Early Modern English or Early New English (sometimes abbreviated EModE, EMnE, or ENE) is the stage of the English language from the beginning of the Tudor period to the English Interregnum and Restoration, or from the transition from Middl ...
, the mole was also known in English as ''mouldywarp'', a word having cognates in other
Germanic languages The Germanic languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family spoken natively by a population of about 515 million people mainly in Europe, North America, Oceania and Southern Africa. The most widely spoken Germanic language, ...
such as German (''Maulwurf''), and Danish, Norwegian,
Swedish Swedish or ' may refer to: Anything from or related to Sweden, a country in Northern Europe. Or, specifically: * Swedish language, a North Germanic language spoken primarily in Sweden and Finland ** Swedish alphabet, the official alphabet used by ...
and Icelandic (''muldvarp'', ''moldvarp'', ''mullvad'', ''moldvarpa''), where ''muld/mull/mold'' refers to soil and ''varp/vad/varpa'' refers to throwing, hence "one who throws soil" or "dirt-tosser". Male moles are called "boars", females are called "sows". A group of moles is called a "labour".


Characteristics


Underground breathing

Moles have been found to tolerate higher levels of carbon dioxide than other mammals, because their blood cells have a special form of
hemoglobin Hemoglobin (haemoglobin BrE) (from the Greek word αἷμα, ''haîma'' 'blood' + Latin ''globus'' 'ball, sphere' + ''-in'') (), abbreviated Hb or Hgb, is the iron-containing oxygen-transport metalloprotein present in red blood cells (erythrocyte ...
that has a higher affinity to
oxygen Oxygen is the chemical element with the symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the chalcogen group in the periodic table, a highly reactive nonmetal, and an oxidizing agent that readily forms oxides with most elements as we ...
than other forms. In addition, moles use oxygen more effectively by reusing the exhaled air, and can survive in low-oxygen environments such as burrows.


Extra thumbs

Moles have polydactyl forepaws; each has an extra thumb (also known as a prepollex) next to the regular
thumb The thumb is the first digit of the hand, next to the index finger. When a person is standing in the medical anatomical position (where the palm is facing to the front), the thumb is the outermost digit. The Medical Latin English noun for thu ...
. While the mole's other digits have multiple joints, the prepollex has a single, sickle-shaped bone that develops later and differently from the other fingers during
embryogenesis An embryo is an initial stage of development of a multicellular organism. In organisms that reproduce sexually, embryonic development is the part of the life cycle that begins just after fertilization of the female egg cell by the male sperm ...
from a transformed sesamoid bone in the wrist, independently evolved but similar to the
giant panda The giant panda (''Ailuropoda melanoleuca''), also known as the panda bear (or simply the panda), is a bear species endemic to China. It is characterised by its bold black-and-white coat and rotund body. The name "giant panda" is sometimes u ...
thumb. This supernumerary digit is species-specific, as it is not present in shrews, the mole's closest relatives. Androgenic steroids are known to affect the growth and formation of bones, and a connection is possible between this species-specific trait and the "male" genital apparatus in female moles of many mole species ( gonads with testicular and ovary tissues).


Diet

Moles are
omnivore An omnivore () is an animal that has the ability to eat and survive on both plant and animal matter. Obtaining energy and nutrients from plant and animal matter, omnivores digest carbohydrates, protein, fat, and fiber, and metabolize the nut ...
s, but their diet does primarily consist of
earthworm An earthworm is a terrestrial invertebrate that belongs to the phylum Annelida. They exhibit a tube-within-a-tube body plan; they are externally segmented with corresponding internal segmentation; and they usually have setae on all segments. ...
s and other small invertebrates found in the soil. The mole runs are in reality "worm traps", the mole sensing when a worm falls into the tunnel and quickly running along to kill and eat it. Because their saliva contains a toxin that can paralyze earthworms, moles are able to store their still-living prey for later consumption. They construct special underground "larders" for just this purpose; researchers have discovered such larders with over a thousand earthworms in them. Before eating earthworms, moles pull them between their squeezed paws to force the collected earth and dirt out of the worm's gut. The star-nosed mole can detect, catch and eat food faster than the human eye can follow.


