United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...

defense standard, often called a military standard, "MIL-STD", "MIL-SPEC", or (informally) "MilSpecs", is used to help achieve standardization objectives by the

U.S. Department of Defense The United States Department of Defense (DoD, USDOD or DOD) is an executive branch department of the federal government charged with coordinating and supervising all agencies and functions of the government directly related to national secur ...

Standardization Standardization or standardisation is the process of implementing and developing technical standards based on the consensus of different parties that include firms, users, interest groups, standards organizations and governments. Standardization ...

is beneficial in achieving

interoperability Interoperability is a characteristic of a product or system to work with other products or systems. While the term was initially defined for information technology or systems engineering services to allow for information exchange, a broader defi ...

, ensuring products meet certain requirements, commonality,

reliability Reliability, reliable, or unreliable may refer to: Science, technology, and mathematics Computing * Data reliability (disambiguation), a property of some disk arrays in computer storage * High availability * Reliability (computer networking), a ...

total cost of ownership Total cost of ownership (TCO) is a financial estimate intended to help buyers and owners determine the direct and indirect costs of a product or service. It is a management accounting concept that can be used in full cost accounting or even ecolog ...

, compatibility with

logistics Logistics is generally the detailed organization and implementation of a complex operation. In a general business sense, logistics manages the flow of goods between the point of origin and the point of consumption to meet the requirements of ...

systems, and similar defense-related objectives. Defense standards are also used by other non-defense government organizations, technical organizations, and industry. This article discusses definitions, history, and usage of defense standards. Related documents, such as defense handbooks and defense specifications, are also addressed.

Definition of document types

Although the official definitions differentiate between several types of documents, all of these documents go by the general rubric of "military standard", including defense specifications, handbooks, and standards. Strictly speaking, these documents serve different purposes. According to the

Government Accountability Office The U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) is a legislative branch government agency that provides auditing, evaluative, and investigative services for the United States Congress. It is the supreme audit institution of the federal govern ...

(GAO), military specifications "describe the physical and/or operational characteristics of a product", while military standards "detail the processes and materials to be used to make the product." Military handbooks, on the other hand, are primarily sources of compiled information and/or guidance. The GAO acknowledges, however, that the terms are often used interchangeably. Official definitions are provided by DoD 4120.24, ''Defense Standardization Program (DSP) Procedures,'' November 2014, USD (Acquisition, Technology and Logistics): For purposes of this article, "military standards" will include standards, specifications and handbooks.

Formats

The DOD has standards about the format of standards: * MIL-STD-961, Defense and Program-Unique Specifications Format and Content * MIL-STD-962, Defense Standards Format and Content * MIL-STD-967, Defense Handbooks Format and Content

Origins and evolution

Defense standards evolved from the need to ensure proper performance, maintainability and reparability (ease of MRO), and logistical usefulness of military equipment. The latter two goals (MRO and logistics) favor certain general concepts, such as

interchangeability Interchangeability can refer to: *Interchangeable parts Interchangeable parts are parts (components) that are identical for practical purposes. They are made to specifications that ensure that they are so nearly identical that they will fit into ...

standardization Standardization or standardisation is the process of implementing and developing technical standards based on the consensus of different parties that include firms, users, interest groups, standards organizations and governments. Standardization ...

(of equipment and processes, in general),

cataloging In library and information science, cataloging ( US) or cataloguing ( UK) is the process of creating metadata representing information resources, such as books, sound recordings, moving images, etc. Cataloging provides information such as auth ...

, communications, and training (to teach people what is standardized, what is at their discretion, and the details of the standards). In the late 18th century and throughout the 19th, the

American American(s) may refer to: * American, something of, from, or related to the United States of America, commonly known as the "United States" or "America" ** Americans, citizens and nationals of the United States of America ** American ancestry, pe ...

and French militaries were

early adopters An early adopter or lighthouse customer is an early customer of a given company, product, or technology. The term originates from Everett M. Rogers' ''Diffusion of Innovations'' (1962). History Typically, early adopters are customers who, in addi ...

and longtime developmental sponsors and advocates of interchangeability and standardization. By World War II (1939–1945), virtually all national

militaries A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. It is typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with its members identifiable by their distinct ...

and trans-national alliances of the same ( Allied Forces,

Axis powers The Axis powers, ; it, Potenze dell'Asse ; ja, 枢軸国 ''Sūjikukoku'', group=nb originally called the Rome–Berlin Axis, was a military coalition that initiated World War II and fought against the Allies. Its principal members were ...

