![Nepal_Thangka_with_Prajnaparamita](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Nepal_Thangka_with_Prajnaparamita.jpg)
The Mahāyāna sūtras are a broad genre of
Buddhist scriptures
Buddhist texts are those religious texts which belong to the Buddhist tradition. The earliest Buddhist texts were not committed to writing until some centuries after the death of Gautama Buddha. The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts a ...
(''
sūtra
''Sutra'' ( sa, सूत्र, translit=sūtra, translit-std=IAST, translation=string, thread)Monier Williams, ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, Entry fo''sutra'' page 1241 in Indian literary traditions refers to an aph ...
'') that are accepted as
canonical
The adjective canonical is applied in many contexts to mean "according to the canon" the standard, rule or primary source that is accepted as authoritative for the body of knowledge or literature in that context. In mathematics, "canonical example ...
and as
''buddhavacana'' ("Buddha word") in
Mahāyāna Buddhism
''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing bra ...
. They are largely preserved in the
Chinese Buddhist canon, the
Tibetan Buddhist canon
The Tibetan Buddhist canon is a loosely defined list of sacred texts recognized by various sects of Tibetan Buddhism. In addition to sutrayana texts from Early Buddhist schools (mostly Sarvastivada) and Mahayana sources, the Tibetan canon incl ...
, and in extant
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
manuscripts. Several hundred Mahāyāna sūtras survive in Sanskrit, or in Chinese and Tibetan translations. They are also sometimes called ''Vaipulya'' ("extensive") sūtras by earlier sources.
[Drewes, David, Early Indian Mahayana Buddhism II: New Perspectives, ''Religion Compass'' 4/2 (2010): 66–74, ] The Buddhist scholar
Asaṅga classified the Mahāyāna sūtras as part of the ''Bodhisattvapiṭaka'', a collection of texts meant for
bodhisattva
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood.
In the Early Buddhist schools ...
s.
[Boin-Webb, Sara (tr). Rahula, Walpola (tr). Asanga. ''Abhidharma Samuccaya: The Compendium of Higher Teaching.'' 2001. pp. 199–200]
Modern scholars of
Buddhist studies
Buddhist studies, also known as Buddhology, is the academic study of Buddhism. The term ''Buddhology'' was coined in the early 20th century by the Unitarianism, Unitarian minister Joseph Estlin Carpenter to mean the "study of Buddhahood, the natur ...
generally hold that these sūtras first began to appear between the 1st century BCE and the 1st century CE.
[''Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism'' (2004): p. 293][Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993). ''A History of Indian Buddhism''. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass: p. 252] They continued being composed, compiled, and edited until the
decline of Buddhism in ancient India. Some of them may have also been composed outside of India, such as in
Central Asia
Central Asia, also known as Middle Asia, is a subregion, region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes t ...
and in
East Asia
East Asia is the eastern region of Asia, which is defined in both geographical and ethno-cultural terms. The modern states of East Asia include China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan. China, North Korea, South Korea and ...
.
[Williams (2008), p. 85.]
Mahāyāna Buddhists typically consider several major Mahāyāna sūtras to have been taught by
Shakyamuni Buddha
Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a śramaṇa, wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism.
According to Buddhist tradition, he was ...
, committed to memory and recited by his disciples, in particular
Ananda. However, other Mahāyāna sūtras are presented as being taught by other figures, such as
bodhisattvas
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood.
In the Early Buddhist schools ...
like
Mañjuśrī
Mañjuśrī (Sanskrit: मञ्जुश्री) is a ''bodhisattva'' associated with '' prajñā'' (wisdom) in Mahāyāna Buddhism. His name means "Gentle Glory" in Sanskrit. Mañjuśrī is also known by the fuller name of Mañjuśrīkumārab ...
and
Avalokiteśvara
In Buddhism, Avalokiteśvara (Sanskrit: अवलोकितेश्वर, IPA: ) is a bodhisattva who embodies the compassion of all Buddhas. He has 108 avatars, one notable avatar being Padmapāṇi (lotus bearer). He is variably depicted, ...
. There are various reasons that Indian Mahāyāna Buddhists gave to explain the fact that they only appeared at a later time. One such reason was that they had been hidden away in the land of the
Nāga
The Nagas (IAST: ''nāga''; Devanāgarī: नाग) are a divine, or semi-divine, race of half-human, half-serpent beings that reside in the netherworld (Patala), and can occasionally take human or part-human form, or are so depicted in art. ...
s (snake deities, dragons) until the proper time for their dissemination arrived.
The Mahāyāna sūtras were not accepted by all Buddhists in ancient India, and the various
Indian Buddhist schools disagreed on their status as "word of the Buddha".
[Sree Padma. Barber, Anthony W. ''Buddhism in the Krishna River Valley of Andhra.'' 2008. p. 68.] They are generally not accepted as the Buddha's word by the school of
Theravāda Buddhism
''Theravāda'' () ( si, ථේරවාදය, my, ထေရဝါဒ, th, เถรวาท, km, ថេរវាទ, lo, ເຖຣະວາດ, pi, , ) is the most commonly accepted name of Buddhism's oldest existing school. The school' ...
.
History and background
Origins and early history
The origins of the Mahāyāna and their sūtras are not completely understood. Modern scholars have proposed numerous theories about the origins of Mahāyāna and the Mahāyāna texts.
Some of the main theories are the following:
[Drewes, David, Early Indian Mahayana Buddhism I: Recent Scholarship, ''Religion Compass'' 4/2 (2010): 55–65, ]
* The lay origins theory, first proposed by
Jean Przyluski
Jean Przyluski (17 August 1885 – 28 October 1944) was a French linguist and scholar of religion and Buddhism of Polish descent. His interests ranged widely through the structure of the Vietnamese language, the development of Buddhist myths ...
and then defended by
Étienne Lamotte
Étienne Paul Marie Lamotte (21 November 1903 – 5 May 1983) was a Belgian priest and Professor of Greek at the Catholic University of Louvain, but was better known as an Indologist and the greatest authority on Buddhism in the West in his time. H ...
and Akira Hirakawa, states that
laypersons were particularly important in the development of Mahāyāna and its texts. This is partly based on some texts like the
Vimalakirti Sūtra, which praise lay figures at the expense of monastics. This theory is no longer widely accepted.
* The theory which held that Mahāyāna developed within the
Mahāsāṃghika
The Mahāsāṃghika (Brahmi: 𑀫𑀳𑀸𑀲𑀸𑀁𑀖𑀺𑀓, "of the Great Sangha", ) was one of the early Buddhist schools. Interest in the origins of the Mahāsāṃghika school lies in the fact that their Vinaya recension appears in se ...
tradition. Drewes notes that there is actually little evidence that Mahāsāṃghika schools had a special connection to the production of Mahāyāna texts, and it seems Mahāyāna arose as a pan-Buddhist phenomenon.
* The "forest hypothesis", which states that Mahāyāna arose mainly among hardcore wilderness ascetics (''aranyavasins'') who were attempting to imitate the Buddha. This has been defended by Paul Harrison and
Jan Nattier
Jan Nattier is an American scholar of Mahāyana Buddhism.
Early life and education
She earned her PhD in Inner Asian and Altaic Studies from Harvard University (1988), and subsequently taught at the University of Hawaii (1988-1990), Stanford Unive ...
. This theory is based on certain sutras like the ''
Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra
The ''Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra'' (''The inquiry of Ugra'') is an early Indian sutra which is particularly important for understanding the beginnings of Mahayana Buddhism. It contains positive references to both the path of the bodhisattva and the p ...
'' and the ''Mahāyāna Rāṣṭrapālapaṛiprcchā'' which promote ascetic practice in the wilderness as a superior and elite path. These texts criticize monks who live in cities and denigrate the forest life. However, Drewes notes that only a few early Mahāyāna texts advocate or promote this practice, and other Sūtras outright discourage forest dwelling or say it is unnecessary.
* The cult of the book theory, defended by
Gregory Schopen
Gregory Schopen is Professor of Buddhist Studies at University of California, Los Angeles. He received his B.A. majoring in American literature from Black Hills State College, M.A. in history of religions from McMaster University in Ontario, Cana ...
, states that Mahāyāna arose among a number of loosely connected book worshiping groups of monastics, who studied, memorized, copied and revered particular Mahāyāna sūtras. Schopen also argued that these groups mostly rejected
stupa
A stupa ( sa, स्तूप, lit=heap, ) is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing relics (such as ''śarīra'' – typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns) that is used as a place of meditation.
In Buddhism, circumamb ...
worship, or worshiping holy relics.
According to David Drewes, none of these theories have been satisfactorily proven and they lack sufficient evidence. Drewes writes that the most likely origin of Mahāyāna is that it was "primarily a textual movement, focused on the revelation, preaching, and dissemination of Mahāyāna sūtras, that developed within, and never really departed from, traditional Buddhist social and institutional structures."
[Drewes, David, Early Indian Mahayana Buddhism II: New Perspectives, ''Religion Compass'' 4/2 (2010): 66–74, ] The figures of this movement probably saw themselves as bodhisattvas entrusted with teaching and preserving the Mahāyāna sūtras.
Scholars like Joseph Walser have also noted how Mahāyāna sūtras are heterogeneous and seem to have been composed in different communities with varying ideas. Walser writes that "Mahāyāna was probably never unitary, but differed from region to region.".
[Walser (2012), p. 24.] Likewise,
Hajime Nakamura
was a Japanese Orientalist, Indologist, philosopher and academic of Vedic, Hindu and Buddhist scriptures.
Biography
Nakamura was born in Matsue, Shimane Prefecture, Japan. In 1943 he graduated from the Department of Literature at Tokyo Imperia ...
states:
Unlike the various recensions of the Hīnayāna
Hīnayāna (, ) is a Sanskrit term literally meaning the "small/deficient vehicle". Classical Chinese and Tibetan teachers translate it as "smaller vehicle". The term is applied collectively to the ''Śrāvakayāna'' and ''Pratyekabuddhayāna'' pa ...
canon, which were virtually closed by the early centuries of the common era and which shared, at least ideally, a common structure . . . the Mahāyāna scriptures were composed in a variety of disparate social and religious environments over the course of several centuries, diverge widely from each other in content and outlook, and were in many cases meant to stand as individual works representing (it has been conjectured) rivals to the entire Hīnayāna corpus.
There is also no evidence that Mahāyāna ever referred to a separate formal school or sect of Buddhism, but rather that it existed within the early Buddhist schools as a certain set of ideals, texts and later doctrines, for bodhisattvas. Mahāyānists also never had a separate
Vinaya
The Vinaya (Pali & Sanskrit: विनय) is the division of the Buddhist canon ('' Tripitaka'') containing the rules and procedures that govern the Buddhist Sangha (community of like-minded ''sramanas''). Three parallel Vinaya traditions remai ...
(monastic rule) from the
early Buddhist schools
The early Buddhist schools are those schools into which the Buddhist monastic saṅgha split early in the history of Buddhism. The divisions were originally due to differences in Vinaya and later also due to doctrinal differences and geographic ...
. The Chinese monk
Yijing
The ''I Ching'' or ''Yi Jing'' (, ), usually translated ''Book of Changes'' or ''Classic of Changes'', is an ancient Chinese divination text that is among the oldest of the Chinese classics. Originally a divination manual in the Western Zhou ...
who visited India in the seventh century, writes about how Mahāyāna monastics and non-Mahāyāna monastics lived together under the same Vinaya. The only difference among them was that Mahāyāna monks venerated the bodhisattvas and read the Mahāyāna sūtras.
Some scholars like
Richard Gombrich
Richard Francis Gombrich (; born 17 July 1937) is a British Indologist and scholar of Sanskrit, Pāli, and Buddhist studies. He was the Boden Professor of Sanskrit at the University of Oxford from 1976 to 2004. He is currently Founder-President ...
think that Mahāyāna Sūtras only arose after the practice of writing down religious texts became widespread in India and thus that they were always written documents. However, James Apple and David Drewes have drawn attention to these oral features of the early Mahāyāna texts, which were not written documents but orally preserved teachings. Drewes writes, that Mahāyāna sūtras
advocate mnemic/oral/aural practices more frequently than they do written ones, make reference to people who have memorized or are in the process of memorizing them, and consistently attach higher prestige to mnemic/oral practices than to ones involving written texts. Study of differences in various versions of sutras translated into Chinese has directly shown that these texts were often transmitted orally.
Mahāyāna sūtras were committed to memory and recited by important learned monks called "Dharma reciters" (''dharmabhāṇakas''), who were viewed as the substitute for the actual speaking presence of the Buddha.
Much of the early extant evidence for the origins of Mahāyāna comes from early Chinese translations of Mahāyāna texts. These Mahāyāna teachings were first propagated into
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
by
Lokakṣema, the first translator of Mahāyāna Sūtras into Chinese during the second century.
