Mikayel Nalbandian ( hy, Միքայել Նալբանդյան; ) was a
Russian-Armenian writer, poet,
political theorist
A political theorist is someone who engages in constructing or evaluating political theory, including political philosophy. Theorists may be Academia, academics or independent scholars. Here the most notable political theorists are categorized b ...
and activist.
Nalbandian was born in
Nakhichevan-on-Don __NOTOC__
Nakhichevan-on-Don (russian: Нахичевань-на-Дону, ''Naxičevan’-na-Donu''), also known as New Nakhichevan ( hy, Նոր Նախիջևան, ''Nor Naxiĵevan''; as opposed to the "old" Nakhichevan), was an Armenian-populate ...
, an Armenian town in southern Russia, and traveled extensively, although he visited Armenia itself only once. A
radical intellectual, Nalbandian was an avid advocate of
secularism
Secularism is the principle of seeking to conduct human affairs based on secular, naturalistic considerations.
Secularism is most commonly defined as the separation of religion from civil affairs and the state, and may be broadened to a sim ...
and
anti-clericalism, the use of
modern Armenian
Modern Armenian ( hy, աշխարհաբար, ''ashkharhabar'' or ''ašxarhabar'', literally the "secular/lay language") is the modern vernacular (vulgar) form of the Armenian language. Although it first appeared in the 14th century, it was not until ...
(as opposed to
classical Armenian) and a vocal critic of the conservative clergy of the
Armenian Apostolic Church
, native_name_lang = hy
, icon = Armenian Apostolic Church logo.svg
, icon_width = 100px
, icon_alt =
, image = Էջմիածնի_Մայր_Տաճար.jpg
, imagewidth = 250px
, a ...
. He also espoused
anti-Catholicism. Inspired by the
Enlightenment and the
Italian unification, Nalbandian advocated reform,
cultural nationalism
Cultural nationalism is nationalism in which the nation is defined by a shared culture and a common language, rather than on the concepts of common ancestry or race.
Cultural nationalism does not tend to manifest itself in independent movements, ...
and
agrarianism among Armenians. In his later years he was influenced by Russian radicals such as
Alexander Herzen
Alexander Ivanovich Herzen (russian: Алекса́ндр Ива́нович Ге́рцен, translit=Alexándr Ivánovich Gértsen; ) was a Russian writer and thinker known as the "father of Russian socialism" and one of the main fathers of agra ...
and
Nikolay Chernyshevsky
Nikolay Gavrilovich Chernyshevsky ( – ) was a Russian literary and social critic, journalist, novelist, democrat, and socialist philosopher, often identified as a utopian socialist and leading theoretician of Russian nihilism. He was ...
. For his association with them, he was persecuted and died in exile at 37.
A champion of
modernism
Modernism is both a philosophy, philosophical and arts movement that arose from broad transformations in Western world, Western society during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The movement reflected a desire for the creation of new fo ...
, he is seen as a follower of
Khachatur Abovian
Khachatur Abovian ( hy, Խաչատուր Աբովյան, Khach’atur Abovyan; (disappeared)) was an Armenian writer and national public figure of the early 19th century who mysteriously vanished in 1848 and was eventually presumed dead. He was ...
. In turn, he influenced many others, including the novelist
Raffi
Raffi Cavoukian, ( hy, Րաֆֆի, born July 8, 1948), known professionally by the mononym Raffi, is a Canadian singer-lyricist and author of Armenian descent born in Egypt, best known for his children's music. He developed his career as a " ...
, Armenian nationalist revolutionaries (especially the
Dashnaks
The Armenian Revolutionary Federation ( hy, Հայ Յեղափոխական Դաշնակցութիւն, ՀՅԴ ( classical spelling), abbr. ARF or ARF-D) also known as Dashnaktsutyun (collectively referred to as Dashnaks for short), is an Armenian ...
), and Armenian Marxists, such as
Alexander Miasnikian
Alexander Fyodori Miasnikian or Myasnikov; russian: Алекса́ндр Фёдорович Мяснико́в. Also spelled Myasnikyan. His patronymic is variously given as Asatur, Astvatsatur, Fyodor and Bogdan. (28 January February1886 – ...
. Nalbandian was widely revered in the Soviet period, while Dashnaks adopted "
Mer Hayrenik
"" ( hy, Մեր Հայրենիք}, ; "Our Fatherland") is the national anthem of Armenia. It was arranged by Barsegh Kanachyan; the lyrics were written by Mikayel Nalbandian. First adopted in 1918 as the anthem of the short-lived First Republic ...
", based on his poem "The Song of an Italian Girl", as the anthem of the
First Republic of Armenia in 1918. It was re-adopted by independent Armenia in 1991. Another poem by Nalbandian, glorifying
freedom, has become a celebrated anthem since it was written in 1859.
Life
Early years
Mikayel Nalbandian was born on 14 November (2 November in
Old Style
Old Style (O.S.) and New Style (N.S.) indicate dating systems before and after a calendar change, respectively. Usually, this is the change from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar as enacted in various European countries between 158 ...
), 1829 in
Nakhichevan-on-Don __NOTOC__
Nakhichevan-on-Don (russian: Нахичевань-на-Дону, ''Naxičevan’-na-Donu''), also known as New Nakhichevan ( hy, Նոր Նախիջևան, ''Nor Naxiĵevan''; as opposed to the "old" Nakhichevan), was an Armenian-populate ...
(New Nakhichevan), an Armenian-populated town near
Rostov-on-Don founded by
Crimean Armenians in 1779, after they were relocated by
Catherine the Great. His father, Ghazar (or Lazar, d. 1864), and earlier ancestors were
farrier
A farrier is a specialist in equine hoof care, including the trimming and balancing of horses' hooves and the placing of shoes on their hooves, if necessary. A farrier combines some blacksmith's skills (fabricating, adapting, and adj ...
s (and/or
blacksmith
A blacksmith is a metalsmith who creates objects primarily from wrought iron or steel, but sometimes from other metals, by forging the metal, using tools to hammer, bend, and cut (cf. tinsmith). Blacksmiths produce objects such as gates, gr ...
s), from which they got their last name, which originates from Persian ''
nalband''. He first studied, from 1837 to 1845, at the private school of Father
Gabriel Patkanian, a pioneer of modern Armenian education. He was taught Russian and
French and was exposed to Western literature and science. Patkanian's school was shut down by
Catholicos Nerses Ashtaraketsi :''There was also a Caucasian Albanian anti-Catholicos Nerses V, who ruled in 1706–1736.''
Nerses V ( hy, Ներսես Ե Աշտարակեցի, ) (1770 – February 13, 1857), served as the Catholicos of the Armenian Apostolic Church between ...
in October 1845. Nerses and
Harutiun Khalibian, the pro-clerical mayor of Nakhichevan, believed Patkanian went too far by promoting secular subjects at his school.
From July 1848 to July 1853 Nalbandian worked as the secretary of Archbishop Matteos Vehapetian, the
primate
Primates are a diverse order of mammals. They are divided into the strepsirrhines, which include the lemurs, galagos, and lorisids, and the haplorhines, which include the tarsiers and the simians ( monkeys and apes, the latter including ...
of the diocese of New Nakhichevan and
Bessarabia, seated in
Kishinev, in modern
Moldova
Moldova ( , ; ), officially the Republic of Moldova ( ro, Republica Moldova), is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe. It is bordered by Romania to the west and Ukraine to the north, east, and south. The unrecognised state of Transnistr ...
. During those years he was mostly based in Kishnev, but regularly visited his hometown and
Odessa,
Kherson, and
Crimea
Crimea, crh, Къырым, Qırım, grc, Κιμμερία / Ταυρική, translit=Kimmería / Taurikḗ ( ) is a peninsula in Ukraine, on the northern coast of the Black Sea, that has been occupied by Russia since 2014. It has a pop ...
for health treatment. During this period, he was known as a ''dpir'', a low-level rank in the Armenian church akin to a clerk or
deacon
A deacon is a member of the diaconate, an office in Christian churches that is generally associated with service of some kind, but which varies among theological and denominational traditions. Major Christian churches, such as the Catholic Chur ...