) were busy standardizing and cataloguing. The U.S. AN- cataloguing system (Army-Navy) and the British Defence Standards (DEF-STAN) provide examples. For example, due to differences in dimensional tolerances, in World War II American

screw A screw and a bolt (see '' Differentiation between bolt and screw'' below) are similar types of fastener typically made of metal and characterized by a helical ridge, called a ''male thread'' (external thread). Screws and bolts are used to fa ...

s, bolts, and nuts did not fit British equipment properly and were not fully interchangeable. Defense standards provide many benefits, such as minimizing the number of types of ammunition, ensuring compatibility of tools, and ensuring quality during production of military equipment. This results, for example, in ammunition and food cases that can be opened without tools; vehicle subsystems that can be quickly swapped into the place of damaged ones; and small arms and artillery that are less likely to find themselves with an excess of ammunition that does not fit and a lack of ammo that does. However, the proliferation of standards also has some drawbacks. The main one is that they impose what is functionally equivalent to a

regulatory Regulation is the management of complex systems according to a set of rules and trends. In systems theory, these types of rules exist in various fields of biology and society, but the term has slightly different meanings according to context. For ...

burden upon the defense supply chain, both within the military and across its civilian suppliers. In the U.S. during the 1980s and early 1990s, it was argued that the large number of standards, nearly 30,000 by 1990, imposed unnecessary restrictions, increased cost to contractors (and hence the DOD, since the costs in the end pass along to the customer), and impeded the incorporation of the latest technology. Responding to increasing criticism, Secretary of Defense

William J. Perry William James Perry (born October 11, 1927) is an American mathematician, engineer, businessman, and civil servant who was the United States Secretary of Defense from February 3, 1994, to January 23, 1997, under President Bill Clinton. He also ...

issued a memorandum in 1994 that prohibited the use of most military specifications and standards without a waiver. This has become known as the "Perry Memorandum". Many military specifications and standards were canceled. In their place, the DOD directed the use of performance specifications and non-government standards. “Performance specifications” describe the desired performance of the weapon, rather than describing ''how'' those goals would be reached (that is, directing which technology or which materials would be used). In 2005 the DOD issued a new memorandum, which eliminated the requirement to obtain a waiver in order to use military specifications or standards. The 2005 memo did not reinstate any canceled military specifications or standards. According to a 2003 issue of ''Gateway'', published by the Human Systems Information Analysis Center, the number of defense standards and specifications have been reduced from 45,500 to 28,300. However, other sources noted that the number of standards just before the Perry Memorandum was issued was less than 30,000, and that thousands have been canceled since then. This may be due to differences in what is counted as a “military standard”. Another potential drawback of thorough standardization is a threat analogous to

monoculture In agriculture, monoculture is the practice of growing one crop species in a field at a time. Monoculture is widely used in intensive farming and in organic farming: both a 1,000-hectare/acre cornfield and a 10-ha/acre field of organic kale are ...

(where lack of biodiversity creates higher risk of pandemic disease) or a ship without bulkhead compartmentalization (where even a small hull leak threatens the whole vessel). If an enemy discovers a drawback in a standardized system, the system’s uniformity leaves it vulnerable to complete incapacitation via what might otherwise have been a limited compromise. Also, if standardization promotes use by allies, it may also ease an enemy’s task of using

materiel Materiel (; ) refers to supplies, equipment, and weapons in military supply-chain management, and typically supplies and equipment in a commercial supply chain context. In a military context, the term ''materiel'' refers either to the specifi ...

that is lost as a

prize of war A prize of war is a piece of enemy property or land seized by a belligerent party during or after a war or battle, typically at sea. This term was used nearly exclusively in terms of captured ships during the 18th and 19th centuries. Basis in inte ...

. However, this threat is somewhat academic, as even poorly standardized materiel presents a likelihood of supplying an enemy if overrun.