["The most important evidence — in fact the only evidence — for situating the emergence of the Mahayana around the beginning of the common era was not Indian evidence at all, but came from China. Already by the last quarter of the 2nd century CE, there was a small, seemingly idiosyncratic collection of substantial Mahayana sutras translated into what Erik Zürcher calls 'broken Chinese' by an Indoscythian, whose Indian name has been reconstructed as Lokaksema." ''Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism'' (2004): p. 492]
The Mahāyāna movement remained quite small until the fifth century, with very few manuscripts having been found before then (the exceptions are from
Bamiyan
Bamyan or Bamyan Valley (); ( prs, بامیان) also spelled Bamiyan or Bamian is the capital of Bamyan Province in central Afghanistan. Its population of approximately 70,000 people makes it the largest city in Hazarajat. Bamyan is at an alti ...
). According to Joseph Walser, the fifth and sixth centuries saw a great increase in their production. By this time, Chinese pilgrims, such as
Faxian
Faxian (法顯 ; 337 CE – c. 422 CE), also referred to as Fa-Hien, Fa-hsien and Sehi, was a Chinese Buddhist monk and translator who traveled by foot from China to India to acquire Buddhist texts. Starting his arduous journey about age 60, h ...
,
Yijing
The ''I Ching'' or ''Yi Jing'' (, ), usually translated ''Book of Changes'' or ''Classic of Changes'', is an ancient Chinese divination text that is among the oldest of the Chinese classics. Originally a divination manual in the Western Zhou ...
, and
Xuanzang
Xuanzang (, ; 602–664), born Chen Hui / Chen Yi (), also known as Hiuen Tsang, was a 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making contributions to Chinese Buddhism, the travelogue of ...
were traveling to India, and their writings describe monasteries which they label 'Mahāyāna' as well as monasteries where both Mahāyāna monks and non-Mahāyāna monks lived together.
Modern scholarly views on dating
Dating the Mahāyāna sūtras is quite difficult; and many can only be dated firmly to when they were translated into another language.
Andrew Skilton summarizes a common prevailing view of the Mahāyāna sūtras among modern Buddhist studies scholars as follows:
A. K. Warder
Anthony Kennedy Warder (8 September 1924 – 8 January 2013) was a British Indologist. His best-known works are ''Introduction to Pali'' (1963), ''Indian Buddhism'' (1970), and the eight-volume ''Indian Kāvya Literature'' (1972–2011).
Life
Wa ...
notes that the Mahāyāna Sūtras are highly unlikely to have come from the teachings of the historical Buddha, since the language and style of every extant Mahāyāna Sūtra is comparable more to later Indian texts than to texts that could have circulated in the Buddha's putative lifetime. Warder also notes that the Tibetan historian
Tāranātha
Tāranātha (1575–1634) was a Lama of the Jonang school of Tibetan Buddhism. He is widely considered its most remarkable scholar and exponent.
Taranatha was born in Tibet, supposedly on the birthday of Padmasambhava. His original name was Ku ...
(1575–1634) proclaimed that after the Buddha taught the sutras, they disappeared from the human world and circulated only in the world of the
nagas. In Warder's view, "this is as good as an admission that no such texts existed until the 2nd century A.D."
Paul Williams writes that while Mahāyāna tradition believes that the Mahāyāna sūtras were taught by the Buddha, "source-critical and historical awareness has made it impossible for the modern scholar to accept this traditional account."
[Williams (2008), p. 39.] However, Williams further writes that
Nevertheless, it is not always absurd to suggest that a Mahāyāna sūtra or teaching may contain elements of a tradition which goes back to the Buddha himself, which was played down or just possibly excluded from the canonical formulations of the early schools. We have seen that even at the First Council there is evidence of disagreement as regards the details of the Buddha's teaching.
John W. Pettit writes that "Mahāyāna has not got a strong historical claim for representing the explicit teachings of the historical Buddha". However, he also argues that basic Mahāyāna concepts such as "the bodhisattva ethic, emptiness (sunyata), and the recognition of a distinction between buddhahood and arhatship as spiritual ideals," can be seen in the
Pāli Canon
The Pāli Canon is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pāli language. It is the most complete extant early Buddhist canon. It derives mainly from the Tamrashatiya school.
During th ...
. According to Pettit, this suggests that Mahāyāna is "not simply an accretion of fabricated doctrines" but "has a strong connection with the teachings of Buddha himself".
Questions of authenticity
![Nagarjuna Conqueror of the Serpent](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Nagarjuna_Conqueror_of_the_Serpent.jpg)
Mahāyāna sūtras are generally regarded by Mahāyānists as being more profound than the
śrāvaka
Śrāvaka (Sanskrit) or Sāvaka (Pali) means "hearer" or, more generally, "disciple". This term is used in Buddhism and Jainism. In Jainism, a śrāvaka is any lay Jain so the term śrāvaka has been used for the Jain community itself (for example ...
texts as well as generating more spiritual merit and benefit. Thus, they are seen as superior and more virtuous to non-Mahāyāna sūtras.
The study of Mahāyāna sūtras is central to East Asian Buddhism, where they are widely read and studied. In Tibetan Buddhism meanwhile, there is a greater emphasis on the study of Mahāyāna
śāstras (philosophical treatises), which are seen as more systematic ways of studying the content found in the sūtras.
The Mahāyāna sūtras were not recognized as being Buddha word (''buddhavacana'') by various groups of Indian Buddhists and there was lively debate over their authenticity throughout the Buddhist world. Buddhist communities such as the
Mahāsāṃghika
The Mahāsāṃghika (Brahmi: 𑀫𑀳𑀸𑀲𑀸𑀁𑀖𑀺𑀓, "of the Great Sangha", ) was one of the early Buddhist schools. Interest in the origins of the Mahāsāṃghika school lies in the fact that their Vinaya recension appears in se ...
school and the Theravada tradition of
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka (, ; si, ශ්රී ලංකා, Śrī Laṅkā, translit-std=ISO (); ta, இலங்கை, Ilaṅkai, translit-std=ISO ()), formerly known as Ceylon and officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an ...
became divided into groups which accepted or did not accept these texts.
Theravāda commentaries of the
Mahavihara
Mahavihara () is the Sanskrit and Pali term for a great vihara (centre of learning or Buddhist monastery) and is used to describe a monastic complex of viharas.
Mahaviharas of India
A range of monasteries grew up in ancient Magadha (modern Bihar ...
sub-school mention these texts (which they call ''Vedalla/Vetulla'') as not being the Buddha word and being counterfeit scriptures. The
Saṃmitīya
The Pudgalavāda (Sanskrit; English: "Personalism"; Pali: Puggalavāda; ) was a Buddhist philosophical view and also refers to a group of Nikaya Buddhist schools (mainly known as Vātsīputrīyas) that arose from the Sthavira nikāya.Williams, ...
school was also known as being strongly opposed to the Mahayana sutras as noted by the Tibetan historian
Tāranātha
Tāranātha (1575–1634) was a Lama of the Jonang school of Tibetan Buddhism. He is widely considered its most remarkable scholar and exponent.
Taranatha was born in Tibet, supposedly on the birthday of Padmasambhava. His original name was Ku ...
.
Xuanzang
Xuanzang (, ; 602–664), born Chen Hui / Chen Yi (), also known as Hiuen Tsang, was a 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making contributions to Chinese Buddhism, the travelogue of ...
reports that a
Saṃmitīya
The Pudgalavāda (Sanskrit; English: "Personalism"; Pali: Puggalavāda; ) was a Buddhist philosophical view and also refers to a group of Nikaya Buddhist schools (mainly known as Vātsīputrīyas) that arose from the Sthavira nikāya.Williams, ...
known as Prajñāgupta composed a treatise which argued against the Mahāyāna.
[Joshi, Lalmai. ''Studies in the Buddhistic Culture of India.'' 1987. p. 171]
Various Mahāyāna sūtras warn against the charge that they are not word of the Buddha and defend their authenticity in different ways.
[Werner et al (2013). ''The Bodhisattva Ideal: Essays on the Emergence of Mahayana.'' pp. 89-90, 211-212, 227. Buddhist Publication Society.] Some Mahāyāna sūtras like as the ''Gaṇḍavyūha'' often criticize early Buddhist figures, such as
Sariputra for lacking knowledge and goodness, and thus, these elders or
śrāvaka
Śrāvaka (Sanskrit) or Sāvaka (Pali) means "hearer" or, more generally, "disciple". This term is used in Buddhism and Jainism. In Jainism, a śrāvaka is any lay Jain so the term śrāvaka has been used for the Jain community itself (for example ...
are seen as not intelligent enough to receive the Mahāyāna teachings.
The reason these accounts give for the historically late disclosure of the Mahāyāna teachings is that most people were initially unable to understand the Mahāyāna sūtras at the time of the Buddha (500 BCE) and suitable recipients for these teachings had not yet arisen. Some traditional accounts of the transmission of the ''Prajñāpāramitā'' ''sūtras'' claim that they were originally stored or hidden in the realm of the ''
nāga
The Nagas (IAST: ''nāga''; Devanāgarī: नाग) are a divine, or semi-divine, race of half-human, half-serpent beings that reside in the netherworld (Patala), and can occasionally take human or part-human form, or are so depicted in art. ...
s'' (serpent-like supernatural beings). Later, these sūtras were retrieved by
Nāgārjuna
Nāgārjuna . 150 – c. 250 CE (disputed)was an Indian Mahāyāna Buddhist thinker, scholar-saint and philosopher. He is widely considered one of the most important Buddhist philosophers.Garfield, Jay L. (1995), ''The Fundamental Wisdom of ...
. Other Mahāyāna sources state that they were preached or preserved by bodhisattvas like
Mañjuśrī
Mañjuśrī (Sanskrit: मञ्जुश्री) is a ''bodhisattva'' associated with '' prajñā'' (wisdom) in Mahāyāna Buddhism. His name means "Gentle Glory" in Sanskrit. Mañjuśrī is also known by the fuller name of Mañjuśrīkumārab ...
or Buddhas like
Vajradhāra.
Another Mahāyāna explanation for the later appearance of the Mahāyāna sūtras in the historical record is the idea that they are the revelations of certain Buddhas and bodhisattvas, transmitted through visions and meditative experiences to a select few individuals.
The practice of visualization of Buddhas (in texts like the ''
Sukhāvatīvyūha'') has been seen by some scholars as a possible explanation for the source of certain Mahāyāna sūtras which were seen as revelations from Buddha in other heavenly worlds. Williams also notes that there are other Mahāyāna texts which speak of sūtras being revealed or entrusted to forest dwelling monks by
devas
Devas may refer to:
* Devas Club, a club in south London
* Anthony Devas (1911–1958), British portrait painter
* Charles Stanton Devas (1848–1906), political economist
* Jocelyn Devas (died 1886), founder of the Devas Club
* Devas (band), ...
(deities). Paul Harrison notes that the idea that devas may preach the Buddha word is also present in non-Mahāyāna texts. Paul Harrison has also noted the importance of dream revelations in certain texts such as the ''Arya-svapna-nirdesa'' which lists and interprets 108 dream signs.
"Word of the Buddha" as what leads to awakening
A different Mahāyāna justification for the authenticity of the Mahāyāna sūtras is that they are in accord with the truth, with the Buddha's
Dharma
Dharma (; sa, धर्म, dharma, ; pi, dhamma, italic=yes) is a key concept with multiple meanings in Indian religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and others. Although there is no direct single-word translation for '' ...
and therefore they lead to awakening. This is based on the idea that "Whatever is well spoken
'subhasita'' all that is the word of the Buddha
'buddhabhasita''"
[Williams, (2008), p. 41.] As such, this idea holds that Mahāyāna is the "word of the Buddha" because it leads to awakening (''bodhi''), not because it was spoken by a specific individual with the title "Buddha". According to Venerable
Hsuan Hua
Hsuan Hua (; April 16, 1918 – June 7, 1995), also known as An Tzu, Tu Lun and Master Hua by his Western disciples, was a Chinese monk of Chan Buddhism and a contributing figure in bringing Chinese Buddhism to the United States in the lat ...
, there are five types of beings who may speak "Buddha word": a Buddha, a disciple of a Buddha, a
deva
Deva may refer to:
Entertainment
* ''Deva'' (1989 film), a 1989 Kannada film
* ''Deva'' (1995 film), a 1995 Tamil film
* ''Deva'' (2002 film), a 2002 Bengali film
* Deva (2007 Telugu film)
* ''Deva'' (2017 film), a 2017 Marathi film
* Deva ...
(heavenly being), a
ṛṣi
''Rishi'' () is a term for an accomplished and enlightened person. They find mentions in various Vedic texts. Rishis are believed to have composed hymns of the Vedas. The Post-Vedic tradition of Hinduism regards the rishis as "great yogis" or ...