Breeding

Breeding season for a mole depends on species, but is generally from February through to May. Males search for females by letting out high-pitched squeals and tunneling through foreign areas. The gestation period of the Eastern (North America) mole (Scalopus aquaticus) is approximately 42 days. Three to five young are born, mainly in March and early April. Townsend moles mate in February and March, and the 2–4 young are born in March and April after a gestation period of about 1 month. The Townsend mole is endangered in the United States and Canada. Coast moles produce a litter of 2–5 pups between March and April. Pups leave the nest 33 days after birth to find territories of their own. They disperse from their mother’s range around 5–6 weeks and they become sexually mature during the spring following their birth.


Social structure

Allegedly moles are solitary creatures, coming together only to mate. Territories may overlap, but moles avoid each other and males may fight fiercely if they meet.


Classification

The family Talpidae contains all the true moles and some of their close relatives. Those species called "
shrew mole A shrew mole or shrew-mole is a mole that resembles a shrew. Species with this name include: * Five species in the subfamily Uropsilinae, or "shrew-like moles", native to China: ** Equivalent teeth shrew mole (''Uropsilus aequodonenia'') ** Ander ...
s" represent an intermediate form between the moles and their shrew ancestors, and as such may not be fully described by the article. On the other hand, there is no
monophyletic In cladistics for a group of organisms, monophyly is the condition of being a clade—that is, a group of taxa composed only of a common ancestor (or more precisely an ancestral population) and all of its lineal descendants. Monophyletic ...
relation between the mole and the
hedgehog A hedgehog is a spiny mammal of the subfamily Erinaceinae, in the eulipotyphlan family Erinaceidae. There are seventeen species of hedgehog in five genera found throughout parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and in New Zealand by introduct ...
, both of which were previously placed in the now-abandoned order Insectivora. As a result, Eulipotyphla (shrew-like animals, including moles), previously within Insectivora, has been elevated to the level of an order. * Subfamily Scalopinae: New World moles ** Tribe Condylurini Star-nosed mole (North America) *** Genus '' Condylura'': Star-nosed mole (the sole species) ** Tribe Scalopini New World moles *** Genus '' Alpiscaptulus'': Medog mole (China) ***Genus '' Parascalops'': Hairy-tailed mole (northeastern North America) *** Genus '' Scalopus'': Eastern mole (North America) *** Genus '' Scapanulus'': Gansu mole (China) *** Genus '' Scapanus'': Western North American moles (five species) * Subfamily Talpinae: Old World moles, desmans, and shrew moles **Tribe Desmanini ***Genus '' Desmana:'' Russian desman ***Genus '' Galemys:'' Pyrenean desman **Tribe