. For his liberal writings, he incurred the enmity of the church authorities. Catholicos Nerses developed an enmity towards Nalbandian for his alleged immoral writings. He was forced to flee Kishnev and New Nakhichevan to avoid religious persecution.
Moscow
![Hyusisapayl header](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Hyusisapayl_header.png)
Nalbandian thereafter abandoned his plans to become a priest, and moved to Moscow in late July 1853. In October 1853 he began teaching the Armenian language at the
Lazarev Institute of Oriental Languages
The Lazarev Institute of Oriental Languages, ( hy, Լազարևի արևելյան լեզուների ինստիտուտ) established in 1815, was a school specializing in orientalism, with a particular focus on that of Armenia, and was the princi ...
in Moscow, after receiving a certificate from the
Saint Petersburg Imperial University
Saint Petersburg Imperial University (russian: Санкт-Петербургский Императорский университет) was a Russian higher education institution based in Saint Petersburg, one of the twelve Imperial universities ...
. There, he became acquainted with
Stepanos Nazarian. Nalbandian was briefly arrested in Moscow in January 1854 for alleged "illegal activities", prompted by the Catholicos Nerses. He was fired from the Lazarev Institute in September 1854. After twice failing to enter as an regular student, Nalbandian attended the
Imperial Moscow University
Imperial Moscow University was one of the oldest universities of the Russian Empire, established in 1755. It was the first of the twelve imperial universities of the Russian Empire.
History of the University
Ivan Shuvalov and Mikhail Lomonoso ...
from 1854 to 1858 as an auditing student of medicine.
In 1858 he collaborated with Stepanos Nazarian to establish the monthly journal ''Hyusisapayl'' («Հիւսիսափայլ», ''Northern Lights'' or ''Aurora Borealis''), which was published in Moscow until 1864. It has been characterized as a radical, secular, and anti-clerical journal, which was the earliest public voice of liberalism among Armenians. The name was influenced by the journal ''
Poliarnaia zvezda'' ("Northern Star"), published by Russian radicals Herzen and Ogarev in London. He left the editorial board of the monthly in the fall of 1859; however, his works continued to be published there. Until his departure, Nalbandian authored and translated most of the articles for ''Hyusisapayl''.
From March to July 1859 he traveled throughout Europe, visiting
Warsaw
Warsaw ( pl, Warszawa, ), officially the Capital City of Warsaw,, abbreviation: ''m.st. Warszawa'' is the capital and largest city of Poland. The metropolis stands on the River Vistula in east-central Poland, and its population is officia ...
,
Paris
Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, most populous city of France, with an estimated population of 2,165,423 residents in 2019 in an area of more than 105 km² (41 sq mi), ma ...
,
London
London is the capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary dow ...
, and several
German
German(s) may refer to:
* Germany (of or related to)
** Germania (historical use)
* Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language
** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law
**Ge ...
cities, where he met activists (e.g.
Stepan Voskan, editor of Paris-based ''Arevmutk'') and acquired knowledge about the socio-economic and political conditions of the time. In June 1860 he defended his dissertation at the Faculty of Oriental (Eastern) Studies at the
Saint Petersburg Imperial University
Saint Petersburg Imperial University (russian: Санкт-Петербургский Императорский университет) was a Russian higher education institution based in Saint Petersburg, one of the twelve Imperial universities ...
. His dissertation was titled "On the Study of the Armenian Language in Europe and Scientific Significance of Armenian Literature". To become a ''
candidate
A candidate, or nominee, is the prospective recipient of an award or honor, or a person seeking or being considered for some kind of position; for example:
* to be elected to an office — in this case a candidate selection procedure occurs.
* ...
'', he had earlier passed exams in history, theology and the following languages: Russian, Armenian,
Georgian
Georgian may refer to:
Common meanings
* Anything related to, or originating from Georgia (country)
** Georgians, an indigenous Caucasian ethnic group
** Georgian language, a Kartvelian language spoken by Georgians
**Georgian scripts, three scrip ...
, and
Turkish.
Travels
![Nalbandjan Michael](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Nalbandjan_Michael.jpg)
He subsequently left for
Calcutta
Kolkata (, or , ; also known as Calcutta , List of renamed places in India#West Bengal, the official name until 2001) is the Capital city, capital of the Indian States and union territories of India, state of West Bengal, on the eastern ba ...
, India to arrange the transfer of a large amount willed by an Armenian merchant to the Armenian community of New Nakhichevan. In a July 1860 meeting of some 300 community members of New Nakhichevan, he was elected as the representative to travel to India. His travels lasted from August 1860 to May 1862. They had a significant impact on Nalbandian's views. He visited
Tiflis
Tbilisi ( ; ka, თბილისი ), in some languages still known by its pre-1936 name Tiflis ( ), is the capital and the largest city of Georgia, lying on the banks of the Kura River with a population of approximately 1.5 million pe ...
, where he met
Ghazaros Aghayan
Ghazaros (Lazarus) Aghayan ( hy, Ղազարոս Աղայեան; ) was an Armenian writer, educator, folklorist, historian, linguist and public figure.
Biography
Aghayan was born in Bolnisi village (also known as Bolnis-Khachen), Tiflis Governor ...
and other Armenian intellectuals,
Russian (Eastern) Armenia and
Constantinople
la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه
, alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya ( Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis ( ...
. In his only visit to Russian Armenia, he traveled to
Yerevan
Yerevan ( , , hy, Երևան , sometimes spelled Erevan) is the capital and largest city of Armenia and one of the world's oldest continuously inhabited cities. Situated along the Hrazdan River, Yerevan is the administrative, cultural, and i ...
,
Etchmiadzin
Vagharshapat ( hy, Վաղարշապատ ) is the 4th-largest city in Armenia and the most populous municipal community of Armavir Province, located about west of the capital Yerevan, and north of the closed Turkish-Armenian border. It is comm ...
(the center of the Armenian Church), and the
grave
A grave is a location where a dead body (typically that of a human, although sometimes that of an animal) is buried or interred after a funeral. Graves are usually located in special areas set aside for the purpose of burial, such as grav ...
of
Mesrop Mashtots Mesrob or Mesrop ( hy, Մեսրոպ) is an Armenian given name.
Mesrob / Mesrop may refer to:
* Mesrop Mashtots, also Saint Mesrop, Armenian monk, theologian and linguist. Inventor of the Armenian alphabet
** Mesrop Mashtots Institute of Ancient M ...
, the 5th century inventor of the Armenian alphabet, in
Oshakan
Oshakan ( hy, Օշական) is a major village in the Aragatsotn Province of Armenia located 8 kilometers southwest from Ashtarak. It is well known to historians and pilgrims of the Armenian Apostolic Church as the site of the grave of Mesrop Mas ...
. In Constantinople he met with
Harutiun Svadjian, the editor of ''Meghu'', and other members of the local Armenian
intelligentsia.
On his way to London to obtain official permission for his journey, he visited Italy (
Messina, Sicily,
Naples
Naples (; it, Napoli ; nap, Napule ), from grc, Νεάπολις, Neápolis, lit=new city. is the regional capital of Campania and the third-largest city of Italy, after Rome and Milan, with a population of 909,048 within the city's adminis ...
,
Rome
, established_title = Founded
, established_date = 753 BC
, founder = King Romulus (legendary)
, image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg
, map_caption ...
, and
Genoa
Genoa ( ; it, Genova ; lij, Zêna ). is the capital of the Italian region of Liguria and the sixth-largest city in Italy. In 2015, 594,733 people lived within the city's administrative limits. As of the 2011 Italian census, the Province of ...