(a sage), or an emanation of one of these beings; however, they must first receive certification from a Buddha that its contents are true Dharma.
The Indian Mahāyāna scholar
Shantideva
Shantideva (Sanskrit: Śāntideva; ; ; mn, Шантидэва гэгээн; vi, Tịch Thiên) was an 8th-century CE Indian philosopher, Buddhist monk, poet, and scholar at the mahavihara of Nalanda. He was an adherent of the Mādhyamaka philo ...
(8th century) states:
Through four factors is an inspired utterance 'pratibhana''the word of the Buddhas. What four? (i)...the inspired utterance is connected with truth, not untruth; (ii) it is connected with the Dharma, not that which is not the Dharma; (iii) it brings about the renunciation of moral taints 'klesa''not their increase; and (iv) it shows the laudable qualities of nirvana, not those of the cycle of rebirth amsara
Williams writes that similar ideas can be found in the
Pali Canon
The Pāli Canon is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pāli language. It is the most complete extant early Buddhist canon. It derives mainly from the Tamrashatiya school.
During th ...
, though it is interpreted in a more open ended way in the Mahāyāna in order to include a larger set of teachings that were seen as spiritually useful.
The modern Japanese Zen Buddhist scholar
D. T. Suzuki
, self-rendered in 1894 as "Daisetz", was a Japanese-American Buddhist monk, essayist, philosopher, religious scholar, translator, and writer. He was a scholar and author of books and essays on Buddhism, Zen and Shin that were instrumental in sp ...
similarly argued that while the Mahāyāna sūtras may not have been directly taught by the historical Buddha, the "spirit and central ideas" of Mahāyāna "are those of its founder". Thus, Suzuki admits (and celebrates) how the Mahāyāna evolved and adapted itself to suit the times by developing new teachings and texts, while at the same time maintaining the core "spirit" of the Buddha.
Teachings
New ideas
The teachings as contained in the Mahāyāna sūtras as a whole have been described as a loosely bound bundle of many teachings, which was able to contain the various contradictions. Because of these contradictory elements, there are "very few things that can be said with certainty about Mahāyāna Buddhism".
Central to the Mahāyāna sūtras is the ideal of the
Bodhisattva
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood.
In the Early Buddhist schools ...
path, something which is not unique to them, however, as such a path is also taught in non-Mahayana texts which also required prediction of future Buddhahood in the presence of a living Buddha.
[Drewes, David, Mahayana Sutras, forthcoming in Blackwell Companion to South and Southeast Asian Buddhism, Updated 2016] What is unique to Mahāyāna sūtras is the idea that the term bodhisattva is applicable to any person from the moment they intend to become a Buddha (i.e. the arising of
bodhicitta
In Mahayana Buddhism, bodhicitta, ("enlightenment-mind" or "the thought of awakening"), is the mind (citta) that is aimed at awakening ( bodhi), with wisdom and compassion for the benefit of all sentient beings. Bodhicitta is the defining quali ...
) and without the requirement of a living Buddha.
They also claim that any person who accepts and uses Mahāyāna sūtras either had already received or will soon receive such a prediction from a Buddha, establishing their position as an irreversible bodhisattva.
Some Mahāyāna sūtras promote it as a universal path for everyone, while others like the ''
Ugraparipṛcchā'' see it as something for a small elite of hardcore ascetics.
[Williams, Paul, ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,'' Routledge, 2008, pp. 29, 36, 43.]
While some Mahāyāna sūtras like the Vimalakirti sūtra and the White Lotus sūtra criticize
arhat
In Buddhism, an ''arhat'' (Sanskrit: अर्हत्) or ''arahant'' (Pali: अरहन्त्, 𑀅𑀭𑀳𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁆) is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved ''Nirvana'' and liberated ...
s and
sravakas (referring to non-Mahāyānists) as lacking wisdom, and reject their path as a lower vehicle, i.e. '
hīnayāna
Hīnayāna (, ) is a Sanskrit term literally meaning the "small/deficient vehicle". Classical Chinese and Tibetan teachers translate it as "smaller vehicle". The term is applied collectively to the ''Śrāvakayāna'' and ''Pratyekabuddhayāna'' pa ...
' (the 'inferior way'), earlier Mahāyāna sūtras do not do this.
As noted by David Drewes "early Mahāyāna sūtras often present their teachings as useful not only to people who wish to become Buddhas, but to those who wish to attain arhatship or
pratyekabuddhahood as well. The old idea that the Mahāyāna began with the rejection of the arhat ideal in favor of that of the bodhisattva is thus clearly incorrect."
Paul Williams also writes that earlier Mahāyāna sūtras like the ''
Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra
The ''Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra'' (''The inquiry of Ugra'') is an early Indian sutra which is particularly important for understanding the beginnings of Mahayana Buddhism. It contains positive references to both the path of the bodhisattva and the p ...
'' and the ''
Ajitasena sutra
The ''Ajitasena-vyakarana-nirdesa sutra'' ("Explanation of prophecy or kingAjitasena") is a 'proto-Mahayana' sutra, found near Gilgit in 1931. The manuscript itself dates to about the sixth or seventh centuries CE.Williams, Paul. ''Mahayana B ...
'' do not present any antagonism towards the hearers or the ideal of
arhat
In Buddhism, an ''arhat'' (Sanskrit: अर्हत्) or ''arahant'' (Pali: अरहन्त्, 𑀅𑀭𑀳𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁆) is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved ''Nirvana'' and liberated ...
ship like later sutras.
According to David Drewes, Mahāyāna sūtras contain several elements besides the promotion of the
bodhisattva
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood.
In the Early Buddhist schools ...
ideal, including "expanded cosmologies and mythical histories, ideas of
purelands and great, 'celestial'
Buddhas
In Buddhism, Buddha (; Pali, Sanskrit: 𑀩𑀼𑀤𑁆𑀥, बुद्ध), "awakened one", is a title for those who are awake, and have attained nirvana and Buddhahood through their own efforts and insight, without a teacher to point out ...
and
bodhisattva
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood.
In the Early Buddhist schools ...
s, descriptions of powerful new religious practices, new ideas on the nature of the Buddha, and a range of new philosophical perspectives."
Several Mahāyāna sūtras depict Buddhas or Bodhisattvas not found in earlier texts, such as the Buddhas
Amitabha,
Akshobhya
Akshobhya ( sa, अक्षोभ्य, ''Akṣobhya'', "Immovable One"; ) is one of the Five Wisdom Buddhas, a product of the Adibuddha, who represents consciousness as an aspect of reality. By convention he is located in the east of the Di ...
and
Vairocana
Vairocana (also Mahāvairocana, sa, वैरोचन) is a cosmic buddha from Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism. Vairocana is often interpreted, in texts like the ''Avatamsaka Sutra'', as the dharmakāya of the historical Gautama Buddha. In East ...
, and the bodhisattvas
Maitreya
Maitreya (Sanskrit: ) or Metteyya (Pali: ), also Maitreya Buddha or Metteyya Buddha, is regarded as the future Buddha of this world in Buddhist eschatology. As the 5th and final Buddha of the current kalpa, Maitreya's teachings will be aimed at ...
,
Mañjusri,
Ksitigarbha, and
Avalokiteshvara. An important feature of Mahāyāna is the way that it understands the nature of
Buddhahood
In Buddhism, Buddha (; Pali, Sanskrit: 𑀩𑀼𑀤𑁆𑀥, बुद्ध), "awakened one", is a title for those who are awake, and have attained nirvana and Buddhahood through their own efforts and insight, without a teacher to point out ...
. Mahāyāna texts see Buddhas (and to a lesser extent, certain bodhisattvas as well) as transcendental or supramundane (''lokuttara'') beings, who live for eons constantly helping others through their activity.
[Williams, Paul, ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,'' Routledge, 2008, p. 21.]
According to Paul Williams, in Mahāyāna, a Buddha is often seen as "a spiritual king, relating to and caring for the world", rather than simply a teacher who after his death "has completely 'gone beyond' the world and its cares".
[Williams, Paul, ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,'' Routledge, 2008, p. 27.] Buddha Sakyamuni's life and death on earth is then usually understood
docetically, as a "mere appearance", his death was an unreal show (which was done in order to teach others), while in reality he continues to live in a transcendent realm in order to help all beings.
Practices
![Chanting_The_Buddhist_Scriptures,by_Li_Mei-shu](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Chanting_The_Buddhist_Scriptures%2Cby_Li_Mei-shu.jpg)
Mahāyāna sūtras, especially those of the ''
Prajñāpāramitā
A Tibetan painting with a Prajñāpāramitā sūtra at the center of the mandala
Prajñāpāramitā ( sa, प्रज्ञापारमिता) means "the Perfection of Wisdom" or "Transcendental Knowledge" in Mahāyāna and Theravāda B ...
'' genre, teach the importance of the practice of the six perfections (''
pāramitā
''Pāramitā'' (Sanskrit, Pali: पारमिता) or ''pāramī'' (Pāli: पारमी), is a Buddhist term often translated as "perfection". It is described in Buddhist commentaries as noble character qualities generally associated with ...
'') as part of the path to
Buddhahood
In Buddhism, Buddha (; Pali, Sanskrit: 𑀩𑀼𑀤𑁆𑀥, बुद्ध), "awakened one", is a title for those who are awake, and have attained nirvana and Buddhahood through their own efforts and insight, without a teacher to point out ...
, and special attention is given to the perfection of wisdom (''prajñāpāramitā'') which is seen as primary. The importance of developing ''
bodhicitta
In Mahayana Buddhism, bodhicitta, ("enlightenment-mind" or "the thought of awakening"), is the mind (citta) that is aimed at awakening ( bodhi), with wisdom and compassion for the benefit of all sentient beings. Bodhicitta is the defining quali ...
'', which refers to a mind that is aimed at full awakening (i.e. Buddhahood) is also stressed.
Another central practice advocated by the Mahāyāna sūtras is focused around "the acquisition of
merit
Merit may refer to:
Religion
* Merit (Christianity)
* Merit (Buddhism)
* Punya (Hinduism)
* Imputed righteousness in Reformed Christianity
Companies and brands
* Merit (cigarette), a brand of cigarettes made by Altria
* Merit Energy Company, a ...
, the universal currency of the Buddhist world, a vast quantity of which was believed to be necessary for the attainment of Buddhahood".
According to David Drewes, Mahāyāna sūtras include new religious practices that are supposed to make Buddhahood easy to achieve. Some of the most widely taught practices taught in Mahāyāna sūtras include:
* hearing the names of certain Buddhas or bodhisattvas, or reciting their name
* maintaining Buddhist precepts,
* listening to, memorizing, reciting, preaching, worshiping and copying Mahāyāna sūtras,
* rejoicing (''anumodana'') in the collected meritorious actions of all previous Buddhas and other beings.
Another innovative "shortcut" to Buddhahood in Mahāyāna sutras are what are often called
Pure Land
A pure land is the celestial realm of a buddha or bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism. The term "pure land" is particular to East Asian Buddhism () and related traditions; in Sanskrit the equivalent concept is called a buddha-field (Sanskrit ). Th ...
practices. These involve the invocation of Buddhas such as
Amitabha and
Aksobhya
Akshobhya ( sa, अक्षोभ्य, ''Akṣobhya'', "Immovable One"; ) is one of the Five Wisdom Buddhas, a product of the Adibuddha, who represents consciousness as an aspect of reality. By convention he is located in the east of the Di ...
, who are said to have created "
Buddha fields" or "pure lands" especially so that those beings who wish to be reborn there can easily and quickly become Buddhas. Reciting the Mahāyāna sūtras and also simply the names of these Buddhas can allow one to be reborn in these places.
Mahāyāna Sūtra Collections
Some Buddhist Schools in India had collections of Mahāyāna Sūtras which were part of their scriptural canon, sometimes in their own textual collection referred to as ''Bodhisattva Piṭaka''. Jan Nattier notes that the ''Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra'' mentions a ''Bodhisattva Piṭaka'' (as part of a four part canon that also includes the Sutra Piṭaka, the Vinaya Piṭaka, and the Abhidharma Piṭaka). According to Nattier, schools which maintained a ''Bodhisattva Piṭaka'' include the
Dharmaguptaka
The Dharmaguptaka (Sanskrit: धर्मगुप्तक; ) are one of the eighteen or twenty early Buddhist schools, depending on the source. They are said to have originated from another sect, the Mahīśāsakas. The Dharmaguptakas had a p ...
and perhaps the
Bahuśrutīya
Bahuśrutīya (Sanskrit) was one of the early Buddhist schools, according to early sources such as Vasumitra, the ''Śāriputraparipṛcchā'', and other sources, and was a sub-group which emerged from the Mahāsāṃghika sect.
Etymology
The nam ...