Talpini Talpini is a tribe of mammals known as Old World Moles. It is a division of the subfamily Talpinae. This tribe contains the following genera and species: * Tribe Talpini ** Genus '' Euroscaptor'' *** Greater Chinese mole, ''E. grandis'' * ...
: Old World moles *** Genus '' Euroscaptor'': Ten Asian species *** Genus '' Mogera'' Nine species from Japan, Korea, and eastern China *** Genus ''
Parascaptor The white-tailed mole (''Parascaptor leucura'') is a species of mammal in the family Talpidae. It is found in Bangladesh, China, India, and Myanmar Myanmar, ; UK pronunciations: US pronunciations incl. . Note: Wikipedia's IPA convention ...
'': White-tailed mole, southern Asia *** Genus ''
Scaptochirus The short-faced mole (''Scaptochirus moschatus'') is a species of mammal in the family Talpidae. It is the only species within the genus ''Scaptochirus''. It is endemic to China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is ...
'':
Short-faced mole The short-faced mole (''Scaptochirus moschatus'') is a species of mammal in the family Talpidae. It is the only species within the genus ''Scaptochirus''. It is endemic to China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is ...
, China *** Genus '' Talpa'' Thirteen species, Europe and western Asia ** Tribe
Scaptonychini The long-tailed mole (''Scaptonyx fusicauda'') is a species of mole in the family Talpidae. It is found in China, Vietnam and Myanmar. Taxonomy The species is the only species in the genus ''Scaptonyx'' and the tribe Scaptonychini. At least two ...
Long-tailed mole *** Genus '' Scaptonyx'': Long-tailed mole (China and Myanmar (Burma)) ** Tribe Urotrichini: Japanese shrew moles *** Genus '' Dymecodon'': True’s shrew mole *** Genus ''
Urotrichus ''Urotrichus'' is a genus of talpid that contains a single living species, the Japanese shrew mole ''(Urotrichus talpoides)''. Two fossil species ('' Urotrichus dolichochir'' and '' Urotrichus giganeus'') are also known. ''Urotrichus talpoides' ...
'': Japanese shrew mole ** Tribe
Neurotrichini Neurotrichini is a tribe within the subfamily Talpinae of the mole family. It includes the living genus '' Neurotrichus'' with a single living species, the American shrew-mole (''Neurotrichus gibbsii''). While today restricted to the New Wor ...
New World shrew moles *** Genus '' Neurotrichus'': American shrew mole (US Pacific Northwest, southwest British Columbia) * Subfamily Uropsilinae: Asian shrew moles ** Genus ''
Uropsilus The shrew moles or shrew-like moles (''Uropsilus'') are shrew-like members of Talpidae, the mole family of mammals endemic to the forested, high-alpine region bordering China, Myanmar, and Vietnam. They possess a long snout, a long slender tail, ...
'' Five species in China, Bhutan, and Myanmar (Burma)