), and contacted with independence activists—supporters of
Giuseppe Garibaldi, the leader of the
Italian unification movement. In London, he was confirmed by the Russian embassy and the
British Foreign Office
The Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office (FCDO) is a department of the Government of the United Kingdom. Equivalent to other countries' ministries of foreign affairs, it was created on 2 September 2020 through the merger of the Foreig ...
as New Nakhichevan's representative to arrange the transfer of the will from India. He thereafter traveled to Calcutta via
Marseille
Marseille ( , , ; also spelled in English as Marseilles; oc, Marselha ) is the prefecture of the French department of Bouches-du-Rhône and capital of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region. Situated in the camargue region of southern Fra ...
,
Alexandria
Alexandria ( or ; ar, ٱلْإِسْكَنْدَرِيَّةُ ; grc-gre, Αλεξάνδρεια, Alexándria) is the second largest city in Egypt, and the largest city on the Mediterranean coast. Founded in by Alexander the Great, Alexandri ...
,
Suez
Suez ( ar, السويس '; ) is a seaport city (population of about 750,000 ) in north-eastern Egypt, located on the north coast of the Gulf of Suez (a branch of the Red Sea), near the southern terminus of the Suez Canal, having the same bou ...
,
Aden,
Ceylon, and
Madras. After successfully arranging the transfer of the money of Maseh Babajan, Nalbandian left India in September 1861.
Arrest and death
While in London, he created tight connections with the "London propagandists":
Alexander Herzen
Alexander Ivanovich Herzen (russian: Алекса́ндр Ива́нович Ге́рцен, translit=Alexándr Ivánovich Gértsen; ) was a Russian writer and thinker known as the "father of Russian socialism" and one of the main fathers of agra ...
and
Nikolay Ogarev
Nikolay Platonovich Ogarev (Ogaryov; ; – ) was a Russian poet, historian and political activist. He was deeply critical of the limitations of the Emancipation reform of 1861 claiming that the serfs were not free but had simply exchanged one f ...
, participated in framing the program of the reformist organization
Land and Liberty (''Zemlya i volya''). With
Mikhail Bakunin
Mikhail Alexandrovich Bakunin (; 1814–1876) was a Russian revolutionary anarchist, socialist and founder of collectivist anarchism. He is considered among the most influential figures of anarchism and a major founder of the revolutionary s ...
he searched for means to disseminate ''
Kolokol'' in southern Russia, the Caucasus, and the Ottoman Empire. In Paris he met with
Ivan Turgenev
Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenev (; rus, links=no, Ива́н Серге́евич Турге́невIn Turgenev's day, his name was written ., p=ɪˈvan sʲɪrˈɡʲe(j)ɪvʲɪtɕ tʊrˈɡʲenʲɪf; 9 November 1818 – 3 September 1883 (Old Style dat ...
, and published two political works: "Two lines" (''Erku togh'', 1861) and "Agriculture as the True Way" (Երկրագործութիւնը որպէս ուղիղ ճանապարհ, 1862).
In May 1862 he returned to Petersburg, where he participated in the activities of Land and Liberty along with
Nikolay Chernyshevsky
Nikolay Gavrilovich Chernyshevsky ( – ) was a Russian literary and social critic, journalist, novelist, democrat, and socialist philosopher, often identified as a utopian socialist and leading theoretician of Russian nihilism. He was ...
and
Nikolai Serno-Solovyevich
Nikolai Alexandrovich Serno-Solovyevich (russian: Николáй Алекса́ндрович Се́рно-Соловье́вич) (13 December 1834 in Saint Petersburg, Imperial Russia – 14 February 1866 in Irkutsk) was a Russian publicist and ...
. His contacts with Russian radicals led to his arrest on 14 June 1862 in New Nakhichevan. He was initially taken to
Ekaterinoslav
Dnipro, previously called Dnipropetrovsk from 1926 until May 2016, is Ukraine's fourth-largest city, with about one million inhabitants. It is located in the eastern part of Ukraine, southeast of the Ukrainian capital Kyiv on the Dnieper Rive ...
, subsequently to Moscow, and eventually to the
Peter and Paul Fortress in Petersburg on 27 July 1862. He was held at the
Alekseyevskiy ravelin of the fortress with
Nikolay Chernyshevsky
Nikolay Gavrilovich Chernyshevsky ( – ) was a Russian literary and social critic, journalist, novelist, democrat, and socialist philosopher, often identified as a utopian socialist and leading theoretician of Russian nihilism. He was ...
,
Nikolai Serno-Solovyevich
Nikolai Alexandrovich Serno-Solovyevich (russian: Николáй Алекса́ндрович Се́рно-Соловье́вич) (13 December 1834 in Saint Petersburg, Imperial Russia – 14 February 1866 in Irkutsk) was a Russian publicist and ...
, and others. In prison he acquired
rheumatism.
He was allowed to read books by the prison administrations. He read encyclopedias,
Khachatur Abovian
Khachatur Abovian ( hy, Խաչատուր Աբովյան, Khach’atur Abovyan; (disappeared)) was an Armenian writer and national public figure of the early 19th century who mysteriously vanished in 1848 and was eventually presumed dead. He was ...
's ''
Wounds of Armenia
''Wounds of Armenia'' ( hy, Վերք Հայաստանի ''Verk Hayastani'') is an 1841 historical novel by Khachatur Abovian. Written in the Araratian (Yerevan) dialect, ''Wounds of Armenia'' is considered Abovian's ''chef d'œuvre''. It is Abov ...
'' and made extensive annotations,
Henry Thomas Buckle
Henry Thomas Buckle (24 November 1821 – 29 May 1862) was an English historian, the author of an unfinished ''History of Civilization'', and a strong amateur chess player. He is sometimes called "the Father of Scientific History".
Early life ...
's ''History of Civilisation in England'',
Georg Kolb's ''Handbuch der vergleichenden Statistik'',
Dmitri Mendeleev's textbook ''Organic Chemistry'', and
Alexis de Tocqueville
Alexis Charles Henri Clérel, comte de Tocqueville (; 29 July 180516 April 1859), colloquially known as Tocqueville (), was a French aristocrat, diplomat, political scientist, political philosopher and historian. He is best known for his wor ...
's ''
Democracy in America
(; published in two volumes, the first in 1835 and the second in 1840) is a classic French text by Alexis de Tocqueville. Its title literally translates to ''On Democracy in America'', but official English translations are usually simply entitl ...
''.
On 10 December 1865 Nalbandian was found guilty by the
Governing Senate
The Governing Senate (russian: Правительствующий сенат, Pravitelstvuyushchiy senat) was a legislative, judicial, and executive body of the Russian Emperors, instituted by Peter the Great to replace the Boyar Duma and laste ...
in the following crimes: being aware of the criminal intentions of the "London propagandists", supporting them in disseminating banned literature in southern Russia among Armenians, and an aspiration to start an anti-government movement.
From May to late November 1865 Nalbandian was put into virtual
house arrest in St. Petersburg. He was then exiled to the city of
Kamyshin
Kamyshin (russian: Камы́шин) is a city in Volgograd Oblast, Russia, located on the right bank of the Volgograd Reservoir of the Volga River, in the estuary of the Kamyshinka River. Its population was Past populations for Kamyshin include ...
in the
Saratov Governorate
Saratov Governorate (russian: link=no, Саратовская губе́рния, ''Saratovskaya guberniya'', Government of Saratov), was an administrative division (a '' guberniya'') of the Russian Empire and the Russian Socialist Federative Sovi ...
. He reached Kamyshin "more dead than alive," in his own words. Having already contracted
tuberculosis
Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease usually caused by '' Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' (MTB) bacteria. Tuberculosis generally affects the lungs, but it can also affect other parts of the body. Most infections show no symptoms, i ...
, he also frequently had a high
fever
Fever, also referred to as pyrexia, is defined as having a temperature above the normal range due to an increase in the body's temperature set point. There is not a single agreed-upon upper limit for normal temperature with sources using val ...
. Nalbandian died on 31 March (12 April in the New Style) in Kamyshin.