(or whoever authored the ''
Tattvasiddhi-Śāstra''). Some sutras translated by
Lokaksema (c. 147-189 CE) also mention a "''Bodhisattva Piṭaka".''
In the 4th century Mahāyāna
abhidharma
The Abhidharma are ancient (third century BCE and later) Buddhist texts which contain detailed scholastic presentations of doctrinal material appearing in the Buddhist ''sutras''. It also refers to the scholastic method itself as well as the f ...
work ''
Abhidharmasamuccaya'',
Asaṅga refers to the collection which contains the āgamas as the ''Śrāvakapiṭaka'', and associates it with the
śrāvaka
Śrāvaka (Sanskrit) or Sāvaka (Pali) means "hearer" or, more generally, "disciple". This term is used in Buddhism and Jainism. In Jainism, a śrāvaka is any lay Jain so the term śrāvaka has been used for the Jain community itself (for example ...
s and
pratyekabuddhas.
[Boin-Webb, Sara (tr). Rahula, Walpola (tr). Asanga. ''Abhidharma Samuccaya: The Compendium of Higher Teaching.'' 2001. pp. 199-200] Asaṅga classifies the Mahāyāna Sūtras as belonging to the ''Bodhisattvapiṭaka'', which is designated as the collection of teachings for bodhisattvas.
The Mahāyāna Sūtras survive predominantly in "Buddhist Chinese" (''fójiào hànyǔ'' 佛教漢語, a variety of written
ancient Chinese) and
Classical Tibetan
Classical Tibetan refers to the language of any text written in Tibetic after the Old Tibetan period. Though it extends from the 12th century until the modern day, it particularly refers to the language of early canonical texts translated from oth ...
translations. The source texts were probably in
Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit
Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit (BHS) is a modern linguistic category applied to the language used in a class of Indian Buddhist texts, such as the Perfection of Wisdom sutras. BHS is classified as a Middle Indo-Aryan language. It is sometimes called "Bu ...
or various
Prakrit
The Prakrits (; sa, prākṛta; psu, 𑀧𑀸𑀉𑀤, ; pka, ) are a group of vernacular Middle Indo-Aryan languages that were used in the Indian subcontinent from around the 3rd century BCE to the 8th century CE. The term Prakrit is usu ...
languages such as
Gandhari
Gandhari may refer to:
* Gandhari (Mahabharata), a character in the Indian epic ''Mahabharata''
* Gandhari khilla, a hill fort near Bokkalagutta, Telangana, India
* Gandhari language, north-western prakrit spoken in Gāndhāra
**Kharosthi, or Gan ...
. The main collections are found in the Tibetan
Kangyur
The Tibetan Buddhist canon is a loosely defined collection of sacred texts recognized by various schools of Tibetan Buddhism, comprising the Kangyur or Kanjur ('Translation of the Word') and the Tengyur or Tanjur (Tengyur) ('Translation of Treat ...
and the
Chinese Tripiṭaka. There are also numerous
Sanskrit manuscripts of individual texts from various finds like
Dunhuang
Dunhuang () is a county-level city in Northwestern Gansu Province, Western China. According to the 2010 Chinese census, the city has a population of 186,027, though 2019 estimates put the city's population at about 191,800. Dunhuang was a major ...
, and Sanskrit collections from
Nepal
Nepal (; ne, नेपाल ), formerly the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal ( ne,
सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल ), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is mai ...
. Many parallel translations of certain Sūtras exist. A handful of them, such as the ''
Prajñāpāramitā
A Tibetan painting with a Prajñāpāramitā sūtra at the center of the mandala
Prajñāpāramitā ( sa, प्रज्ञापारमिता) means "the Perfection of Wisdom" or "Transcendental Knowledge" in Mahāyāna and Theravāda B ...
'' sutras like the ''
Heart Sutra'' and the ''
Diamond Sutra'', are considered fundamental by most modern Mahāyāna traditions.
The earliest group of Mahāyāna Sūtras translated into Chinese
Some scholars have traditionally considered the earliest Mahāyāna Sūtras to include the very first versions of the ''Prajñāpāramitā'' series, along with texts concerning
Akshobhya
Akshobhya ( sa, अक्षोभ्य, ''Akṣobhya'', "Immovable One"; ) is one of the Five Wisdom Buddhas, a product of the Adibuddha, who represents consciousness as an aspect of reality. By convention he is located in the east of the Di ...
, which were probably composed in the 1st century BCE in the south of India. According to
A.K. Warder
Anthony Kennedy Warder (8 September 1924 – 8 January 2013) was a British Indologist. His best-known works are ''Introduction to Pali'' (1963), ''Indian Buddhism'' (1970), and the eight-volume ''Indian Kāvya Literature'' (1972–2011).
Life
Wa ...
, some scholars think that the earliest Mahāyāna Sūtras were mainly composed in the south of India, and later the activity of writing additional scriptures was continued in the north.
Some of the earliest Mahāyāna Sūtras were translated by the
Kushan
The Kushan Empire ( grc, Βασιλεία Κοσσανῶν; xbc, Κυϸανο, ; sa, कुषाण वंश; Brahmi: , '; BHS: ; xpr, 𐭊𐭅𐭔𐭍 𐭇𐭔𐭕𐭓, ; zh, 貴霜 ) was a syncretic empire, formed by the Yuezhi, i ...
monk
Lokakṣema, who came to China from the kingdom of
Gandhāra
Gandhāra is the name of an ancient region located in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, more precisely in present-day north-west Pakistan and parts of south-east Afghanistan. The region centered around the Peshawar Vall ...
. His first translations to Chinese were made in the
Eastern Han
The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a warr ...
capital of
Luoyang
Luoyang is a city located in the confluence area of Luo River (Henan), Luo River and Yellow River in the west of Henan province. Governed as a prefecture-level city, it borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the east, Pingdingshan to the ...
between 178 and 189 CE.
The editors of the
Taishō Tripiṭaka attribute twelve texts to Lokakṣema. These attributions have been studied in detail by
Erik Zürcher
Erik Zürcher (13 September 1928, in Utrecht – 7 February 2008, in Warmond) was a Dutch Sinologist. From 1962 to 1993, Zürcher was a professor of history of East Asia at the Leiden University. He was also Director of the Sinological Institute, b ...
,
Paul Harrison and
Jan Nattier
Jan Nattier is an American scholar of Mahāyana Buddhism.
Early life and education
She earned her PhD in Inner Asian and Altaic Studies from Harvard University (1988), and subsequently taught at the University of Hawaii (1988-1990), Stanford Unive ...
, and some have been called into question. Zürcher considers it reasonably certain that Lokakṣema translated the following:
* T224. ''
Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra
The ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'' (Sanskrit: अष्टसाहस्रिका प्रज्ञापारमिता सूत्र; English: ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand ines') is a Mahāyāna Bud ...
'' ("The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines"; 道行般若經)
* T280. ''The Scripture on the Tusita Heaven'' (佛說兜沙經.), part of the proto-
Avatamsaka Sutra
The ' (IAST, sa, 𑀅𑀯𑀢𑀁𑀲𑀓 𑀲𑀽𑀢𑁆𑀭) or ''Buddhāvataṃsaka-nāma-mahāvaipulya-sūtra (The Mahāvaipulya Sūtra named “Buddhāvataṃsaka”)'' is one of the most influential Mahāyāna sutras of East Asian B ...
* T313. ''
Akṣobhya
Akshobhya ( sa, अक्षोभ्य, ''Akṣobhya'', "Immovable One"; ) is one of the Five Wisdom Buddhas, a product of the Adibuddha, who represents consciousness as an aspect of reality. By convention he is located in the east of the Di ...
-vyūha'' (阿閦佛國經)
* T350. ''Kaśyapa-parivarta'' ("The Kāśyapa Chapter"; 說遺日摩尼寶經)
* T418. ''
Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra
The ''Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra'' (Sanskrit; ; Vietnamese: Kinh Bát Chu Tam Muội) is an early Mahayana Buddhist scripture, which probably originated between the 1st century BCE and 2nd century CE in the Gandhara area of northwestern India. T ...
'' (般舟三昧經)
* T458. ''Mañjuśrī's Inquiry Concerning the Bodhisattva Career'' (文殊師利問菩薩署經)
* T626. ''Ajātaśatru Kaukṛtya Vinodana Sūtra'' (阿闍世王經)
* T807. ''The Hundred Jewels of the Inner Treasury'' (佛說內藏百寶經)
Harrison is doubtful about T626, and considers that T418 is the product of revision and does not date from Lokakṣema's time. Conversely, Harrison considers that T624 ''Druma-kinnara-rāja-paripṛcchā-sūtra'' (伅真陀羅所問如來三昧經) ought to be considered genuine.
Kumārajīva translations
Another set of Mahayana sutras, which gives an indication of which Mahayana sources were widespread in
Central Asia
Central Asia, also known as Middle Asia, is a subregion, region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes t ...
, are those translated by the Indian-Kuchan translator
Kumārajīva
Kumārajīva (Sanskrit: कुमारजीव; , 344–413 CE) was a Buddhist monk, scholar, missionary and translator from the Kingdom of Kucha (present-day Aksu Prefecture, Xinjiang, China). Kumārajīva is seen as one of the greatest ...
(344–413 CE) and his team (probably from
Kuchan
Quchan ( fa, قوچان ' ; also Romanized as Qūchān and Quçan; also known as Khabushan, Gochan) is a city and capital of Quchan County, in Razavi Khorasan Province, Iran. It is located due south of the border city of Ashgabat. At the 2006 ce ...
target sources) in
Chang'an
Chang'an (; ) is the traditional name of Xi'an. The site had been settled since Neolithic times, during which the Yangshao culture was established in Banpo, in the city's suburbs. Furthermore, in the northern vicinity of modern Xi'an, Qin Shi ...
. The main sutras they translated are:
* ''
Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'' (''Diamond Sutra'')
* ''
Smaller Sukhāvatī-vyūha'' (T 366)
* ''
Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra (Lotus Sutra)'' (T 263—62)
* ''
Vimalakirti Nirdesa Sutra'' (T 475)
* ''
Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra
The ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'' (Sanskrit: अष्टसाहस्रिका प्रज्ञापारमिता सूत्र; English: ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand ines') is a Mahāyāna Bud ...
'', (T 227, 408 CE)
* ''Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (''T 223, 403-404 CE)
* ''
Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra
The ''Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra'' (Sanskrit; ) is an early Mahayana sutra of Indian origin which focuses on the transcendental nature, supernatural powers, and transformational feats bestowed upon the meditation practitioner by the state ...
'' (T 642)
*
''Daśabhūmikā Sūtra'' (T 286) in collaboration with Buddhayaśas.
* ''Acintyaprabhāsa-nirdeśa-sūtra'' (T 484)
* ''Viśeṣacintā-brahma-paripṛcchā'' (T 585—86)
* ''Bhadrakalpa'' (T 425)
* ''Vasudhara-sūtra'' (T 481—82)
* ''Pūrṇa-paripṛcchā'' ( T 310, 17)
* ''Ratnajāli-paripṛcchā'' (T 433)
* ''Vidhi-hṛdaya-vyūha'' (T 307)
* ''Sarva-puṇya-samuccaya-samādhi-sūtra'' (T 381—82)
The ''Sūtrasamuccaya''
The ''Sūtrasamuccaya'' is a compendium of sūtra quotations which survives in Tibetan and Chinese translation. It is sometimes attributed to
Nagarjuna
Nāgārjuna . 150 – c. 250 CE (disputed)was an Indian Mahāyāna Buddhist thinker, scholar-saint and philosopher. He is widely considered one of the most important Buddhist philosophers.Garfield, Jay L. (1995), ''The Fundamental Wisdom of ...
, but is likely to be from a later period (possibly 4th century CE or later). This anthology gives us an idea of some of the important Mahāyāna Sūtras that were being studied and quoted in Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism at this time. The ''Sūtrasamuccaya'' quotes from some
early Buddhist texts
Early Buddhist texts (EBTs), early Buddhist literature or early Buddhist discourses are parallel texts shared by the early Buddhist schools. The most widely studied EBT material are the first four Pali Nikayas, as well as the corresponding Chines ...
, but mainly focuses on Mahāyāna Sūtras.