Non-exhaustive list of documents

A complete list of standards was maintained as Department of Defense Index of Specifications and Standards, up until 1993. *

Cataloging Handbook H2 In library and information science, cataloging ( US) or cataloguing ( UK) is the process of creating metadata representing information resources, such as books, sound recordings, moving images, etc. Cataloging provides information such as auth ...

, definitions for NATO Stock Number Federal Supply Groups and Federal Supply Classes * Cataloging Handbook H4, a handbook containing vendor

CAGE A cage is an enclosure often made of mesh, bars, or wires, used to confine, contain or protect something or someone. A cage can serve many purposes, including keeping an animal or person in captivity, capturing an animal or person, and displayin ...

code details * Cataloging Handbook H6, Item Name Directory for the

NATO Codification System The NATO Codification System (NCS for short) is a Standardization Agreement approach to identify, classify, and number items of supply. This applies to repetitively used items and stocked (e.g., repair parts, equipment, food items, etc.). The Sy ...

* Cataloging Handbook H8, another handbook containing vendor

code details *

MIL-STD-105 MIL-STD-105 was a United States defense standard that provided procedures and tables for sampling by attributes based on Walter A. Shewhart, Harry Romig, and Harold F. Dodge sampling inspection theories and mathematical formulas. Widely adopted ...

, Sampling Procedures and Tables for Inspection by Attributes (withdrawn, see ASTM E2234) *

MIL-STD-130 MIL-STD-130, "Identification Marking of U.S. Military Property," is a specification that describes markings required on items sold to the United States Department of Defense, Department of Defense (DoD), including the addition, in about 2005, of UII ...

, "Identification Marking of U.S. Military Property" * MIL-STD-167, Mechanical Vibration of Shipboard Equipment *

MIL-STD-188 MIL-STD-188 is a series of U.S. military standards relating to telecommunications. Purpose Faced with "past technical deficiencies in telecommunications systems and equipment and software…that were traced to basic inadequacies in the applicat ...

, a series related to telecommunications * MIL-STD-196, a specification of the

Joint Electronics Type Designation System The Joint Electronics Type Designation System (JETDS), which was previously known as the Joint Army-Navy Nomenclature System (AN System. JAN) and the Joint Communications-Electronics Nomenclature System, is a method developed by the U.S. War Depar ...

(JETDS) * MIL-STD-202, "Electronic and Electrical Component Parts" test methods * MIL-STD-276, Standard for vacuum impregnation of porous metal castings and powdered metal components * MIL-STD-348, "Radio Frequency (RF) Connector Interfaces" *

MIL-STD 461 MIL-STD-461 is a United States Military Standard A United States defense standard, often called a military standard, "MIL-STD", "MIL-SPEC", or (informally) "MilSpecs", is used to help achieve standardization objectives by the U.S. Department of ...

, "Requirements for the control of electromagnetic interference characteristics of subsystems and equipment" * MIL-STD-464, "Electromagnetic Environmental Effects Requirements for Systems" *

MIL-STD-498 MIL-STD-498, ''Military Standard Software Development and Documentation'', was a United States military standard whose purpose was to "establish uniform requirements for software development and documentation." It was released Nov. 8, 1994, and re ...

, on software development and documentation * MIL-STD-499, on Engineering Management (System Engineering) *

MIL-STD-704 MIL-STD-704 Aircraft Electrical Power Characteristics is a United States Military Standard that defines a standardized power interface between a military aircraft and its equipment and carriage stores, covering such topics as voltage, frequency, pha ...

, "Aircraft Electric Power Characteristics" * MIL-STD-709, Design Criteria Standard for Ammunition Color Coding * MIL-STD-806, "Graphical Symbols for Logic Diagrams", originally a USAF standard *

MIL-STD-810 MIL-STD-810, U S Department of Defense Test Method Standard, Environmental Engineering Considerations and Laboratory Tests, is a United States Military Standard that emphasizes tailoring an equipment's environmental design and test limits to the ...

, test methods for determining the environmental effects on equipment * MIL-STD-882, standard practice for system safety *

MIL-STD-883 The MIL-STD-883 standard establishes uniform methods, controls, and procedures for testing microelectronic devices suitable for use within military and aerospace electronic systems including basic environmental tests to determine resistance to dele ...

, test method standard for microcircuits *

MIL-STD-1168 The MIL-STD-1168 is a set of standard codes used to identify munitions (ammunition, explosives and propellants). It was designed to replace the previous confusing Ammunition Identification Code (AIC) system used by the United States Army Ordnance ...