In accordance to his wishes, his two brothers took his body to New Nakhichevan. On 13 April they reached New Nakhichevan and took his body to the
Armenian Cathedral of St. Gregory the Illuminator. His funeral took place on 14 April; thousands of people attended it. He was buried at the courtyard of the
Holy Cross Armenian Church in Rostov-on-Don, located some to the north of New Nakhichevan. His funeral turned into an anti-government demonstration, which led to a year-long investigation by the Russian police. In 1902 the Armenian community of New Nakhichevan erected Nalbandian's bust on his grave.
Views and philosophy
A
radical, Nalbandian was an advocate of
reform
Reform ( lat, reformo) means the improvement or amendment of what is wrong, corrupt, unsatisfactory, etc. The use of the word in this way emerges in the late 18th century and is believed to originate from Christopher Wyvill's Association movement ...
, renewal, and
progress
Progress is the movement towards a refined, improved, or otherwise desired state. In the context of progressivism, it refers to the proposition that advancements in technology, science, and social organization have resulted, and by extension w ...
. He championed
secularism
Secularism is the principle of seeking to conduct human affairs based on secular, naturalistic considerations.
Secularism is most commonly defined as the separation of religion from civil affairs and the state, and may be broadened to a sim ...
and
anti-clericalism. In Soviet historiography, Nalbandian was characterized as a
materialist,
revolutionary democrat, and a
utopian socialist
Utopian socialism is the term often used to describe the first current of modern socialism and socialist thought as exemplified by the work of Henri de Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, Étienne Cabet, and Robert Owen. Utopian socialism is often de ...
. The historian Bardakjian summarizes his views as follows:
Ronald Grigor Suny notes that Nalbandian was "used and misused by Soviet historians as the Armenian equivalent to the Russian 'enlighteners' of the late 1850s and early 1860s—
Herzen Herzen is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
* Alexander Herzen (1812–1870), writer
* Édouard Herzen (1877–1936), chemist
* Jana Herzen, singer
See also
* 3052 Herzen, asteroid
* '' Flammende Herzen'', 1977 album
* Herzen ...
,
Ogarev,
Chernyshevskii, and
Dobroliubov." According to
Louise Nalbandian, he "became a link between the revolutionary movement in Russia and that of Armenia." According to Suny, although Nalbandian was "influenced by many of the same intellectual currents as the Russian radicals, Nalbandian's interests were almost exclusively contained within the world of the Armenians." He has been described as ideologically a ''
narodnik''. Soviet historiography portrayed him as an
internationalist
Internationalist may refer to:
* Internationalism (politics), a movement to increase cooperation across national borders
* Liberal internationalism, a doctrine in international relations
* Internationalist/Defencist Schism, socialists opposed to ...
, who fought for the liberty of all peoples, especially those of Russia. In 1862 Nalbandian spoke out in support of the
North
North is one of the four compass points or cardinal directions. It is the opposite of south and is perpendicular to east and west. ''North'' is a noun, adjective, or adverb indicating direction or geography.
Etymology
The word ''north ...
during the
American Civil War
The American Civil War (April 12, 1861 – May 26, 1865; also known by other names) was a civil war in the United States. It was fought between the Union ("the North") and the Confederacy ("the South"), the latter formed by states ...
, which aimed to end slavery.
He believed in the importance of both individual and national freedom. Nalbandian also advocated
female education
Female education is a catch-all term of a complex set of issues and debates surrounding education (primary education, secondary education, tertiary education, and health education in particular) for girls and women. It is frequently called girl ...
. Nalbandian's outlook was
humanistic. In 1859 essay on
Alexander von Humboldt
Friedrich Wilhelm Heinrich Alexander von Humboldt (14 September 17696 May 1859) was a German polymath, geographer, naturalist, explorer, and proponent of Romantic philosophy and science. He was the younger brother of the Prussian minister, ...
, he argued that science should serve humanity. He had an intense interest in how science-based policies could improve human conditions. Soviet historians considered Nalbandian to be a follower of the "anthropological materialism" of
Ludwig Feuerbach
Ludwig Andreas von Feuerbach (; 28 July 1804 – 13 September 1872) was a German anthropologist and philosopher, best known for his book '' The Essence of Christianity'', which provided a critique of Christianity that strongly influenced gene ...
.
Nalbandian admired many Western European authors, including
utopian socialist
Utopian socialism is the term often used to describe the first current of modern socialism and socialist thought as exemplified by the work of Henri de Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, Étienne Cabet, and Robert Owen. Utopian socialism is often de ...
s
Robert Owen and
Charles Fourier
François Marie Charles Fourier (;; 7 April 1772 – 10 October 1837) was a French philosopher, an influential early socialist thinker and one of the founders of utopian socialism. Some of Fourier's social and moral views, held to be radical ...
, the anarchist
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (, , ; 15 January 1809, Besançon – 19 January 1865, Paris) was a French socialist,Landauer, Carl; Landauer, Hilde Stein; Valkenier, Elizabeth Kridl (1979) 959 "The Three Anticapitalistic Movements". ''European Socia ...
, authors
Goethe
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (28 August 1749 – 22 March 1832) was a German poet, playwright, novelist, scientist, statesman, theatre director, and critic. His works include plays, poetry, literature, and aesthetic criticism, as well as tr ...
,
Friedrich Schiller,
Lord Byron
George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron (22 January 1788 – 19 April 1824), known simply as Lord Byron, was an English romantic poet and peer. He was one of the leading figures of the Romantic movement, and has been regarded as among the ...
, French ''
Lumières
The Lumières (literally in English: ''The Lights'') was a cultural, philosophical, literary and intellectual movement beginning in the second half of the 17th century, originating in western Europe and spreading throughout the rest of Europe. It ...
''
Montesquieu
Charles Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (; ; 18 January 168910 February 1755), generally referred to as simply Montesquieu, was a French judge, man of letters, historian, and political philosopher.
He is the princi ...
,
Rousseau
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (, ; 28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer. His political philosophy influenced the progress of the Age of Enlightenment throughout Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revolu ...
, and
Voltaire
François-Marie Arouet (; 21 November 169430 May 1778) was a French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher. Known by his ''nom de plume'' M. de Voltaire (; also ; ), he was famous for his wit, and his criticism of Christianity—es ...
. He especially admired Rousseau for his promotion of democracy, republicanism, anti-clericalism, and defense of civil liberties. In 1865, while in prison, Nalbandian wrote a poem to Rousseau's memory. Nalbandian also praised
Shakespeare
William Shakespeare ( 26 April 1564 – 23 April 1616) was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's natio ...
's plays for their realism and often quoted or referred to Shakespeare in his writings. He greatly appreciated
Giuseppe Verdi's works and was particularly amazed by ''
Il trovatore
''Il trovatore'' ('The Troubadour') is an opera in four acts by Giuseppe Verdi to an Italian libretto largely written by Salvadore Cammarano, based on the play ''El trovador'' (1836) by Antonio García Gutiérrez. It was García Gutiérrez's mos ...
''. In his literary and aesthetic views, Nalbandian was also influenced by
Aristotle
Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of ph ...
,
Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux
Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux (; 1 November 1636 – 13 March 1711), often known simply as Boileau (, ), was a French poet and critic. He did much to reform the prevailing form of French poetry, in the same way that Blaise Pascal did to reform the ...
,
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing,
Hegel. In August 1863 he authored a critique on
Hegel, in which he extensively quoted Chernyshevsky.
Religion
Although Nalbandian initially planned to become a priest of the
Armenian Apostolic Church
, native_name_lang = hy
, icon = Armenian Apostolic Church logo.svg
, icon_width = 100px
, icon_alt =
, image = Էջմիածնի_Մայր_Տաճար.jpg
, imagewidth = 250px
, a ...
, he abandoned those plans after learning about the corruption within the church. He became highly critical of the conservative clergy of the Armenian Apostolic Church. He often verbally attacked and criticized high-level clergy, such as Catholicos
Nerses Ashtaraketsi :''There was also a Caucasian Albanian anti-Catholicos Nerses V, who ruled in 1706–1736.''