The following Mahāyāna Sūtras are quoted in the ''Sūtrasamuccaya'':
* Saddharmapundarika-sutra (Lotus Sutra)
* Nirnaya-raja-sutra
* Bodhisattva-pitaka
* Bhagavajjnana-vaipulya-sutra
* Candra-garbha-parivarta
* Gandavyuha-sutra
* Bhadrakalpika-sutra
* Tathagata-guhya-sutra
* Vimatisamudghata-sutra
* Sraddha-bala-dhana-sutra
* Sagara-naga-raja-pariprccha
* Tathagataguna-jñanacintyavis-ayavatara-nirdesa-sutra
* Astasahasrika Prajñaparamita
* Astadasasahasrika Prajñaparamita
* Pancavimsatisahasrika Prajñaparamita
* Simhasutejo'vadana
* Prasenajit-pariprccha
* Prasanta-viniscaya-pratiharya-sutra
* Ajatasatru-parivarta
* Ratnarasi-sutra
* Kasyapaparivarta
* Pitaputrasamagamana-sutra
* Dharmasamgiti-sutra
* Aksayamati-nirdesa-sutra
* Upayakausalya-sutra
* Viradattagrhapati-pariprcchda
* Ratnamegha-sutra
* Dharani-svararaja-pariprccha
* Maitreya-simhanada-sutra
* Mañjusri-vikridita-sutra
* Candrapradipa (=Samadhiraja, Candraprabhaparivarta) sutra
* Niyataniyatavataramudrasutra
* Mañjusri-vikurvana-parivarta
* Sagaramati-pariprccha-sutra
* Ugra-pariprccha-sutra
* Pravrajyantaraya-sutra
* Udayanavatsaraja-pariprccha
* Saddharma-smrtyupasthana-sutra
* Vimalakirti-nirdesa
* Satyaka-parivarta
* Vicikitsasudhvamsa-sutra (''possibly identical to Vimatisamudghata-sutra'')
* Suryagarbha-parivarta
* Akasagarbha-parivarta
* Ksitigarbha-sutra
* Adhyasayasamcodana-sutra
* Brahma-pariprccha
* Puspakuta-sutra
* Mahakaruna-(pundarika)-sutra
* Tathagata-bimba-parivarta
* Anupurva-samudgata-sutra
* Tathagatotpattisambhava-sutra
* Lokottara-parivarta
* Lankavatara-sutra
* Mahasamnipata-parivarta
* Avaivartacakra-sutra
* Srimalasimhanada-sutra
* Bhadramayakara-sutra
* Buddhavatamsaka-sutra
* Brahma-visesacinti-pariprccha
* Saptasatika Prajñaparamita
* Ratnasamnicaya-nirdesa-sutra
* Trisatika Prajñaparamita
* Ratnadattamanava-sutra
* Tathagata-kosa-sutra
* Maradamana-parivarta
* Dasabhumika-sutra
Madhyamaka school
According to
David Seyfort Ruegg
David Seyfort Ruegg (August 1, 1931 – February 2, 2021) was an eminent American-British Buddhologist with a long career, extending from the 1950s to the present. His specialty was Madhyamaka philosophy, a core doctrine of Mahayana Buddhism.
Ed ...
, the main sutra sources of the
madhyamaka
Mādhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as Śūnyavāda ("the emptiness doctrine") and Niḥsvabhāvavāda ("the no ''svabhāva'' doctrine"), refers to a tradition of Buddhist ...
tradition are the ''Prajñāpāramitā'',
''Ratnakūṭa'' and
''Avataṃsaka'' sutras.
[Ruegg, David Seyfort, ''''The Literature of the Madhyamaka School of Philosophy in India,'''' Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1981, p. 7.] Other sutras which were widely cited by Indian madhamika philosophers are: ''
Vimalakīrtinirdeṣa'', the ''
Śuraṃgamasamādhi,'' the ''
Saddharmapuṇḍarīka'', the ''
Daśabhūmika'', the ''
Akṣayamatinirdeśa'', the ''
Tathāgataguhyaka'', and the ''
Kāśyapaparivarta''.
Ruegg also notes that the later madhyamaka
Candrakīrti
Chandrakirti (; ; , meaning "glory of the moon" in Sanskrit) or "Chandra" was a Buddhist scholar of the madhyamaka school and a noted commentator on the works of Nagarjuna () and those of his main disciple, Aryadeva. He wrote two influential w ...
(
c. 600 – c. 650) cites the ''Prajñāpāramitā sutras'' as well as:
the ''Akṣayamatinirdeśa, Anavataptahradāpasaṃkramaṇa, Upāliparipṛcchā, Kāśyapaparivarta, Gaganagañja, Tathāgataguhya, Daśabhūmika, Dṛḍhādhyāśaya, Dhāraṇīśvararāja, Pitāputrasamāgama, Mañjuśrīparipṛcchā, Ratnakūṭa, Ratnacūḍaparipṛcchā, Ratnamegha, Ratnākara, Laṅkāvatāra, Lalitavistara, Vimalakirtinirdesa, Śālistamba, Satyadvayāvatāra'', '' Saddharmapuṇḍarīka'', ''Samādhirāja'' (''Candrapradīpa''), and ''Hastikakṣya''.
''The Compendium of Training'' (''Śikṣāsamuccaya'') by the eighth-century madhyamaka scholar
Śāntideva
Shantideva (Sanskrit: Śāntideva; ; ; mn, Шантидэва гэгээн; vi, Tịch Thiên) was an 8th-century CE Indian philosopher, Buddhist monk, poet, and scholar at the mahavihara of Nalanda. He was an adherent of the Mādhyamaka phil ...
, cites a total of ninety-seven Mahāyāna sūtras, some of which are now lost. According to Donald Lopez:
Śāntideva cites three passages from the ''Lotus Sūtra'', compared, for example, with two from the '' Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā'' and two from the '' Laṅkāvatārasūtra''. Among the most cited sūtras are the '' Akṣayamatinirdeśa'' (eighteen citations), the '' Ugraparipṛcchā'' (twenty citations), the ''Dharmasaṃgīti'' (eighteen citations), and the ''Ratnamegha'' (twenty-four citations).
In the Chinese canon
![Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-01](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-01.jpg)
Though there are various editions of the
Chinese Buddhist canon (大藏經;
pinyin
Hanyu Pinyin (), often shortened to just pinyin, is the official romanization system for Standard Mandarin Chinese in China, and to some extent, in Singapore and Malaysia. It is often used to teach Mandarin, normally written in Chinese for ...
: ''Dàzàngjīng''), one of the most widespread modern editions is the Japanese
Taisho Tripitaka, redacted during the 1920s. It consists of eighty-five volumes.
The Mahāyāna Sūtras are contained in various sections of the canon:
* ''
Prajñapāramitā
A Tibetan painting with a Prajñāpāramitā sūtra at the center of the mandala
Prajñāpāramitā ( sa, प्रज्ञापारमिता) means "the Perfection of Wisdom" or "Transcendental Knowledge" in Mahāyāna and Theravāda B ...
'' Section
* ''Saddharma Puṇḍarīka'' Section
* ''
Avataṃsaka'' Section
* ''
Ratnakūṭa'' Section
* ''Mahāparinirvāṇa'' Section
*
''Mahāsannipāta'' Section
* Sutra Collection Section
In the Tibetan Canon
In the
Tibetan Buddhist Canon
The Tibetan Buddhist canon is a loosely defined list of sacred texts recognized by various sects of Tibetan Buddhism. In addition to sutrayana texts from Early Buddhist schools (mostly Sarvastivada) and Mahayana sources, the Tibetan canon incl ...
, Mahāyāna Sūtra translations are found in the
Kangyur
The Tibetan Buddhist canon is a loosely defined collection of sacred texts recognized by various schools of Tibetan Buddhism, comprising the Kangyur or Kanjur ('Translation of the Word') and the Tengyur or Tanjur (Tengyur) ('Translation of Treat ...
(
Wylie: ''bka'-'gyur''). They are traditionally divided into four divisions:
* ''Prajñāpāramitā'' (''sher phyin''), 23 Sūtras.
* ''Buddhāvataṃsaka'' (''phal chen''), a single long text which is actually a composite work.
* ''Ratnakūta'' (''dkon brtsegs''), 49 Sūtras.
* ''General Sūtra collection'' (''mdo sde''), 266 sūtras, varied in length, subject, interlocutors and origins. Most are Mahāyāna works, but a few are non-Mahāyāna texts.
Newar Buddhism
Newar Buddhism
Newar Buddhism is the form of Vajrayana Buddhism practiced by the Newar people of the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. It has developed unique socio-religious elements, which include a non-monastic Buddhist society based on the Newar caste system and ...
has a group of nine Sanskrit Mahayana sutras that are considered the key texts of the tradition. They are:
# ''
Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra
The ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'' (Sanskrit: अष्टसाहस्रिका प्रज्ञापारमिता सूत्र; English: ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand ines') is a Mahāyāna Bud ...
''
# ''
Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra''
# ''
Suvarṇaprabhāsa Sūtra''
# ''
Samādhirāja Sūtra''
# ''
Gandavyūha Sūtra''
# ''
Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra
The ''Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra'' (Sanskrit, "Discourse of the Descent into Laṅka" bo, ལང་ཀར་བཤེགས་པའི་མདོ་, Chinese:入楞伽經) is a prominent Mahayana Buddhist sūtra. This sūtra recounts a teachin ...
''
# ''
Daśabhūmika Sūtra''
# ''
Lalitavistara Sūtra
The ''Lalitavistara Sūtra'' is a Sanskrit Mahayana sutras, Mahayana Buddhist sutra that tells the story of Gautama Buddha from the time of his descent from Tushita until his first sermon in the Deer Park at Sarnath near Varanasi. The term ''La ...
''
# ''
Tathāgataguhyaka''
Key Mahāyāna Sūtras
Proto-Mahayana sutras
The ''
Ajitasena Sūtra'' has been called "Proto-Mahāyāna" by Paul Williams. While it promotes Buddhahood for all, the text lacks the usual antagonism towards the ''
śravakas'' and
''arhats'', as is typical of later Mahāyāna texts like the ''
Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa Sūtra''. It also lacks any self-awareness of itself as being part of "Mahāyāna." It promotes giving to monks like any non-Mahāyāna text, but also includes the depiction of a prince who has visions of many Buddhafields (including
Sukhavati
Sukhavati (IAST: ''Sukhāvatī''; "Blissful") is a pure land of Amitābha in Mahayana Buddhism. It is also called the Land of Bliss or Western Pure Land, and is the most well-known of Buddhist pure lands, due to the popularity of Pure Land Budd ...
and
Abhirati
Abhirati (lit. "The Joyous") is the eastern pure land associated with Akshobhya in Mahayana Buddhism. It is described in the '' Akṣobhyatathāgatasyavyūha Sūtra'' (Taishō Tripiṭaka, 313), which was first translated into Chinese by Loka ...
) on becoming an arhat.
[Williams (2008), pp. 27-30, 46.]
The ''
Salistamba Sūtra'' (rice stalk or rice sapling sūtra) has been considered one of the first Mahayana sutras. According to N. Ross Reat, this sutra has many parallels with the material in the Pali suttas (especially the ''Mahatanha-sahkhaya sutta'', M1:256-71), and could date as far back as 200 BCE. It is possible that this sutra represents a period of Buddhist literature before Mahāyāna doctrine had diverged significantly from the doctrines of the
early Buddhist texts
Early Buddhist texts (EBTs), early Buddhist literature or early Buddhist discourses are parallel texts shared by the early Buddhist schools. The most widely studied EBT material are the first four Pali Nikayas, as well as the corresponding Chines ...
.
Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras
![Prajnyaapaaramitaa Hridaya Pel](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Prajnyaapaaramitaa_Hridaya_Pel.sogd.jpg)
Some of the ''
Prajñāpāramitā
A Tibetan painting with a Prajñāpāramitā sūtra at the center of the mandala
Prajñāpāramitā ( sa, प्रज्ञापारमिता) means "the Perfection of Wisdom" or "Transcendental Knowledge" in Mahāyāna and Theravāda B ...
Sūtras'' are considered to be some of the earliest Mahāyāna Sūtras. Various Western scholars generally hold that the ''
Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra
The ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'' (Sanskrit: अष्टसाहस्रिका प्रज्ञापारमिता सूत्र; English: ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand ines') is a Mahāyāna Bud ...
'' is one of the earliest of these texts (c. 1st century BCE). The ''
Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'' is also seen by scholars like Schopen and numerous Japanese scholars as being very early.
Paul Williams also notes that in Lewis Lancaster's analysis of the earliest Chinese versions of the ''
Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra
The ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'' (Sanskrit: अष्टसाहस्रिका प्रज्ञापारमिता सूत्र; English: ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand ines') is a Mahāyāna Bud ...
'' "a number of key Mahayana concepts are missing from the earliest versions although present in later versions. The world of the earliest Aṣṭasāhasrika is reasonably close to that of the pre-Mahayana traditions."
The main topics of these Sūtras are the path of the
bodhisattva
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood.
In the Early Buddhist schools ...