, a classification system for ammunition production that replaced the

Ammunition Identification Code Ammunition (informally ammo) is the material fired, scattered, dropped, or detonated from any weapon or weapon system. Ammunition is both expendable weapons (e.g., bombs, missiles, grenades, land mines) and the component parts of other wea ...

(AIC) system used during World War II. *

MIL-STD-1234 MIL-STD-1234 (Military-Standard-1234) is a United States Military Standard that describes the general methods of sampling, inspection, and testing pyrotechnics for conformance with the material requirements of various pyrotechnic specifications. M ...

, sampling, inspection, and testing of pyrotechnics * MIL-STD-1246, particle and molecular contamination levels for space hardware (has been replaced with IEST-STD-CC1246D). * MIL-STD-1376, guidelines for sonar transducers, specifically

piezoelectric Piezoelectricity (, ) is the electric charge that accumulates in certain solid materials—such as crystals, certain ceramics, and biological matter such as bone, DNA, and various proteins—in response to applied Stress (mechanics), mechanical s ...

ceramics A ceramic is any of the various hard, brittle, heat-resistant and corrosion-resistant materials made by shaping and then firing an inorganic, nonmetallic material, such as clay, at a high temperature. Common examples are earthenware, porcelain ...

; * MIL-STD-1388-1A,

Logistics support analysis Logistics Support Analysis (LSA) is a structured approach to increase efficiency of maintenance and reduces the cost of providing support by preplanning all aspects of Integrated Logistics Support. A successful LSA will define those support req ...

(LSA) (canceled and s/s by MIL-HDBK-502, Acquisition Logistics) * MIL-STD-1388-2B, DOD requirements for a logistic support analysis record (canceled and s/s by MIL-PRF-49506, Logistics Management Information) * MIL-STD-1394, this is concerned with the construction quality of hats and is often confused with

IEEE 1394 IEEE 1394 is an interface standard for a serial bus for high-speed communications and isochronous real-time data transfer. It was developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s by Apple in cooperation with a number of companies, primarily Sony an ...

. *

MIL-STD-1397 MIL-STD-1397 standard was issued by the United States Department of Defense (DoD) to define "the requirements for the physical, functional and electrical characteristics of a standard I/O data interface for digital data." The MIL-STD-1397 classific ...

, Input/Output Interfaces, Standard Digital Data, Navy Systems * MIL-STD-1472, Human Engineering * MIL-STD-1474, a sound measurement for small arms standard * MIL-STD-1464A, the Army Nomenclature System used in naming weapons and other materiel, like the

M16 rifle The M16 rifle (officially designated Rifle, Caliber 5.56 mm, M16) is a family of military rifles adapted from the ArmaLite AR-15 rifle for the United States military. The original M16 rifle was a 5.56×45mm automatic rifle with a 20-roun ...

MIL-STD-1553 MIL-STD-1553 is a military standard published by the United States Department of Defense that defines the mechanical, electrical, and functional characteristics of a serial data bus. It was originally designed as an avionic data bus for use with ...

, a digital communications

bus A bus (contracted from omnibus, with variants multibus, motorbus, autobus, etc.) is a road vehicle that carries significantly more passengers than an average car or van. It is most commonly used in public transport, but is also in use for cha ...

* MIL-STD-1589, "

JOVIAL JOVIAL is a high-level programming language based on ALGOL 58, specialized for developing embedded systems (specialized computer systems designed to perform one or a few dedicated functions, usually embedded as part of a larger, more complete dev ...

programming language A programming language is a system of notation for writing computer programs. Most programming languages are text-based formal languages, but they may also be graphical. They are a kind of computer language. The description of a programming ...

" *

MIL-STD-1661 The word ''mark'', followed by number, is a method of designating a version of a product. It is often abbreviated as Mk or M. This use of the word possibly originates from the use of physical marks made to measure height or progress. Furthermore ...

, a Navy standard for naming/designation * MIL-STD-1750, an

instruction set architecture In computer science, an instruction set architecture (ISA), also called computer architecture, is an abstract model of a computer. A device that executes instructions described by that ISA, such as a central processing unit (CPU), is called an ' ...