Other "moles"

While many groups of burrowing animals ( pink fairy armadillos, tuco-tucos, mole rats, mole crickets, and mole crabs) have developed close physical similarities with moles due to
convergent evolution Convergent evolution is the independent evolution of similar features in species of different periods or epochs in time. Convergent evolution creates analogous structures that have similar form or function but were not present in the last com ...
, two of these are so similar to true moles, they are commonly called and thought of as "moles" in common English, although they are completely unrelated to true moles or to each other. These are the golden moles of southern Africa and the marsupial moles of Australia. While difficult to distinguish from each other, they are most easily distinguished from true moles by shovel-like patches on their noses, which they use in tandem with their abbreviated forepaws to swim through sandy soils.


Golden moles

The golden moles belong to the same branch on the phylogenetic tree as the tenrecs, called Tenrecomorpha, which, in turn, stem from a main branch of placental mammals called the Afrosoricida. This means that they share a closer common ancestor with such existing afrosoricids as
elephant Elephants are the largest existing land animals. Three living species are currently recognised: the African bush elephant, the African forest elephant, and the Asian elephant. They are the only surviving members of the family Elephantidae ...
s,
manatee Manatees (family Trichechidae, genus ''Trichechus'') are large, fully aquatic, mostly herbivorous marine mammals sometimes known as sea cows. There are three accepted living species of Trichechidae, representing three of the four living speci ...
s and aardvarks than they do with other placental mammals, such as true Talpidae moles. * ORDER AFROSORICIDA ** Suborder Tenrecomorpha *** Family Tenrecidae: tenrecs, 34 species in 10 genera ** Suborder Chrysochloridea *** Family Chrysochloridae **** Subfamily Chrysochlorinae ***** Genus '' Carpitalpa'' ******
Arends' golden mole Arends' golden mole (''Carpitalpa arendsi'') is a species of mammal in the family Chrysochloridae. It is found in Mozambique and Zimbabwe. Its natural habitats are temperate forests, subtropical or tropical dry, and moist montane forests, dry ...
(''Carpitalpa arendsi'') ***** Genus '' Chlorotalpa'' ******
Duthie's golden mole Duthie's golden mole (''Chlorotalpa duthieae'') is a species of mammal in the family Chrysochloridae. It is endemic to South Africa. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, moist savanna, temperate grassland, arab ...
(''Chlorotalpa duthieae'') ****** Sclater's golden mole (''Chlorotalpa sclateri'') ***** Genus '' Chrysochloris'' ****** Subgenus ''Chrysochloris'' ******* Cape golden mole (''Chrysochloris asiatica'') *******
Visagie's golden mole Visagie's golden mole (''Chrysochloris visagiei'') is a small, insectivorous mammal of the family Chrysochloridae, the golden moles, endemic to South Africa South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the southernmost ...
(''Chrysochloris visagiei'') ****** Subgenus ''Kilimatalpa'' *******
Stuhlmann's golden mole Stuhlmann's golden mole (''Chrysochloris stuhlmanni'') is a species of mammal in the family Chrysochloridae. It is found in Cameroon, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical ...
(''Chrysochloris stuhlmanni'') ***** Genus '' Chrysospalax'' ******
Giant golden mole The giant golden mole (''Chrysospalax trevelyani'') is a small mammal found in Africa. At in length, it is the largest of the golden mole species. The mole has dark, glossy brown fur; the name ''golden'' comes from the Greek word for green-gold, ...
(''Chrysospalax trevelyani'') ******
Rough-haired golden mole The rough-haired golden mole (''Chrysospalax villosus'') is a species of mammal that live mostly below ground. They have shiny coats of dense fur and a streamlined, formless appearance. They have no visible eyes or ears; in fact, they are blin ...
(''Chrysospalax villosus'') ***** Genus '' Cryptochloris'' ****** De Winton's golden mole (''Cryptochloris wintoni'') ****** Van Zyl's golden mole (''Cryptochloris zyli'') ***** Genus '' Eremitalpa'' ****** Grant's golden mole (''Eremitalpa granti'') **** Subfamily Amblysominae ***** Genus '' Amblysomus'' ****** Fynbos golden mole (''Amblysomus corriae'') ****** Hottentot golden mole (''Amblysomus hottentotus'') ****** Marley's golden mole (''Amblysomus marleyi'') ****** Robust golden mole (''Amblysomus robustus'') ****** Highveld golden mole (''Amblysomus septentrionalis'') ***** Genus '' Calcochloris'' ****** Subgenus ''Huetia'' ******* Congo golden mole (''Calcochloris leucorhinus'') ****** Subgenus ''Calcochloris'' ******* Yellow golden mole (''Calcochloris obtusirostris'') ****** Subgenus ''
incertae sedis ' () or ''problematica'' is a term used for a taxonomic group where its broader relationships are unknown or undefined. Alternatively, such groups are frequently referred to as "enigmatic taxa". In the system of open nomenclature, uncertain ...
'' ******* Somali golden mole (''Calcochloris tytonis'') ***** Genus ''
Neamblysomus ''Neamblysomus'' is a genus of golden moles containing two species: *Gunning's golden mole (''Neamblysomus gunningi'') *Juliana's golden mole Juliana's golden mole (''Neamblysomus julianae'') is a golden mole endemic to South Africa. It is li ...
'' ****** Juliana's golden mole (''Neamblysomus julianae'') ****** Gunning's golden mole (''Neamblysomus gunningi'')