, the six
transcendent virtues and, in particular, transcendent wisdom (''prajñāpāramitā'') the most important of these. The bodhisattva "mahasattva" (great being) is a being who is training towards full Buddhahood for the benefit of all. "Transcendent Wisdom" (also: the "Perfection of Wisdom") meanwhile, means the ability to see reality as it truly is, a deep and liberating spiritual knowledge that is the source of all virtues. ''Prajñāpāramitā'' is thus "a state of consciousness which understands emptiness (''
shunyata''), the absence of 'self' or intrinsic nature even in dharmas." Since all phenomena (even
Nirvana
( , , ; sa, निर्वाण} ''nirvāṇa'' ; Pali: ''nibbāna''; Prakrit: ''ṇivvāṇa''; literally, "blown out", as in an oil lampRichard Gombrich, ''Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benāres to Modern Colombo.' ...
) lack any essence, unchanging core or independence, they are merely conceptual constructs and as such, they are like magical illusions (''maya'').
Many of these sutras are known by the number of lines, or ''ślokas'', that they contain, such as the ''Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā'' (25,000 line) PP Sūtra, the ''Aṣṭadaśasāhasrikā'' (18,000 lines), and the ''Śatasāhasrikā'' (100,000 lines) etc.
The ''White'' ''Lotus Sūtra''
The ''
Saddharma-pundarīka-sūtra'' (''True Dharma
White Lotus
The White Lotus () is a syncretic religious and political movement which forecasts the imminent advent of the "King of Light" (), i.e., the future Buddha Maitreya. As White Lotus sects developed, they appealed to many Han Chinese who found solac ...
Sūtra)'' is a very influential Sūtra, especially in East Asian Buddhism, where it is considered the supreme Sūtra by many East Asian Buddhists (especially in the
Tiantai
Tiantai or T'ien-t'ai () is an East Asian Buddhist school of Mahāyāna Buddhism that developed in 6th-century China. The school emphasizes the ''Lotus Sutra's'' doctrine of the "One Vehicle" (''Ekayāna'') as well as Mādhyamaka philosophy, ...
and
Nichiren
Nichiren (16 February 1222 – 13 October 1282) was a Japanese Buddhist priest and philosopher of the Kamakura period.
Nichiren declared that the Lotus Sutra alone contains the highest truth of Buddhist teachings suited for the Third Age of B ...
schools).
Probably written down between 100 BCE –150 CE, the ''Lotus Sūtra'' states that the three ''
yānas'' (''
śrāvakayāna
Śrāvakayāna ( sa, श्रावकयान; pi, सावकयान; ) is one of the three '' yānas'' known to Indian Buddhism. It translates literally as the "vehicle of listeners .e. disciples. Historically it was the most common te ...
'', ''
pratyekabuddhayāna
Pratyekabuddhayāna (Sanskrit: प्रत्येकबुद्धयान; ) is a Buddhist term for the mode or vehicle of enlightenment of a pratyekabuddha or paccekabuddha (Sanskrit and Pali respectively), a term which literally means "so ...
'' and ''
bodhisattvayāna
''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing bra ...
'') are not real paths leading to different goals, there is in fact only
one path (ekayāna), with one goal -
Buddhahood
In Buddhism, Buddha (; Pali, Sanskrit: 𑀩𑀼𑀤𑁆𑀥, बुद्ध), "awakened one", is a title for those who are awake, and have attained nirvana and Buddhahood through their own efforts and insight, without a teacher to point out ...
. The sutra predicts that all those who hear the Dharma will eventually achieve this goal. The earlier teachings are said to be
skilful means to teach beings according to their capacities.
The sutra is notable for the idea that a Buddha is not inaccessible after his ''parinirvāṇa'' since a Buddha's life-span is incalculably long. Instead of passing into a totally transcendent state, a Buddha remains to help all sentient beings in countless ways, like a great spiritual father that has been around for eons and will continue to teach for many more eons to come.
In some East Asian traditions, the Lotus Sūtra has been compiled together with two other sutras which serve as a prologue and epilogue, respectively the ''
Innumerable Meanings Sutra
The ''Innumerable Meanings Sutra'' also known as the ''Sutra of Infinite Meanings'' (Sanskrit: अनन्त निर्देश सूत्र, ''Ananta Nirdeśa Sūtra''; ; Japanese: ''Muryōgi Kyō''; Korean: ''Muryangeui Gyeong'') is a ...
'' and the ''
Samantabhadra Meditation Sutra
The ''Samantabhadra Meditation Sūtra'' (; Japanese: 普賢経; rōmaji ''fugen-kyō''; Vietnamese: Kinh Quán Phổ Hiền Bồ Tát Hạnh Pháp; Korean: 관보현보살행법경; Gwanbohyeonbosalhaengbeop Gyeong), also known as the ''Sūtra ...
''. This composite sutra is often called the ''Threefold Lotus Sūtra'' or ''Three-Part Dharma Flower Sutra''.
Sūtras devoted to particular figures
![Descent of Maitreya Sutra (Myomanji Kyoto)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Descent_of_Maitreya_Sutra_%28Myomanji_Kyoto%29.jpg)
A large number of Sūtras focus on the nature, teachings and virtues of a particular Buddha or bodhisattva. Some of them also include teachings on how to enter the "buddha-field" (''buddhakṣetra'', a.k.a.
pure land
A pure land is the celestial realm of a buddha or bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism. The term "pure land" is particular to East Asian Buddhism () and related traditions; in Sanskrit the equivalent concept is called a buddha-field (Sanskrit ). Th ...
) of a particular Buddha.
These Sūtras include:
* Sūtras which focus on
Amitābha Buddha
Amitābha ( sa, अमिताभ, International Phonetic Alphabet, IPA: ), also known as Amitāyus, is the primary Buddha of Pure Land Buddhism. In Vajrayana, Vajrayana Buddhism, he is known for his longevity, Vijñāna, discernment, Saṃjñ ...
and his buddha-field of
Sukhavati
Sukhavati (IAST: ''Sukhāvatī''; "Blissful") is a pure land of Amitābha in Mahayana Buddhism. It is also called the Land of Bliss or Western Pure Land, and is the most well-known of Buddhist pure lands, due to the popularity of Pure Land Budd ...
, mainly the ''
Long Sukhāvatīvyūha'', and the ''
Short Sukhāvatīvyūha''. These texts are very influential in East Asia, particularly in
Pure Land Buddhism
Pure Land Buddhism (; ja, 浄土仏教, translit=Jōdo bukkyō; , also referred to as Amidism in English,) is a broad branch of Mahayana Buddhism focused on achieving rebirth in a Buddha's Buddha-field or Pure Land. It is one of the most wid ...
, which focuses on the salvific power of faith in Amitābha's power to transport all beings to his pure land. In addition to these, many other texts also feature Amitābha Buddha, and a total of 290 such works have been identified in the
Taishō Tripiṭaka
The Taishō Tripiṭaka (; Japanese: ''Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō''; “ Taishō Revised Tripiṭaka”) is a definitive edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon and its Japanese commentaries used by scholars in the 20th century. It was edited by ...
.
* The ''Akṣobhya-tathāgata-syavyūha Sūtra'', which focuses on the Buddha
Akṣobhya
Akshobhya ( sa, अक्षोभ्य, ''Akṣobhya'', "Immovable One"; ) is one of the Five Wisdom Buddhas, a product of the Adibuddha, who represents consciousness as an aspect of reality. By convention he is located in the east of the Di ...
and his pure land of
Abhirati
Abhirati (lit. "The Joyous") is the eastern pure land associated with Akshobhya in Mahayana Buddhism. It is described in the '' Akṣobhyatathāgatasyavyūha Sūtra'' (Taishō Tripiṭaka, 313), which was first translated into Chinese by Loka ...
, and is one of the oldest "Pure land" texts.
* Sūtras which focus on the bodhisattva
Mañjuśrī
Mañjuśrī (Sanskrit: मञ्जुश्री) is a ''bodhisattva'' associated with '' prajñā'' (wisdom) in Mahāyāna Buddhism. His name means "Gentle Glory" in Sanskrit. Mañjuśrī is also known by the fuller name of Mañjuśrīkumārab ...
and his teachings, such as the ''Mañjuśrī-buddhakṣetra-guṇavyūha'' (''Array of Mañjushri's Buddhaland'').
* The ''
Kṣitigarbhasūtra,'' which focuses on the bodhisattva
Kṣitigarbha
Kṣitigarbha ( sa, क्षितिगर्भ, , bo, ས་ཡི་སྙིང་པོ་ Wylie: ''sa yi snying po'') is a bodhisattva primarily revered in East Asian Buddhism and usually depicted as a Buddhist monk. His name may be tr ...
.
* Sūtras which focus on the bodhisattva
Ākāśagarbha
Ākāśagarbha (, Standard Tibetan ''Namkha'i Nyingpo'', Vietnamese ''Hư Không Tạng Bồ Tát'') is a bodhisattva in Chinese, Japanese and Korean Buddhism who is associated with the great element (''mahābhūta'') of space ( ''ākāśa''). He ...
.
* Sūtras which focus on
Maitreya
Maitreya (Sanskrit: ) or Metteyya (Pali: ), also Maitreya Buddha or Metteyya Buddha, is regarded as the future Buddha of this world in Buddhist eschatology. As the 5th and final Buddha of the current kalpa, Maitreya's teachings will be aimed at ...
, such as the ''Maitreyavyakarana (Maitreya Prophecy)'' and ''The Sutra That Expounds the Descent of Maitreya Buddha'' (Taisho 454)''.''
* The ''Bhaiṣajya-guru-vaiḍūrya-prabhā-rāja Sūtra'', which focuses on
Bhaiṣajyaguru
Bhaiṣajyaguru ( sa, भैषज्यगुरु, zh, t= , ja, 薬師仏, ko, 약사불, bo, སངས་རྒྱས་སྨན་བླ), or ''Bhaishajyaguru'', formally Bhaiṣajya-guru-vaiḍūrya-prabhā-rāja ("Medicine Master ...
, a healing Buddha also known as the "Medicine Buddha".
*The ''
Samantabhadra Meditation Sūtra''
Some sutras, such as the ''
Bhadra-kalpika Sutra'', give a list of numerous Buddhas.
Meditation focused Sūtras
Amongst the earliest Mahāyāna texts, the ''
Samādhi
''Samadhi'' (Pali and sa, समाधि), in Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and yogic schools, is a state of meditation, meditative consciousness. In Buddhism, it is the last of the eight elements of the Noble Eightfold Path. In the Ash ...
'' ''Sūtras'' are a small group of sutras that focus on the attainment of profound states of consciousness reached in meditation, perhaps suggesting that meditation played an important role in the development of early Mahāyāna.
[Skilton, Andrew. ''State or Statement?: "Samādhi" in Some Early Mahāyāna Sutras''. The Eastern Buddhist, Vol. 34, No. 2 (2002), pp. 51-93 (43 pages). Eastern Buddhist Society.] These include the ''
Pratyutpanna-sūtra'', ''
Samādhirāja-sūtra'', and the ''
Śūraṅgama-samādhi-sūtra.
''
There is also another genre of Mahāyāna meditation texts called
Visualization Sutras (
Chinese
Chinese can refer to:
* Something related to China
* Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity
**''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation
** List of ethnic groups in China, people of va ...
: 觀經, ''guan jing'').
There are also some meditation focused texts called ''
Dhyāna Sūtras'' (禪経) translated by figures like
Kumarajiva. Some of these Sūtras contain Mahāyāna meditation teachings.
Yogācāra Sūtras
![Lankavatara](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Lankavatara.jpg)
These sutras primarily teach the doctrine of ''vijñapti-mātra'' (ideas-only, impressions-only etc.), associated with the
Yogācāra
Yogachara ( sa, योगाचार, IAST: '; literally "yoga practice"; "one whose practice is yoga") is an influential tradition of Buddhist philosophy and psychology emphasizing the study of cognition, perception, and consciousness through t ...
school, which states that there can only ever be awareness of mental images or impressions which manifest themselves as external objects, but are not actually external to the mind. There are many modern interpretations of this doctrine, some which are
idealistic
In philosophy, the term idealism identifies and describes metaphysical perspectives which assert that reality is indistinguishable and inseparable from perception and understanding; that reality is a mental construct closely connected to ide ...
, and some which reject the idealist interpretations in favor of
phenomenology
Phenomenology may refer to:
Art
* Phenomenology (architecture), based on the experience of building materials and their sensory properties
Philosophy
* Phenomenology (philosophy), a branch of philosophy which studies subjective experiences and a ...
or
representationalism
In the philosophy of perception and philosophy of mind, the question of direct or naïve realism, as opposed to indirect or representational realism, is the debate over the nature of conscious experience;Lehar, Steve. (2000)The Function of Consc ...
.
The ''
Ārya-saṃdhi-nirmocana-Sūtra'' (''Noble sūtra of the Explanation of the Profound Secrets,'' c. 2nd century CE) is the earliest surviving sutra in this class, and its the main text. It divides the teachings of the Buddha into three types, which it calls the "
three turnings of the wheel of Dharma
The Three Turnings of the Wheel (of Dharma) refers to a framework for understanding the sutra stream of the teachings of the Buddhism originally devised by the Yogachara school. It later became prevalent in modified form in Tibetan Buddhism and re ...