Nerses V ( hy, Ներսես Ե Աշտարակեցի, ) (1770 – February 13, 1857), served as the Catholicos of the Armenian Apostolic Church between ...
and Archbishop
Gabriel Aivazovsky. He attacked conservative clerics (and other perceived
obscurantist
In philosophy, the terms obscurantism and obscurationism describe the anti-intellectual practices of deliberately presenting information in an abstruse and imprecise manner that limits further inquiry and understanding of a subject. There are two ...
community leaders) for their efforts to stifle secular and Western-style learning in Armenian schools.
In his historical essays he often made positive references to the
Reformation
The Reformation (alternatively named the Protestant Reformation or the European Reformation) was a major movement within Western Christianity in 16th-century Europe that posed a religious and political challenge to the Catholic Church and in ...
. It led to him being called a
Protestant
Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century against what its followers perceived to b ...
and
unbeliever
An infidel (literally "unfaithful") is a person accused of disbelief in the central tenets of one's own religion, such as members of another religion, or the irreligious.
Infidel is an ecclesiastical term in Christianity around which the Churc ...
by
Hovhannes Chamurian (Teroyents), a contemporary conservative cleric. A Constantinople-based conservative journal declared him a
heretic. Nalbandian's religious views have been described by Vardan Jaloyan as being essentially
deistic
Deism ( or ; derived from the Latin ''deus'', meaning "god") is the philosophical position and rationalistic theology that generally rejects revelation as a source of divine knowledge, and asserts that empirical reason and observation of t ...
and
liberal Christian
Liberal Christianity, also known as Liberal Theology and historically as Christian Modernism (see Catholic modernism and Fundamentalist–Modernist controversy), is a movement that interprets Christian teaching by taking into consideration ...
. Although he never self-identified as such, Soviet historians widely called him an atheist.
Nalbandian, along with other secular and, usually, anti-clerical writers such as Raffi, contributed to the
secularization
In sociology, secularization (or secularisation) is the transformation of a society from close identification with religious values and institutions toward non-religious values and secular institutions. The ''secularization thesis'' expresses the ...
of the Armenian public life. Hacikyan et al. note that his
anti-clericalism did not mean that he was
anti-Christian
Anti-Christian sentiment or Christophobia constitutes opposition or objections to Christians, the Christian religion, and/or its practices. Anti-Christian sentiment is sometimes referred to as Christophobia or Christianophobia, although these terms ...
. In fact, he considered Christianity a means of abolishing despotism and a source of love and freedom. However, he argued that religion is distinct from national identity and cannot be pivotal to human existence. Nalbandian viewed religion as primarily a tool to formulate moral values. He criticized the Armenian church's claim that it had preserved Armenian identity through centuries of foreign rule. Instead, he argued, that Armenians have assimilated in Christian countries, and the primary cause of perseverance of Armenian identity has been Muslim rule.
Anti-Catholicism
Nalbandian was highly
critical of Catholicism, its
anti-Enlightenment
The Counter-Enlightenment refers to a loose collection of intellectual stances that arose during the European Enlightenment in opposition to its mainstream attitudes and ideals. The Counter-Enlightenment is generally seen to have continued from t ...
and conservative attitudes, and its influence among Armenians. He translated an anti-Catholic novel by
Clémence Robert and
Eugène Sue
Marie-Joseph "Eugène" Sue (; 26 January 18043 August 1857) was a French novelist. He was one of several authors who popularized the genre of the serial novel in France with his very popular and widely imitated ''The Mysteries of Paris'', whic ...
's ''
The Wandering Jew
The Wandering Jew is a mythical immortal man whose legend began to spread in Europe in the 13th century. In the original legend, a Jew who taunted Jesus on the way to the Crucifixion was then cursed to walk the Earth until the Second Coming. ...
'' (1859). The latter is reformist novel highly critical of the
Jesuits
, image = Ihs-logo.svg
, image_size = 175px
, caption = ChristogramOfficial seal of the Jesuits
, abbreviation = SJ
, nickname = Jesuits
, formation =
, founders = ...
. He saw the
Armenian Catholic
Armenian may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent
** Armenian Diaspora, Armenian communities across the ...
order of the
Mekhitarists
, image =
, image_size =
, caption =
, abbreviation = C.A.M.
, nickname = Mechitarists
, established =
, founder = Abbot Mekhitar of Sebaste, C.A.M.
, foundin ...
(based in Venice and Vienna) as followers of "papal morality." He believed that the Pope used the Mekhitarists against Armenians because their translations into Armenian spread Catholicism. He considered them
scholastic monks who do not contribute to advancement of Armenians. His attacks on Catholicism "should be understood as part of his struggle to liberate Armenian literature from its medieval, religious roots, which he felt had been revived and nourished by the Mekhitarist fathers. The lack of life and vitality in Armenian writing and its failure to command a wide audience among Armenians were the result of the monopoly of writing in the hands of clerics." He advocated a direct move towards the West—towards the
French Enlightenment
French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to France
** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents
** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with France ...
and the European
Revolutions of 1848
The Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Springtime of the Peoples or the Springtime of Nations, were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe starting in 1848. It remains the most widespread revolutionary wave in Europea ...
.
Nationalism
Nalbandian was a key figure in the formation of secular Armenian nationalism by the mid-19th century. He was
Khachatur Abovian
Khachatur Abovian ( hy, Խաչատուր Աբովյան, Khach’atur Abovyan; (disappeared)) was an Armenian writer and national public figure of the early 19th century who mysteriously vanished in 1848 and was eventually presumed dead. He was ...
's successor as a key figure in the Armenian Enlightenment. His vision of Armenian nationality was distinct from the Armenian religious community. The national identity he advocated was based on the concepts of the sense of belonging to the common people. It would be only possible in case of raising the
national consciousness
National identity is a person's identity or sense of belonging to one or more states or to one or more nations. It is the sense of "a nation as a cohesive whole, as represented by distinctive traditions, culture, and language". National identity ...
among the ordinary people. He emphasized the widespread use, both in written and oral forms, of the Armenian language. "The heart and soul of the nation can keep their quality and distinctiveness pure only by being fashioned under the influence of the national language," he argued. He reserved an important role to women in instilling national consciousness into their children.
His nationalism has been described as "non-territorial" and
cultural, which focused on the people rather than territory. However, he also made references to the Armenian homeland. In a 1861 letter addressed to
Harutiun Svadjian, his major Western Armenian ally, he wrote: "
Etna and
Vesuvius
Mount Vesuvius ( ; it, Vesuvio ; nap, 'O Vesuvio , also or ; la, Vesuvius , also , or ) is a somma- stratovolcano located on the Gulf of Naples in Campania, Italy, about east of Naples and a short distance from the shore. It is one of ...
are still smoking"—in reference to the Italian unification—"is there no fire left in the old volcano of
Ararat?"
Language
Nalbandian's native language was the
New Nakhichevan dialect, a
Western Armenian
Western Armenian ( Classical spelling: , ) is one of the two standardized forms of Modern Armenian, the other being Eastern Armenian. It is based mainly on the Istanbul Armenian dialect, as opposed to Eastern Armenian, which is mainly base ...
dialect. He wrote his letters to his brothers in the dialect. In his literary career, however, he mostly used standard vernacular
Eastern Armenian. In his early years, he had used
classical Armenian (''grabar''). In his mature years Nalbandian became a staunch advocate of literary
Modern Armenian
Modern Armenian ( hy, աշխարհաբար, ''ashkharhabar'' or ''ašxarhabar'', literally the "secular/lay language") is the modern vernacular (vulgar) form of the Armenian language. Although it first appeared in the 14th century, it was not until ...
(''ashkharhabar''), only through which, he believed, could the Armenian people be enlightened. Nalbandian's and other modernizers' (e.g.
Raphael Patkanian
Raphael Patkanian ( hy, Ռափայել Պատկանյան, also known as Kamar Katiba; 20 November 1830 – 3 September 1892) was one of the most popular Armenian poets.The Survey - Page 259 by Survey Associates
Biography
Patkanian was born i ...