Marsupial moles

As marsupials, these moles are even more distantly related to true talpid moles than golden moles are, both of which belong to the Eutheria, or placental mammals. This means that they are more closely related to such existing Australian marsupials as
kangaroo Kangaroos are four marsupials from the family Macropodidae (macropods, meaning "large foot"). In common use the term is used to describe the largest species from this family, the red kangaroo, as well as the antilopine kangaroo, eastern ...
s or
koala The koala or, inaccurately, koala bear (''Phascolarctos cinereus''), is an arboreal herbivorous marsupial native to Australia. It is the only extant representative of the family Phascolarctidae and its closest living relatives are the ...
s, and even to a lesser extent to American marsupials, such as
opossum Opossums () are members of the marsupial order Didelphimorphia () endemic to the Americas. The largest order of marsupials in the Western Hemisphere, it comprises 93 species in 18 genera. Opossums originated in South America and entered Nort ...
s, than they are to placental mammals, such as golden or Talpidae moles. Class Mammalia *Subclass Prototheria: monotremes ( echidnas and the platypus) *Subclass Theriiformes: live-bearing mammals and their prehistoric relatives **Infraclass Holotheria: modern live-bearing mammals and their prehistoric relatives ***Supercohort Theria: live-bearing mammals ****Cohort Marsupialia: marsupials *****Magnorder Ameridelphia: New World marsupials ****** Order Didelphimorphia (opossums) ****** Order Paucituberculata (shrew opossums) *****Superorder Australidelphia Australian marsupials ****** Order
Dasyuromorphia Dasyuromorphia (, meaning "hairy tail" in Greek) is an order comprising most of the Australian carnivorous marsupials, including quolls, dunnarts, the numbat, the Tasmanian devil, and the thylacine. In Australia, the exceptions include the ...
(the Tasmanian devil, the numbat, thylacines, quolls, dunnarts and others) ****** Order
Peramelemorphia The order Peramelemorphia includes the bandicoots and bilbies; it equates approximately to the mainstream of marsupial omnivores. All members of the order are endemic to the twin land masses of Australia-New Guinea and most have the characteris ...
(bilbies, bandicoots and rainforest bandicoots) ****** Order Diprotodontia (koalas, wombats, diprotodonts, possums, cuscuses, sugar gliders, kangaroos and others) ****** Order Notoryctemorphia (marsupial moles and closely related extinct families of marsupials) ******* Family Notoryctidae (living and extinct marsupial mole genera) ******** Genus Notoryctes (only genus of marsupial moles with living species) ********* Species '' Notoryctes typhlops'' (southern marsupial mole) ********* Species '' Notoryctes caurinus'' (northern marsupial mole)


Interaction with humans


Pelts

Moles' pelts have a velvety texture not found in surface animals. Surface-dwelling animals tend to have longer fur with a natural tendency for the nap to lie in a particular direction, but to facilitate their burrowing lifestyle, mole pelts are short and very dense and have no particular direction to the nap. This makes it easy for moles to move backwards underground, as their fur is not "brushed the wrong way". The leather is extremely soft and supple. Queen Alexandra, the wife of Edward VII of the United Kingdom, ordered a mole-fur garment to start a fashion that would create a demand for mole fur, thereby turning what had been a serious pest problem in
Scotland Scotland (, ) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Covering the northern third of the island of Great Britain, mainland Scotland has a border with England to the southeast and is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean to th ...
into a lucrative industry for the country. Hundreds of pelts are cut into rectangles and sewn together to make a coat. The natural color is taupe, (derived from the French noun ''taupe'' meaning mole) but it is readily dyed any color.