."
To the first turning, it ascribes the ''Āgamas'' of the ''śravakas'', to the second turning the lower Mahāyāna sutras including the ''Prajñāpāramitā'' sutras, and finally sutras like itself are deemed to comprise the third turning. Moreover, the first two turnings are considered to be provisional (''neyārtha'') in this system of classification, while the third group is said to present the final truth without a need for further explication (''nītārtha'').
The well-known ''
Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra
The ''Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra'' (Sanskrit, "Discourse of the Descent into Laṅka" bo, ལང་ཀར་བཤེགས་པའི་མདོ་, Chinese:入楞伽經) is a prominent Mahayana Buddhist sūtra. This sūtra recounts a teachin ...
'', composed sometime around the 4th century CE, is sometimes included in this group, although it is somewhat syncretic in nature, combining Yogācāra doctrines with those of the ''tathāgatagarbha'' texts. The ''Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra'' was influential in
Chan Buddhism
Chan (; of ), from Sanskrit '' dhyāna'' (meaning "meditation" or "meditative state"), is a Chinese school of Mahāyāna Buddhism. It developed in China from the 6th century CE onwards, becoming especially popular during the Tang and So ...
.
The ''Vimalakirtinirdeśa''
![Vimalakirti Debates Manjusri Dunhuang Mogao Caves Detail](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Vimalakirti_Debates_Manjusri_Dunhuang_Mogao_Caves_Detail.jpeg)
In the ''
Vimalakirtinirdeśa'', composed some time between the first and second century CE,
the bodhisattva
Vimalakīrti
Vimalakīrti ( sa, विमल ' "stainless, undefiled" + ' "fame, glory, reputation") is the central figure in the ', which presents him as the ideal Mahayana Buddhism, Buddhist Upāsaka and Upāsikā, upāsaka ("lay practitioner") and a contem ...
appears as a layman to teach the Dharma. This is seen by some as a strong assertion of the value of lay practice. The sutra teaches, among other subjects, the meaning of
non-dualism
Nondualism, also called nonduality and nondual awareness, is a fuzzy concept originating in Indian philosophy and religion for which many definitions can be found, including: nondual awareness, the nonduality of seer and seen or nondiffer ...
, the doctrine of the true body of the Buddha, the characteristically Mahāyāna claim that the appearances of the world are mere illusions, and the superiority of the Mahāyāna over other paths. It places in the mouth of the
lay practitioner Vimalakīrti a teaching addressed to both
arhat
In Buddhism, an ''arhat'' (Sanskrit: अर्हत्) or ''arahant'' (Pali: अरहन्त्, 𑀅𑀭𑀳𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁆) is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved ''Nirvana'' and liberated ...
s and
bodhisattva
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood.
In the Early Buddhist schools ...
s, regarding the doctrine of
śūnyatā
''Śūnyatā'' ( sa, शून्यता, śūnyatā; pi, suññatā; ), translated most often as ''emptiness'', ''vacuity'', and sometimes ''voidness'', is an Indian philosophical concept. Within Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and other p ...
. In most versions, the discourse of the text culminates with a wordless teaching of silence. This sutra has been very popular in
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
and
Japan
Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
.
Tathāgatagarbha and Buddha-nature Sūtras
The class of texts called
"Tathāgatagarbha sūtras" teach the important Mahāyāna doctrine of ''
Tathāgatagarbha
Buddha-nature refers to several related Mahayana Buddhism, Buddhist terms, including ''tathata'' ("suchness") but most notably ''tathāgatagarbha'' and ''buddhadhātu''. ''Tathāgatagarbha'' means "the womb" or "embryo" (''garbha'') of the " ...
,'' (
Tathāgata
Tathāgata () is a Pali word; Gautama Buddha uses it when referring to himself or other Buddhas in the Pāli Canon. The term is often thought to mean either "one who has thus gone" (''tathā-gata''), "one who has thus come" (''tathā-āgata''), o ...
-embryo, Tathāgata-womb, Inner Tathāgata, also known as ''Sugatagarbha'') and ''Buddha-dhatu'' (Buddha nature'','' Buddha source, Buddha element). According to Williams, this doctrine states that all beings "have a Tathāgata
.e. a Buddhawithin them, in seed or embryo, that sentient beings are the wombs or matrices of the Tathāgata, or that they have a Tathāgata as their essence, core, or essential inner nature."
[Williams (2008), p. 104.]
Possibly the earliest of these is the ''
Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra
The ''Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra'' is an influential and doctrinally striking Mahāyāna Buddhist scripture which treats of the existence of the "Tathāgatagarbha" (Buddha-Matrix, Buddha-Embryo, lit. "the womb of the thus-come-one") within all sent ...
.''
Other texts in this genre include the ''
Śrīmālā Sūtra'', the ''
Aṅgulimālīya Sūtra
The ''Aṅgulimālīya Sūtra'' ( Taishō 120) is a Mahāyāna Buddhist scripture belonging to the Tathāgatagarbha class of sūtra, which teach that the Buddha is eternal, that the non-Self and emptiness teachings only apply to the worldly spher ...
,'' the ''
Anunatva-Apurnatva-Nirdesa,'' the ''Mahābherī Sūtra'' and the ''
Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra
The ''Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra'' (Sanskrit; , ; Vietnamese: ''Kinh Đại Bát Niết Bàn'') or ''Nirvana Sutra'' is Mahāyāna Buddhist sutra of the Buddha-nature genre. Its precise date of origin is uncertain, but its early form ...
'' (not to be confused with the
Pāli
Pali () is a Middle Indo-Aryan liturgical language native to the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist ''Pāli Canon'' or ''Tipiṭaka'' as well as the sacred language of ''Theravāda'' Buddhism ...
''
Mahaparinibbana Sutta'' and its parallels).
''Buddhāvataṃsaka'' ''Sūtra''
![Goryeo-Avatamsaka Sutra](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Goryeo-Avatamsaka_Sutra.vo.12-mid.14c.Leeum.Museum.jpg)
There are also "sūtras" which are actually collections of other sutras that circulate as one "sutra". One quite influential Sūtra collection is the ''
Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra'' (''The Buddha Wreath Sūtra''), a large composite text consisting of several Sūtras, some of which circulated separately as independent Sūtras.
[Williams (2008), pp. 132-133.] These include the ''
Daśabhūmika Sūtra'' and the ''
Gaṇḍavyūha Sūtra''.
The ''Buddhāvataṃsaka'' probably reached its current form by about the 4th century CE and this compilation may have happened in Central Asia.
Williams notes that the ''Buddhāvataṃsaka sutra'' includes both the yogacara mind-only teaching and the emptiness doctrine, but does so mainly from the perspective of highly advanced beings who have spiritually realized these teachings through deep meditative absoprtion, and thus have all sorts of magical powers which they use to help others. The ''Buddhāvataṃsaka'' is therefore a text that depicts various mystical visionary scenes, with countless world systems and countless Buddhas and bodhisattvas who travel freely throughout this multiverse helping all beings out of compassion. One of the most important Buddhas in this text is
Mahāvairocana ("Great Illuminator"), who fills the entire cosmos with his light, his omniscient awareness and his magical emanations (one of which was
Shakyamuni Buddha
Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a śramaṇa, wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism.
According to Buddhist tradition, he was ...
). In China, the ''Buddhāvataṃsaka'' became the central text for the
Huayen
The Huayan or Flower Garland school of Buddhism (, from sa, अवतंसक, Avataṃsaka) is a tradition of Mahayana Buddhist philosophy that first flourished in China during the Tang dynasty (618-907). The Huayan worldview is based prima ...
(Jp.
Kegon
The Huayan or Flower Garland school of Buddhism (, from sa, अवतंसक, Avataṃsaka) is a tradition of Mahayana Buddhist philosophy that first flourished in China during the Tang dynasty (618-907). The Huayan worldview is based primar ...
) school of Buddhism, which later went on to influence Chinese
Chan Buddhism
Chan (; of ), from Sanskrit '' dhyāna'' (meaning "meditation" or "meditative state"), is a Chinese school of Mahāyāna Buddhism. It developed in China from the 6th century CE onwards, becoming especially popular during the Tang and So ...
and
Pure Land Buddhism
Pure Land Buddhism (; ja, 浄土仏教, translit=Jōdo bukkyō; , also referred to as Amidism in English,) is a broad branch of Mahayana Buddhism focused on achieving rebirth in a Buddha's Buddha-field or Pure Land. It is one of the most wid ...
.
''Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra'' and ''Mahāsamnipāta Sūtra''
Two other important Mahāyāna "sūtras" which are also collections of smaller independent sūtras are the ''
Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra
The ''Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra'' (Sanskrit; , Tib. ''dam-chos dkon-mchog-brtsegs-pa'') is an ancient collection of Mahāyāna Buddhist sūtras. It is also known simply as ''Ratnakūṭa Sūtra'' (), literally the ''Sutra of the Heap of Jewels'' ...
'' (''The Heap of Jewels Sūtra'') which contains 49 individual sūtras, and the ''
Mahāsamnipāta Sūtra'' (''Sūtra of the Great Assembly'') which is a collection of 17 sūtras. Important sutras in the ''Mahāratnakūṭa'' include the ''
Bodhisattvapiṭaka, the
Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra
The ''Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra'' (, '' of Queen Śrīmālā'') is one of the main early Mahāyāna Buddhist texts belonging to the Tathāgatagarbha sūtras that teaches the doctrines of Buddha-nature and "One Vehicle" through the w ...
, the
Longer Sukhāvatī-vyūha Sutra, the Akṣobhya-vyūha,
Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra
The ''Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra'' (''The inquiry of Ugra'') is an early Indian sutra which is particularly important for understanding the beginnings of Mahayana Buddhism. It contains positive references to both the path of the bodhisattva and the p ...
(The inquiry of Ugra)'', the ''Saptaśatikā (700 Line) Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra,'' and the ''Tathāgataguhya Sūtra'' (''The Secrets of the Tathāgata'').''
[Sangharakshita. ''The Eternal Legacy: An Introduction to the Canonical Literature of Buddhism.'' 2006. p. 168-169]''
Important sutras in the ''Mahāsamnipāta'' include larger works like the ''
Akṣayamati-nirdeśa'', and the ''Gaganagañja-paripṛcchā,'' which themselves also circulated as independent sutras.''
[Pagel, Ulrich (1994). ]
The Bodhisattvapiṭaka and Akṣayamatinirdeśa: Continuity and Change in Buddhist Sūtras
'' The Buddhist Forum Volume v.3 Pages 333 - 373.''
Ethical Discipline Sūtras
These focus on principles that guide the ethical behaviour (''
Śīla
Buddhist ethics are traditionally based on what Buddhists view as the enlightened perspective of the Buddha. The term for ethics or morality used in Buddhism is ''Śīla'' or ''sīla'' (Pāli). ''Śīla'' in Buddhism is one of three sections of ...
'') of bodhisattvas and the
bodhisattva precepts
The Bodhisattva Precepts ( Skt. ''bodhisattva-śīla'', , ja, bosatsukai) are a set of ethical trainings ('' śīla'') used in Mahāyāna Buddhism to advance a practitioner along the path to becoming a bodhisattva. Traditionally, monastics obse ...
, and include the ''Kāshyapa-parivarta'', the ''Bodhisattva-prātimokṣa Sutra'', the ''Upāliparipṛcchā'' (also known in Chinese as ''The Buddha Speaks of Decisive Vinaya Sutra'') and the ''
Brahmajāla Sutra'' (or ''Brahmajāla Bodhisattva Śīla Sūtra).'' For East Asian Zen monastics, the ''
Bequeathed Teachings Sutra'' is a widely chanted and studied text on ethical discipline.
Confession Sūtras
The ''
Sutra of the Three Heaps'' (Sanskrit: ''Triskandhadharmasutra'') and the ''
Golden Light Sutra
The Golden Light Sutra or ( sa, IAST: Suvarṇaprabhāsottamasūtrendrarājaḥ), also known by the Old Uygur title Altun Yaruq, is a Buddhist text of the Mahayana branch of Buddhism. In Sanskrit, the full title is ''The Sovereign King of Sutra ...
'' (''Suvarṇaprabhāsa-sūtra'') focus on the practice of confession of faults. The ''Golden Light Sutra'' became especially influential in East Asian Buddhism, particularly because of its teaching on how the
Four Heavenly Kings
The Four Heavenly Kings are four Buddhist gods, each of whom is believed to watch over one cardinal direction of the world. In Chinese mythology, they are known collectively as the "Fēng Tiáo Yǔ Shùn" () or "Sìdà Tiānwáng" (). In the a ...
protect the ruler who governs his country in the proper manner and upholds the sutra.