, Abovian) promotion of Modern Armenian became a primary cause of cultural innovation and educational reform. He defended his insistence of the use of Modern Armenian by citing
Dante Alighieri
Dante Alighieri (; – 14 September 1321), probably baptized Durante di Alighiero degli Alighieri and often referred to as Dante (, ), was an Italian poet, writer and philosopher. His ''Divine Comedy'', originally called (modern Italian: '' ...
's successful use of Italian, as opposed to
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
.
In 1865, while in prison, he formulated the notion of a "national literature." He aligned with realism ("art as a mirror of reality") and valued such pieces as Abovian's ''
Wounds of Armenia
''Wounds of Armenia'' ( hy, Վերք Հայաստանի ''Verk Hayastani'') is an 1841 historical novel by Khachatur Abovian. Written in the Araratian (Yerevan) dialect, ''Wounds of Armenia'' is considered Abovian's ''chef d'œuvre''. It is Abov ...
'', ''Sos and Vartiter'' by
Perch Proshian, and
Vartan Pasha
Hovsep Vartanian ( hy, Յովսէփ Վարդանեան), better known as Vartan Pasha ( hy, Վարդան փաշա; 1813 – 1879), was an Ottoman Armenian statesman, author, and journalist of the 19th century, promoted to the rank of pasha after ...
's ''Akabi'', written in Turkish using the Armenian script. He also authored a modern Armenian rendering of
Ghazar Parpetsi
Ghazar Parpetsi ( hy, Ղազար Փարպեցի, translit=Łazar P῾arpec῾i) was a 5th to 6th century Armenian chronicler and historian. He had close ties with the powerful Mamikonian noble family and is most prominent for writing a history of ...
's ''A Letter to Vahan Mamikonian'' (Թուղթ առ Վահան Մամիկոնեան).
Economics
Nalbandian stressed that economic freedom is the basis of national freedom. Agriculture was, in his view, the key towards economic freedom and considered the trade capital of Armenian merchants as not contributing to the formation of a national economy among Armenians. Nalbandian's chief work on economics is "Agriculture as the True Way" (Երկրագործութիւնը որպէս ուղիղ ճանապարհ), published in Paris in 1862 under the pseudonym Simeon Manikian. It is considered the first modern Armenian-language political tract or
pamphlet. It advocated
land reform
Land reform is a form of agrarian reform involving the changing of laws, regulations, or customs regarding land ownership. Land reform may consist of a government-initiated or government-backed property redistribution, generally of agricultural ...
, namely equal redistribution of land following the
Emancipation reform of 1861, which emancipated
serfs throughout the Russian Empire.
Louise Nalbandian considered it a display of Nalbandian's "socialist viewpoint" and his "conviction that only the equal distribution of land could bring prosperity and happiness to the people." The pamphlet influenced the economic views of both Russian (Eastern) Armenian, and, to a lesser degree, Ottoman (Western) Armenian intellectuals.
His views may have been influenced by the French
Physiocrats
Physiocracy (; from the Greek for "government of nature") is an economic theory developed by a group of 18th-century Age of Enlightenment French economists who believed that the wealth of nations derived solely from the value of "land agricultur ...
, who believed that the wealth of nations was derived solely from agriculture. In the Soviet period, his economic views were discussed from a Marxist perspective, especially
class struggle, and he was characterized as an
anti-capitalist.
Works
Nalbandian's ''oeuvre'' consists of poems on patriotism and freedom, novels that expose social ills, essays and articles on national and political issues, economics, philosophy, education, and a series of pieces of
literary criticism. He often used
pseudonym
A pseudonym (; ) or alias () is a fictitious name that a person or group assumes for a particular purpose, which differs from their original or true name (orthonym). This also differs from a new name that entirely or legally replaces an individua ...
s, the best known of which is "Koms Emmanuel" (Count Emmanuel). Under that pseudonym, Nalbandian composed short stories, published in ''Hyusisapayl'', that portrayed the Armenian clergy's
mysticism
Mysticism is popularly known as becoming one with God or the Absolute, but may refer to any kind of ecstasy or altered state of consciousness which is given a religious or spiritual meaning. It may also refer to the attainment of insight in ...
, deceitfulness, and ignorance. He often wrote exposés on the clergy, such as ''Merelahartsuk'' ("The
Necromancer
Necromancy () is the practice of magic or black magic involving communication with the dead by summoning their spirits as apparitions or visions, or by resurrection for the purpose of divination; imparting the means to foretell future events ...
"). His irreverent style was displayed in his
satire
Satire is a genre of the visual, literary, and performing arts, usually in the form of fiction and less frequently non-fiction, in which vices, follies, abuses, and shortcomings are held up to ridicule, often with the intent of shaming ...
s, memories, literary reviews, historical essays, and poetry. In 1857 he wrote what
Vahé Oshagan described as the first ethnographic novel in Armenian literature ''Minin Khoske, Miusin Harsn'' ("A Promise to One, A Bride to the Other"). According to
Leo, it was the first printed Russian Armenian novel, being printed in Moscow in 1857, a year before Abovian's ''
Wounds of Armenia
''Wounds of Armenia'' ( hy, Վերք Հայաստանի ''Verk Hayastani'') is an 1841 historical novel by Khachatur Abovian. Written in the Araratian (Yerevan) dialect, ''Wounds of Armenia'' is considered Abovian's ''chef d'œuvre''. It is Abov ...
'', printed a year later in Tiflis. Leo considered it a weak work literally, but gave some credit to its ethnographic scenes.
Poetry
Nalbandian's first poem, in
classical Armenian, was published in January 1851 in the Tiflis-based weekly ''Ararat'', edited by
Raphael Patkanian
Raphael Patkanian ( hy, Ռափայել Պատկանյան, also known as Kamar Katiba; 20 November 1830 – 3 September 1892) was one of the most popular Armenian poets.The Survey - Page 259 by Survey Associates
Biography
Patkanian was born i ...
. He is today best remembered popularly for two of his poems: "Freedom/Liberty" (Ազատութիւն, ''Azatutyun'', 1859) and "The Song of an Italian Girl" (Իտալացի աղջկա երգը, 1861).
Leo noted in his 1904 book that thanks to these two poems Nalbandian has a glorious reputation. According to Adalian, Nalbandian introduced the concept of
political liberty
Political freedom (also known as political autonomy or political agency) is a central concept in history and political thought and one of the most important features of democratic societies.Hannah Arendt, "What is Freedom?", ''Between Past and F ...
into Armenian letters with these poems.
"Freedom" has become an anthem of liberty and freedom since the 19th century and one of the most popular pieces of poetry in Armenian literature.
It may have been influenced by
Nikolay Ogarev
Nikolay Platonovich Ogarev (Ogaryov; ; – ) was a Russian poet, historian and political activist. He was deeply critical of the limitations of the Emancipation reform of 1861 claiming that the serfs were not free but had simply exchanged one f ...
's poem of the same name. The poem was first published in 1859 in ''Hyusisapayl'' as part of Nalbandian's series titled "Memoirs" (''Hishatakaran'').
Harutiun Svadjian, a friend of Nalbandian, first published the poem separately, in his Constantinople-based newspaper ''Meghu'' in 1860.
Perhaps as early as late 1860s, it was set to music and sang by Armenian youth. Often, it was written on back of his photograph. The poem has been included in Armenian literature textbooks since the Soviet period.
It has been translated into English at least twice,
[. Also published in ] and three times into Russian.
"The Song of an Italian Girl", although dated by Nalbandian himself to 1859, was more likely written in 1860–61. It is inspired by the
Italian unification movement and the 5th century Armenian historian
Yeghishe
Yeghishe (, , AD 410 – 475; also spelled Eghishe or Ełišē, Latinisation of names, latinized Eliseus) was an Armenians, Armenian historian from the time of late antiquity, best known as the author of ''History of Vardan and the Armenian W ...