Pest status - extermination and humane options

Moles are considered agricultural
pests PESTS was an anonymous American activist group formed in 1986 to critique racism, tokenism, and exclusion in the art world. PESTS produced newsletters, posters, and other print material highlighting examples of discrimination in gallery represent ...
in some countries, while in others, such as
Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG),, is a country in Central Europe. It is the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany lies between the Baltic and North Sea to the north and the Alps to the sou ...
, they are a protected species, but may be killed with a permit. Problems cited as caused by moles include contamination of silage with soil particles, making it unpalatable to
livestock Livestock are the domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to provide labor and produce diversified products for consumption such as meat, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool. The term is sometimes used to refer solely to anima ...
, the covering of pasture with fresh soil reducing its size and yield, damage to agricultural machinery by the exposure of stones, damage to young plants through disturbance of the soil, weed invasion of pasture through exposure of freshly tilled soil, and damage to drainage systems and watercourses. Other species such as weasels and
vole Voles are small rodents that are relatives of lemmings and hamsters, but with a stouter body; a longer, hairy tail; a slightly rounder head; smaller eyes and ears; and differently formed molars (high-crowned with angular cusps instead of lo ...
s may use mole tunnels to gain access to enclosed areas or plant roots. Moles burrow and raise molehills, killing parts of lawns. They can undermine plant roots, indirectly causing damage or death. Moles do not eat plant roots. Moles are controlled with traps such as mole-catchers, smoke bombs, and poisons such as calcium carbide, which produces acetylene gas to drive moles away. Strychnine was also used for this purpose in the past. The most common method now is Phostoxin or Talunex tablets. They contain aluminium phosphide and are inserted in the mole tunnels, where they turn into phosphine gas (not be confused with
phosgene Phosgene is the organic chemical compound with the formula COCl2. It is a toxic, colorless gas; in low concentrations, its musty odor resembles that of freshly cut hay or grass. Phosgene is a valued and important industrial building block, es ...
gas). More recently, high-grade
nitrogen Nitrogen is the chemical element with the symbol N and atomic number 7. Nitrogen is a nonmetal and the lightest member of group 15 of the periodic table, often called the pnictogens. It is a common element in the universe, estimated at seve ...
gas has proven effective at killing moles, with the added advantage of having no polluting effect to the environment. Other common defensive measures include cat litter and
blood meal Blood meal is a dry, inert powder made from blood, used as a high-nitrogen organic fertilizer and a high protein animal feed. N = 13.25%, P = 1.0%, K = 0.6%. It is one of the highest non-synthetic sources of nitrogen. It usually comes from cattle ...
, to repel the mole, or smoking its burrow. Devices are also sold to trap the mole in its burrow, when one sees the "mole hill" moving and therefore knows where the animal is, and then stabbing it. Other humane options are also possible including humane traps that capture the mole alive so it may be transported elsewhere. In many contexts including ordinary gardens, the damage caused by moles to lawns is mostly visual, and it is possible instead of extermination to simply remove the earth of the molehills as they appear, leaving their permanent galleries for the moles to continue their existence underground. However, when the tunnels are near the surface in soft ground or after heavy rain, they may collapse, leaving (small) unsightly furrows in the lawn.


Meat

William Buckland, known for eating every animal he could, opined that mole meat tasted vile.


The mole in prophetic literature

According to the first prophecy of the 'Six Kings to follow King John', written about 1312, the six kings could be likened to animals. The sixth king after John would be the
Mouldwarp A mouldwarp is an ancient dialect word for a European mole, mole (''Talpa europaea''). However, a mediaeval prophecy declared that the sixth King of England after John, King of England, King John would be the 'Mouldwarp', a proud, contemptible and ...
or Mole, who would be proud, contemptible and cowardly, having a skin like a goat. The prophecy gained popularity during the 14th century and was used by the enemies of Henry IV alluded to by Shakespeare in Henry IV, Part 1. It was again used during the disturbances leading to the Pilgrimage of Grace 1535-7 but this time was applied by the rebels to
Henry VIII Henry VIII (28 June 149128 January 1547) was King of England from 22 April 1509 until his death in 1547. Henry is best known for his six marriages, and for his efforts to have his first marriage (to Catherine of Aragon) annulled. His disagr ...
.


See also

* Molehill *
Moleskin Moleskin is a heavy cotton fabric, woven and then shorn to create a short, soft pile on one side. The feel and appearance of its nap is suede-like, less plush than velour and more like felt or chamois. The word is also used for clothing made fr ...
*
Molecatcher A molecatcher (also called a mowdy-catcher) is a person who traps or kills moles in places where they are considered a nuisance to crops, lawns, sportsfields or gardens. History of molecatching Roman times Excavations of Ancient Roman sites h ...


References


External links


UK Government DEFRA paper on control the European mole

British Traditional Molecatchers Register
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mole (Animal) Agricultural pests Body plans Mammal common names de:Maulwürfe eo:Talpo