The ''Sutra of the Three Heaps'' meanwhile remains an important confession focused sutra in Tibetan Buddhism.
Esoteric Sūtras and dhāraṇī
![Pratisara Mantra1](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Pratisara_Mantra1.png)
Esoteric Sūtras comprise an important category of works that are related to magical and
esoteric Buddhist practices. Many of these are often devoted to a particular
mantra
A mantra (Pali: ''manta'') or mantram (मन्त्रम्) is a sacred utterance, a numinous sound, a syllable, word or phonemes, or group of words in Sanskrit, Pali and other languages believed by practitioners to have religious, ma ...
or
dhāraṇī
Dharanis (IAST: ), also known as ''Parittas'', are Buddhist chants, mnemonic codes, incantations, or recitations, usually the mantras consisting of Sanskrit or Pali phrases. Believed to be protective and with powers to generate merit for the Bud ...
, or simply contain passages which teach these magical spells or chants. One of them, the ''
Atanatiya Sutra'', is also included in the
mikkyo (esoteric) division of the standard modern collected edition of Sino-Japanese Buddhist literature.
Well-known esoteric sūtras or dhāraṇīs include:
* ''
Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra
The Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra (Sanskrit: उष्णीष विजय धारणी सूत्र; IAST: uṣṇīṣa vijaya dhāraṇī sūtra, Chinese: 佛頂尊勝陀羅尼經; Pinyin: Fódǐng Zūnshèng Tuóluón ...
''
* ''
Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī
The , also known as the , or Great Compassion Dhāraṇī / Mantra (Chinese: 大悲咒, ''Dàbēi zhòu''; Japanese: 大悲心陀羅尼, ''Daihishin darani'' or 大悲呪, ''Daihi shu''; Vietnamese: ''Chú đại bi'' or ''Đại bi tâm đà l ...
''
* ''
Cundī Dhāraṇī Sūtra''
*
''Eleven-Faced Avalokitesvara Heart Dharani Sūtra''
* ''
Mahāpratisarā-mahāvidyārājñī''
* The ''
Śūraṅgama Sūtra
The ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' (Sanskrit: शूरङ्गम सूत्र; ) (Taisho 945) is a Mahayana Buddhist sutra that has been especially influential in Chan Buddhism. The general doctrinal outlook of the ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' is ...
'', which teaches the "''Sitātapatra Uṣṇīṣa Dhāraṇī''" (Ch. 大白傘蓋陀羅尼) and is included in the Taisho Tripitaka's Esoteric Sutra category.
* The ''
Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra
The ''Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra'' (Tibetan: phags paza ma tog bkod pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo; zh, t=佛說大乘莊嚴寶王經, p=Fó shuō dàchéng zhuāngyán bǎo wáng jīng, Vietnamese: Phật Thuyết Đại Thừa Trang Nghi ...
'', known for teaching the famous mantra of
Avalokiteśvara
In Buddhism, Avalokiteśvara (Sanskrit: अवलोकितेश्वर, IPA: ) is a bodhisattva who embodies the compassion of all Buddhas. He has 108 avatars, one notable avatar being Padmapāṇi (lotus bearer). He is variably depicted, ...
, "
Om mani padme hum
' ( sa, ॐ मणि पद्मे हूँ, ) is the six-syllabled Sanskrit mantra particularly associated with the four-armed Shadakshari form of Avalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva of compassion. It first appeared in the Mahayana ''Kāraṇ ...
."
* ''
Vajraśekhara Sūtra''
* ''
Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra
The ''Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra'' ('' Vairocana’s Awakening Sutra'', sa, 𑀯𑁃𑀭𑁄𑀘𑀦𑀸𑀪𑀺𑀲𑀁𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀽𑀢𑁆𑀭), also known as the ''Mahāvairocana Tantra'' ( sa, 𑀫𑀳𑀸𑀯𑁃𑀭𑁄 ...
''
* ''
Sarvatathāgatatattvasaṃgraha Sūtra''
*''Sūtra of the Whole-Body Relic Treasure Chest Seal Dhāraṇī''
*''
Pure Land Rebirth Dhāraṇī''
Some Prajñaparamita texts also include tantric and esoteric elements such as mantras. At least some editions of the Tibetan canon include the ''
Heart Sutra'' in the tantra division.
Mahāyāna Sūtras of East Asian provenance
There are various sūtras that were traditionally considered to be translations from Indian sources (and which are written to mimic Indic works) but that modern scholars have now shown were most likely composed in East Asia or Central Asia. These texts may also contain
colophons which claim to be translations of an Indian original.
These sutras are sometimes called "
apocryphal
Apocrypha are works, usually written, of unknown authorship or of doubtful origin. The word ''apocryphal'' (ἀπόκρυφος) was first applied to writings which were kept secret because they were the vehicles of esoteric knowledge considered ...
" sūtras (a term borrowed from
biblical studies
Biblical studies is the academic application of a set of diverse disciplines to the study of the Bible (the Old Testament and New Testament).''Introduction to Biblical Studies, Second Edition'' by Steve Moyise (Oct 27, 2004) pages 11–12 Fo ...
) by modern scholars. In Buddhist studies, the term does not necessarily carry the pejorative connotations that it may have in other contexts (and these works are certainly not considered "
heretical
Heresy is any belief or theory that is strongly at variance with established beliefs or customs, in particular the accepted beliefs of a church or religious organization. The term is usually used in reference to violations of important religi ...
").
According to
Charles Muller
A. Charles Muller (born September 19, 1953) is an academic specializing in Korean Buddhism and East Asian Yogacara, having published numerous books and articles on these topics. He is a resident of Japan, currently teaching at Musashino Universi ...
"while certain texts are fit to be classified with the "spurious" connotations of the term apocrypha, a significant portion of them were extremely well written works, whose contents accorded with the most profound of the Buddhist doctrines."
East Asian Buddhists were aware of the phenomenon of writing original works and attributing them to Indian sources. These texts were sometimes classified either as i-ching (疑經 "scriptures of doubtful authenticity") or as wei-ching (僞教 "spurious scriptures"). Chinese Buddhists like Seng-yu (僧祐; 445-518) noted these spurious works in their Buddhist text catalogues.
Some Mahayana sutras in the Chinese canon which have been influential in East Asian Buddhism and are likely apocryphal include:
*''
Amitāyurdhyāna Sūtra
The ''Amitāyurdhyāna Sūtra'' (Sanskrit; , ''Guan-wuliangshou-jing;'' Vietnamese: Phật Thuyết Kinh Quán Vô Lượng Thọ Phật; English: ''Sutra on the Visualization of he BuddhaImmeasurable Life'') is a Mahayana sutra in Pure Land Bu ...
'' (佛說觀無量壽佛經, ''Guan-wuliangshou-jing, Sutra on the Visualization of
he Buddha
He or HE may refer to:
Language
* He (pronoun), an English pronoun
* He (kana), the romanization of the Japanese kana へ
* He (letter), the fifth letter of many Semitic alphabets
* He (Cyrillic), a letter of the Cyrillic script called ''He'' ...
Immeasurable Life''), an important sutra in
Pure Land Buddhism
Pure Land Buddhism (; ja, 浄土仏教, translit=Jōdo bukkyō; , also referred to as Amidism in English,) is a broad branch of Mahayana Buddhism focused on achieving rebirth in a Buddha's Buddha-field or Pure Land. It is one of the most wid ...
, now considered by most scholars to be a Chinese (or possibly Central Asian) composition.
["Amitayurdhyana Sutra" in ]
*''
Brahma's Net Sutra'' (梵網經; ''Fànwǎng jīng),'' which according to Muller is now considered apocryphal by most scholars''.
''
*''
Blood Bowl Sutra (''血盆經''; Xuèpénjīng''), of Chinese origin
*
''Vajrasamadhi'' ''Sūtra'' (金剛三昧經, ''Kŭmgang sammaegyŏng''), traditionally seen as an Indian text, scholars have recently found that it was produced in Korea in about 685 CE.
* ''
Innumerable Meanings Sutra
The ''Innumerable Meanings Sutra'' also known as the ''Sutra of Infinite Meanings'' (Sanskrit: अनन्त निर्देश सूत्र, ''Ananta Nirdeśa Sūtra''; ; Japanese: ''Muryōgi Kyō''; Korean: ''Muryangeui Gyeong'') is a ...
'' (無量義經; pinyin: ''Wúliáng yì jīng'').
*''
Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment
The Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment or Complete Enlightenment () is a Mahāyāna Buddhist sūtra highly esteemed by both the Huayan and Zen schools. The earliest records are in Chinese, and it is believed to be of Chinese origin.
Divided into twe ...
'' (圓覺經; pinyin'': Yuánjué jīng'').
*''
Humane King Sutra
The Humane King Sutra () is found in Taisho No. 245 and 246. Many scholars have suspected this sutra to be composed in China but not all scholars agree with this viewpoint.Yang 2016 There are two versions: the first is called the ''Humane King Pe ...
'' (仁王經; ''rén wáng jīng'')
*The influential ''
Śūraṅgama Sūtra
The ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' (Sanskrit: शूरङ्गम सूत्र; ) (Taisho 945) is a Mahayana Buddhist sutra that has been especially influential in Chan Buddhism. The general doctrinal outlook of the ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' is ...
'' is still a subject of debate. Some scholars, like Kogen Mizuno and Bernard Faure, consider it apocryphal, while others like Ronald Epstein disagree.
[Epstein, Ronald (1976), ''The Shurangama Sutra (T. 945): A Reappraisal of its Authenticity.'' Presented at the annual meeting of the American Oriental Society March 16-18, 1976, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.]
Since there are many apocryphal sutras in the Chinese Canon, modern scholars have developed various taxonomies of the different types of Apocryphal Sūtras. For example, according to Mochizuki Shinkō's ''Bukkyō kyōten seiritsushi ron,'' there are three main types of apocryphal Chinese "sutras".
Makita Tairyō outlines five types of apocryphal sutras:
See also
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Buddhist texts
Buddhist texts are those religious texts which belong to the Buddhist tradition. The earliest Buddhist texts were not committed to writing until some centuries after the death of Gautama Buddha. The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts a ...
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Sutra
''Sutra'' ( sa, सूत्र, translit=sūtra, translit-std=IAST, translation=string, thread)Monier Williams, ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, Entry fo''sutra'' page 1241 in Indian literary traditions refers to an aph ...
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Buddhist Tantras
The Buddhist Tantras are a varied group of Indian and Tibetan texts which outline unique views and practices of the Buddhist tantra religious systems.
Overview
Buddhist Tantric texts began appearing in the Gupta Empire period, though there are ...
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Tripitaka
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List of suttas
Suttas from the Sutta Pitaka of the Pali Canon.
* List of Digha Nikaya suttas
* List of Majjhima Nikaya suttas
* List of Samyutta Nikaya suttas
* List of Anguttara Nikaya suttas
* List of Khuddaka Nikaya suttas
See also
* Buddhist texts
* Index o ...
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Pali Canon
The Pāli Canon is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pāli language. It is the most complete extant early Buddhist canon. It derives mainly from the Tamrashatiya school.
During th ...
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Sanskrit Buddhist literature
Sanskrit Buddhist literature refers to Buddhist texts composed either in classical Sanskrit, in a register that has been called "Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit" (also known as "Buddhistic Sanskrit" and "Mixed Sanskrit"), or a mixture of these two.Edg ...
Notes
Bibliography
* Dutt, Nalinaksha (1978). ''Buddhist Sects in India'', Motilal Banararsidass, Delhi, 2nd Edition
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* Kanno, Hiroshi (2003)
Chinese Sutra Commentaries from the Early Period Annual Report of The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University, IRIAB, vol VI, 301-320
* ''Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism'', Macmillan, 2004.
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* Nakamura, Hajime (1980). ''Indian Buddhism: A Survey with Bibliographical Notes''. 1st edition: Japan, 1980. 1st Indian Edition: Delhi, 1987.
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* Pfand, Peter (1986). ''Māhāyana Texts Translated into Western Languages – A Bibliographical Guide''. E.J. Brill, Köln,
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* Walser, Joseph
Genealogies of Mahāyāna Buddhism: Emptiness, Power and the question of Origin Routledge.
* Walser, Joseph (2012), ''Nagarjuna in Context Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture.'' Columbia University Press.
* Warder, A. K. (1999). ''Indian Buddhism''. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi. 3rd revised edition
* Williams, Paul (2008). ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations''. Taylor & Francis
External links
*Bingenheimer, Marcus (2014)
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Mahayana Canonical Text Titles and Translations in EnglishA Complete Buddhist Sutra CollectionMahayana SutrasDigital Sanskrit Buddhist CanonMahayana Buddhist Sutras in English(English pdfs)
Complete English translation and analysis of the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutrao
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