's description of Armenian women. The lyrics of the poem were adopted by the government of the
First Republic of Armenia (1918–20) for the country's national anthem, "
Mer Hayrenik
"" ( hy, Մեր Հայրենիք}, ; "Our Fatherland") is the national anthem of Armenia. It was arranged by Barsegh Kanachyan; the lyrics were written by Mikayel Nalbandian. First adopted in 1918 as the anthem of the short-lived First Republic ...
" ("Our Fatherland"), the poem's ''
incipit''. The anthem was reinstated by the government of Armenia on 1 July 1991 with some changes.
His other noted poems include "Days of Childhood" (Մանկության օրեր, 1860), "To Apollo" (Ապոլլոնին, 1861), and "Message" (Ուղերձ, 1864). He also translated poems by
Alexander Pushkin
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (; rus, links=no, Александр Сергеевич ПушкинIn pre-Revolutionary script, his name was written ., r=Aleksandr Sergeyevich Pushkin, p=ɐlʲɪkˈsandr sʲɪrˈɡʲe(j)ɪvʲɪtɕ ˈpuʂkʲɪn, ...
,
Mikhail Lermontov
Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov (; russian: Михаи́л Ю́рьевич Ле́рмонтов, p=mʲɪxɐˈil ˈjurʲjɪvʲɪtɕ ˈlʲɛrməntəf; – ) was a Russian Romantic writer, poet and painter, sometimes called "the poet of the Caucas ...
,
Heinrich Heine, and
Pierre-Jean de Béranger
Pierre-Jean de Béranger (19 August 178016 July 1857) was a prolific French poet and chansonnier ( songwriter), who enjoyed great popularity and influence in France during his lifetime, but faded into obscurity in the decades following his deat ...
.
Recognition and influence
Vahakn Dadrian
Vahakn Norair Dadrian ( hy, Վահագն Տատրեան; 26 May 1926 – 2 August 2019) was an Armenian-American sociologist and historian, born in Turkey, professor of sociology, historian, and an expert on the Armenian genocide.
Life
Dadria ...
characterized Nalbandian as the 19th-century apostle of Armenian
revolutionism
A revolutionary movement (or revolutionary social movement) is a specific type of social movement dedicated to carrying out a revolution. Charles Tilly defines it as "a social movement advancing exclusive competing claims to control of the state, ...
.
Ronald Grigor Suny described him as "perhaps the most radical, certainly the most contentious and openly anticlerical of the mid-century Armenian patriots." He was part of Russian Armenian intellectuals of the mid-to-late 19th century that were experiencing their own "amalgamated version of the
Reformation
The Reformation (alternatively named the Protestant Reformation or the European Reformation) was a major movement within Western Christianity in 16th-century Europe that posed a religious and political challenge to the Catholic Church and in ...
and the
Enlightenment simultaneously."
Hacikyan et al. described him as a revolutionary intellectual and pioneer of the Armenian Renaissance.
Christopher J. Walker
Christopher Joseph Walker (10 July 1942 – 18 April 2017) was a British historian and author.
Life and career
Walker was educated at Lancing College and Brasenose College, Oxford.
He worked in Sotheby's
Sotheby's () is a British-founded Am ...
noted that despite his short life, "his example and his writings remained a vivid inspiration to his people."
In the last years of his life Nalbandian had become a contentious figure, hated by the leadership of the Armenian church. The "bold, somewhat reckless, and ultimately victimized" Nalbandian was the most outspoken representative of the secular Armenian intelligentsia. Archbishop Matteos Vehapetian, under whom he worked for five years, and
Stepanos Nazarian, with whom he founded ''Hyusisapayl,'' both had ambivalent views on Nalbandian. Although personally sympathetic to him, they disagreed with his views, considering them extreme. Vehapetian often defended him, despite disagreeing with his views and called him an excellent moral person.
Nalbandian has been well-regarded by fellow writers.
Perch Proshian and
Harutiun Svadjian praised his
freethought.
Ghazaros Aghayan
Ghazaros (Lazarus) Aghayan ( hy, Ղազարոս Աղայեան; ) was an Armenian writer, educator, folklorist, historian, linguist and public figure.
Biography
Aghayan was born in Bolnisi village (also known as Bolnis-Khachen), Tiflis Governor ...
noted that students of the
Nersisian School
Nersisian School ( hy, Ներսիսեան դպրոց, ''Nersisian Dprots''; ka, ნერსისიანის სემინარია, ; russian: Нерсесяновское училище, translit=Nersisyanovskoye učilišče) was an ...
of Tiflis widely read Nalbandian and were influenced by his radicalism. In his literary talent,
Leo ranked Nalbandian lower than
Raphael Patkanian
Raphael Patkanian ( hy, Ռափայել Պատկանյան, also known as Kamar Katiba; 20 November 1830 – 3 September 1892) was one of the most popular Armenian poets.The Survey - Page 259 by Survey Associates
Biography
Patkanian was born i ...
in his 1904 book, but noted that he had a high reputation among the youth. He attributed Nalbandian's reputation to his poems that were set to music and the fact that Nalbandian wrote about the societal ideals: self-recognition, revival, freedom, and fatherland.
Raffi
Raffi Cavoukian, ( hy, Րաֆֆի, born July 8, 1948), known professionally by the mononym Raffi, is a Canadian singer-lyricist and author of Armenian descent born in Egypt, best known for his children's music. He developed his career as a " ...
was heavily influenced by Nalbandian, calling himself "sympathetic to Nalbandian's direction, which is the only true path." He dedicated his first major novel, ''
Salbi'' (1867), to the memory of Nalbandian. The influence of Nalbandian's views on agriculture (namely, equal distribution of land) are evident in ''Salbi''.
Hovhannes Tumanyan
Hovhannes Tumanyan ( hy, Հովհաննես Թումանյան, classical spelling: Յովհաննէս Թումանեան, – March 23, 1923) was an Armenian poet, writer, translator, and literary and public activist. He is the nationa ...
and
Yeghishe Charents
Yeghishe Charents (; March 13, 1897 – November 27, 1937) was an Armenian poet, writer and public activist. Charents' literary subject matter ranged from his experiences in the First World War, socialist revolution, and frequently Armenia an ...
wrote poems dedicated to Nalbandian's memory in
1916
Events
Below, the events of the First World War have the "WWI" prefix.
January
* January 1 – The British Royal Army Medical Corps carries out the first successful blood transfusion, using blood that had been stored and cooled.
* J ...
and
1929
This year marked the end of a period known in American history as the Roaring Twenties after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 ushered in a worldwide Great Depression. In the Americas, an agreement was brokered to end the Cristero War, a Catholic ...
, respectively.
Political influence
Zeytun uprising of 1862
Nalbandian indirectly influenced the Armenian rebels of
Zeitun, a mountainous region in
Cilicia
Cilicia (); el, Κιλικία, ''Kilikía''; Middle Persian: ''klkyʾy'' (''Klikiyā''); Parthian: ''kylkyʾ'' (''Kilikiyā''); tr, Kilikya). is a geographical region in southern Anatolia in Turkey, extending inland from the northeastern coa ...
, Ottoman Empire that enjoyed some autonomy up to the 19th century. The uprising there took place in 1862. The rebel leaders were in contact with some of the Armenian intellectuals based in Constantinople who had met Nalbandian in 1860–61 and were influenced by Nalbandian's ideas. The intellectuals' organization, named the Benevolent Union, included
Tserents,
Harutiun Svadjian,
Mgrdich Beshiktashlian, Serovbe Takvorian, and Dr. Kaitiban. Nalbandian regularly corresponded with Tagvorian, Kaitiban, and Svadjian. Besides the aim to improve the conditions of the Armenians, they promoted economic development of the Armenians through better agricultural methods. According to
Louise Nalbandian the pronounced "interest in agriculture was no doubt due to the influence of Nalbandian" and that Nalbandian's "political influence was felt in Constantinople by a group of revolutionaries who had direct relations with the Zeitun insurgents."