(ISA) for airborne computers *

MIL-STD-1760 MIL-STD-1760 Aircraft/Store Electrical Interconnection System defines a standardized electrical interface between a military aircraft and its carriage stores. Carriage stores range from weapons, such as GBU-31 JDAM, to pods, such as AN/AAQ-14 L ...

, smart-weapons interface derived from MIL-STD-1553 * MIL-STD-1815, "

Ada programming language Ada is a structured, statically typed, imperative, and object-oriented high-level programming language, extended from Pascal and other languages. It has built-in language support for '' design by contract'' (DbC), extremely strong typing, explic ...

" * MIL-STD-1913,

Picatinny rail The Picatinny rail ( or ), or Pic rail for short, also known as a MIL-STD-1913 rail, 1913 rail or STANAG 2324 rail (cancelled), is a military standard rail interface system that provides a mounting platform for firearm accessories. It was o ...

, a mounting bracket on firearms * MIL-STD-2045, Connectionless Data Transfer Application Layer * MIL-STD-2196, pertains to optical fiber communications *

MIL-STD-2361 This military standard established the Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML) and the Extensible Markup Language (XML) requirements for use in Army digital publications. Within this military standard, Army publications SGML/XML requirements ...

, pertains to digital development, acquisition, and delivery of Army administrative, training and doctrine, and technical equipment publications in SGML. * MIL-STD-2525, Joint Military Symbology ((The URL is incorrectly linked to APP6, the NATO standard and needs to be replaced.)) * MIL-STD-3011, Joint Range Extension Application Protocol (JREAP) * MIL-STD-6011, Tactical Data Link (TDL) 11/11B Message Standard (Link-11) * MIL-STD-6013, Army Tactical Data Link-1 (ATDL-1) * MIL-STD-6016, Tactical Data Link (TDL) 16 Message Standard (Link-16) * MIL-STD-6017, Variable Message Format (VMF) * MIL-STD-6040, United States Message Text Format (USMTF) * MIL-HDBK-310, GLOBAL CLIMATIC DATA FOR DEVELOPING MILITARY PRODUCTS * MIL-HDBK-881, Work Breakdown Structures for Defense Materiel Items (WBS) * MIL-I-17563C, Demonstrates a vacuum impregnation sealant is compatible with the application and that the sealant will not degrade or fail over the life of the part. * MIL-PRF-38534, General Specification For Hybrid Microcircuits. * MIL-PRF-38535, General Specification For Integrated Circuits (Microcircuits) Manufacturing. * MIL-PRF-46374, Watch, Wrist: General Purpose. *

MIL-S-901 Military Specification MIL-S-901D is for high-impact mechanical shock which applies to equipment mounted on ships. Its publication date was Mar 17, 1989. Two levels apply: Grade A items are items which are essential to the safety and continue ...

, Shock Testing for Shipboard Equipment. *

MIL-E-7016F The United States Military Standard, military standard referred to as MIL-E-7016F, Electric Load and Power Source Capacity, Aircraft, Analysis of" addresses the methods and analysis of electric loads and source capacity on military aircraft. The use ...

, pertains to the analysis of AC and DC loads on an aircraft. * MIL-S-82258, on

rubber Rubber, also called India rubber, latex, Amazonian rubber, ''caucho'', or ''caoutchouc'', as initially produced, consists of polymers of the organic compound isoprene, with minor impurities of other organic compounds. Thailand, Malaysia, and ...

swim fins Swimfins, swim fins, diving fins, or flippers are finlike accessories worn on the feet, legs or hands and made from rubber, plastic, carbon fiber or combinations of these materials, to aid movement through the water in water sports activities su ...

. "Requirements for swim fins made of gum rubber for wear by military personnel for swimming purposes and for general utility"

References

External links

Defense Standardisation Program
– the official source for defense and federal specifications and standards, military handbooks, commercial item description, data item descriptions, and related standardization documents either prepared by, or adopted by, the Department of Defense
Acquisition Streamlining and Standardization Information System (ASSIST)
– database of approved defense and federal standardization documents, adopted non-government standards (NGS), and U.S. ratified materiel International Standardization Agreements (ISAs)
Defense Standards (Gov IT Wiki)
– where to obtain defense standards and specifications Military of the United States standards,