Posthumous
Nalbandian's political influence has been ubiquitous. He was quickly lionized by liberals, nationalists, and leftists.
In 1879 philologist
Tigran Navasardiants was notably arrested for distributing portraits of Nalbandian with the poem "Freedom" in
Alexandropol
Gyumri ( hy, Գյումրի, ) is an urban municipal community and the second-largest city in Armenia, serving as the administrative center of Shirak Province in the northwestern part of the country. By the end of the 19th century, when the city w ...
. In mid-1880s an Armenian organization in Tiflis led by
Christapor Mikayelian, a member of the populist revolutionary ''
Narodnaya Volya
Narodnaya Volya ( rus, Наро́дная во́ля, p=nɐˈrodnəjə ˈvolʲə, t=People's Will) was a late 19th-century revolutionary political organization in the Russian Empire which conducted assassinations of government officials in an att ...
'', disseminated Nalbandian's pamphlet on agriculture among the urban poor. Mikayelian went on to become on the co-founders of the
Armenian Revolutionary Federation
The Armenian Revolutionary Federation ( hy, Հայ Յեղափոխական Դաշնակցութիւն, ՀՅԴ ( classical spelling), abbr. ARF or ARF-D) also known as Dashnaktsutyun (collectively referred to as Dashnaks for short), is an Armenian ...
(Dashnaks), a major left-wing nationalist party that led the
Armenian national liberation movement
The Armenian national movement ( hy, Հայ ազգային-ազատագրական շարժում ''Hay azgayin-azatagrakan sharzhum'') included social, cultural, but primarily political and military movements that reached their height during Worl ...
in both Russian and Ottoman empires. According to
Louise Nalbandian the founders of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation were the "spiritual descendants" of Nalbandian and other secular nationalist intellectuals such as
Khachatur Abovian
Khachatur Abovian ( hy, Խաչատուր Աբովյան, Khach’atur Abovyan; (disappeared)) was an Armenian writer and national public figure of the early 19th century who mysteriously vanished in 1848 and was eventually presumed dead. He was ...
,
Raphael Patkanian
Raphael Patkanian ( hy, Ռափայել Պատկանյան, also known as Kamar Katiba; 20 November 1830 – 3 September 1892) was one of the most popular Armenian poets.The Survey - Page 259 by Survey Associates
Biography
Patkanian was born i ...
, and
Raffi
Raffi Cavoukian, ( hy, Րաֆֆի, born July 8, 1948), known professionally by the mononym Raffi, is a Canadian singer-lyricist and author of Armenian descent born in Egypt, best known for his children's music. He developed his career as a " ...
. Armenian revolutionaries's use of violence (armed struggle) since the late 1880s against their oppressors, especially Ottomans and Kurds, was also influenced by the writings of Nalbandian, Patkanian and Raffi.
Nalbandian also influenced the
Social Democrat Hunchakian Party
The Social Democrat Hunchakian Party (SDHP) ( hy, Սոցիալ Դեմոկրատ Հնչակյան Կուսակցություն; ՍԴՀԿ, translit=Sots’ial Demokrat Hnch’akyan Kusakts’ut’yun), is the oldest continuously-operating Armenian ...
(Hunchak) and early Armenian Marxists, such as
Stepan Shahumian
Stepan Georgevich Shaumian (; , ''Step’an Ge'vorgi Shahumyan''; 1 October 1878 – 20 September 1918) was a Bolshevik revolutionary and politician active throughout the Caucasus. Arzumanyan, M. Շահումյան, Ստեփան Գևորգի. ...
,
Alexander Miasnikian
Alexander Fyodori Miasnikian or Myasnikov; russian: Алекса́ндр Фёдорович Мяснико́в. Also spelled Myasnikyan. His patronymic is variously given as Asatur, Astvatsatur, Fyodor and Bogdan. (28 January February1886 – ...
, and
Babken Knuniants. Shahumian attacked Armenian liberals for adoption of Nalbandian as their ideological forefather. Miasnikian, who was a distant relative of Nalbandian, offered a Marxist interpretation of Nalbandian as early as in 1910. It was later published as a booklet in Moscow in 1919. According to Miasnikian, Nalbandian was an
agrarian and
utopian
A utopia ( ) typically describes an imaginary community or society that possesses highly desirable or nearly perfect qualities for its members. It was coined by Sir Thomas More for his 1516 book ''Utopia'', describing a fictional island society ...
socialist, who "came close to modern materialism," which Miasinikian considers a great achievement. He also called Nalbandian a friend of the Armenian
proletariat and peasantry.
Soviet period
![Nalbandyan M](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Nalbandyan_M..JPG)
Soviet Armenian critics elevated Nalbandian to the status of a
visionary
A visionary, defined broadly, is one who can envision the future. For some groups, this can involve the supernatural.
The visionary state is achieved via meditation, lucid dreams, daydreams, or art. One example is Hildegard of Bingen, a 12th- ...
for his left-wing and anti-clerical views. Daronian called him the founder of Armenian realism and criticism. Soviet Armenian philologist Aram Inchikian called him "the greatest figure of Armenian social thought of the pre-Marxist period and the precursor of
social democracy
Social democracy is a political, social, and economic philosophy within socialism that supports political and economic democracy. As a policy regime, it is described by academics as advocating economic and social interventions to promote s ...
in our reality." Historian H. Aslanian described him as a "militant materialist, the greatest figure in pre-Marxist materialist thought in Armenian reality, and irreconcilable enemy of all idealistic, reactionary views."
Ashot Hovhannisian
Ashot Garegini Hovhannisian ( hy, Աշոտ Գարգինի Հովհաննիսյան; russian: Ашот Гарегинович Иоаннисян, ''Ashot Gareginovich Ioannisyan''; June 17, 1887June 30, 1972) was an Armenian Marxist historiography, ...
, an early Armenian Marxist and the first Education Minister of Soviet Armenia (1920–21), wrote a two volume book entitled ''Nalbandian and his time'' («Նալբանդյանը և նրա ժամանակը», 1955–56). In 1979 a scientific conference on Nalbandian's 150th anniversary was held at the
Armenian Academy of Sciences
The National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Armenia (NAS RA) ( hy, Հայաստանի Հանրապետության գիտությունների ազգային ակադեմիա, ՀՀ ԳԱԱ, ''Hayastani Hanrapetut’yan gitut’yunneri az ...
.
In 1921, in the first year of Soviet rule, one of the central
streets
Streets is the plural of street, a type of road.
Streets or The Streets may also refer to: Music
* Streets (band), a rock band fronted by Kansas vocalist Steve Walsh
* ''Streets'' (punk album), a 1977 compilation album of various early UK punk ba ...
of Yerevan was renamed after Nalbandian. A public
school
A school is an educational institution designed to provide learning spaces and learning environments for the teaching of students under the direction of teachers. Most countries have systems of formal education, which is sometimes comp ...
in Yerevan was renamed in his honor in 1941. In 1949 the
Pedagogical Institute of Leninakan (current
Gyumri
Gyumri ( hy, Գյումրի, ) is an urban municipal community and the second-largest city in Armenia, serving as the administrative center of Shirak Province in the northwestern part of the country. By the end of the 19th century, when the city w ...
) was renamed after Nalbandian. In 1950 a village known as
Shahriar was renamed Nalbandian in his honor. In 1965 a bronze
statue of Nalbandian was erected in Yerevan. In
Rostov-on-Don, in the part that was formerly New Nakhichevan, a street has been named for Nalbandian.
References
Notes
Citations
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External links
{{DEFAULTSORT:Nalbandian, Mikael
1829 births
1866 deaths
19th-century Armenian writers
Armenian male writers
Writers from Rostov-on-Don
Armenian people from the Russian Empire
Russian political writers
Russian revolutionaries
Armenian revolutionaries
19th-century deaths from tuberculosis
Moscow State University alumni
National anthem writers
Tuberculosis deaths in Russia
19th-century male writers from the Russian Empire
Critics of Christianity