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Lymphoma is a group of blood and lymph tumors that develop from
lymphocyte A lymphocyte is a type of white blood cell (leukocyte) in the immune system of most vertebrates. Lymphocytes include natural killer cells (which function in cell-mediated, cytotoxic innate immunity), T cells (for cell-mediated, cytotoxic ad ...
s (a type of
white blood cell White blood cells, also called leukocytes or leucocytes, are the cell (biology), cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders. All white blood cells are produced and de ...
). In current usage the name usually refers to just the
cancer Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. These contrast with benign tumors, which do not spread. Possible signs and symptoms include a lump, abnormal b ...
ous versions rather than all such tumours. Signs and symptoms may include enlarged lymph nodes,
fever Fever, also referred to as pyrexia, is defined as having a body temperature, temperature above the human body temperature, normal range due to an increase in the body's temperature Human body temperature#Fever, set point. There is not a single ...
, drenching sweats, unintended weight loss,
itching Itch (also known as pruritus) is a sensation that causes the desire or reflex to scratch. Itch has resisted many attempts to be classified as any one type of sensory experience. Itch has many similarities to pain, and while both are unpleasan ...
, and constantly feeling tired. The enlarged lymph nodes are usually painless. The sweats are most common at night. Many subtypes of lymphomas are known. The two main categories of lymphomas are the
non-Hodgkin lymphoma Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL), also known as non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, is a group of blood cancers that includes all types of lymphomas except Hodgkin lymphomas. Symptoms include enlarged lymph nodes, fever, night sweats, weight loss, and tiredness. ...
(NHL) (90% of cases) and
Hodgkin lymphoma Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) is a type of lymphoma, in which cancer originates from a specific type of white blood cell called lymphocytes, where multinucleated Reed–Sternberg cells (RS cells) are present in the patient's lymph nodes. The condition wa ...
(HL) (10%). The
World Health Organization The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for international public health. The WHO Constitution states its main objective as "the attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level of h ...
(WHO) includes two other categories as types of lymphoma –
multiple myeloma Multiple myeloma (MM), also known as plasma cell myeloma and simply myeloma, is a cancer of plasma cells, a type of white blood cell that normally produces antibodies. Often, no symptoms are noticed initially. As it progresses, bone pain, an ...
and
immunoproliferative diseases Lymphoproliferative disorders (LPDs) refer to a specific class of diagnoses, comprising a group of several conditions, in which lymphocytes are produced in excessive quantities. These disorders primarily present in patients who have a compromised i ...
. Lymphomas and
leukemia Leukemia ( also spelled leukaemia and pronounced ) is a group of blood cancers that usually begin in the bone marrow and result in high numbers of abnormal blood cells. These blood cells are not fully developed and are called ''blasts'' or ' ...
s are a part of the broader group of
tumors of the hematopoietic and lymphoid tissues Tumors of the hematopoietic and lymphoid tissues (American English) or tumours of the haematopoietic and lymphoid tissues (British English) are tumors that affect the blood, bone marrow, lymph, and lymphatic system. Because these tissues are all ...
. Risk factors for Hodgkin lymphoma include infection with
Epstein–Barr virus The Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), formally called ''Human gammaherpesvirus 4'', is one of the nine known human herpesvirus types in the herpes family, and is one of the most common viruses in humans. EBV is a double-stranded DNA virus. It is b ...
and a history of the disease in the family. Risk factors for common types of non-Hodgkin lymphomas include
autoimmune disease An autoimmune disease is a condition arising from an abnormal immune response to a functioning body part. At least 80 types of autoimmune diseases have been identified, with some evidence suggesting that there may be more than 100 types. Nearly a ...
s,
HIV/AIDS Human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) is a spectrum of conditions caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), a retrovirus. Following initial infection an individual ...
, infection with
human T-lymphotropic virus The human T-lymphotropic virus, human T-cell lymphotropic virus, or human T-cell leukemia-lymphoma virus (HTLV) family of viruses are a group of human retroviruses that are known to cause a type of cancer called adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma and ...
,
immunosuppressant medication Immunosuppressive drugs, also known as immunosuppressive agents, immunosuppressants and antirejection medications, are drugs that inhibit or prevent activity of the immune system. Classification Immunosuppressive drugs can be classified into ...
s, and some
pesticide Pesticides are substances that are meant to control pests. This includes herbicide, insecticide, nematicide, molluscicide, piscicide, avicide, rodenticide, bactericide, insect repellent, animal repellent, microbicide, fungicide, and lampri ...
s. Eating large amounts of red meat and
tobacco smoking Tobacco smoking is the practice of burning tobacco and ingesting the resulting smoke. The smoke may be inhaled, as is done with cigarettes, or simply released from the mouth, as is generally done with pipes and cigars. The practice is believed ...
may also increase the risk. Diagnosis, if enlarged lymph nodes are present, is usually by
lymph node biopsy Lymph node biopsy is a test in which a lymph node or a piece of a lymph node is removed for examination under a microscope (see: biopsy). The lymphatic system is made up of several lymph nodes connected by lymph vessels. The nodes produce white bl ...
. Blood, urine, and bone marrow testing may also be useful in the diagnosis.
Medical imaging Medical imaging is the technique and process of imaging the interior of a body for clinical analysis and medical intervention, as well as visual representation of the function of some organs or tissues (physiology). Medical imaging seeks to rev ...
may then be done to determine if and where the cancer has spread. Lymphoma most often spreads to the lungs, liver, and brain. Treatment may involve one or more of the following:
chemotherapy Chemotherapy (often abbreviated to chemo and sometimes CTX or CTx) is a type of cancer treatment that uses one or more anti-cancer drugs (chemotherapeutic agents or alkylating agents) as part of a standardized chemotherapy regimen. Chemotherap ...
,
radiation therapy Radiation therapy or radiotherapy, often abbreviated RT, RTx, or XRT, is a therapy using ionizing radiation, generally provided as part of cancer treatment to control or kill malignant cells and normally delivered by a linear accelerator. Radia ...
,
proton therapy In medicine, proton therapy, or proton radiotherapy, is a type of particle therapy that uses a beam of protons to irradiate diseased tissue, most often to treat cancer. The chief advantage of proton therapy over other types of external beam ra ...
,
targeted therapy Targeted therapy or molecularly targeted therapy is one of the major modalities of medical treatment (pharmacotherapy) for cancer, others being hormonal therapy and cytotoxic chemotherapy. As a form of molecular medicine, targeted therapy blocks ...
, and surgery. In some non-Hodgkin lymphomas, an increased amount of protein produced by the lymphoma cells causes the blood to become so thick that
plasmapheresis Plasmapheresis (from the Greek πλάσμα, ''plasma'', something molded, and ἀφαίρεσις ''aphairesis'', taking away) is the removal, treatment, and return or exchange of blood plasma or components thereof from and to the blood circulati ...
is performed to remove the protein.
Watchful waiting Watchful waiting (also watch and wait or WAW) is an approach to a medical problem in which time is allowed to pass before medical intervention or therapy is used. During this time, repeated testing may be performed. Related terms include ''expec ...
may be appropriate for certain types. The outcome depends on the subtype with some being curable and treatment prolonging survival in most. The
five-year survival rate The five-year survival rate is a type of survival rate for estimating the prognosis of a particular disease, normally calculated from the point of diagnosis. Lead time bias from earlier diagnosis can affect interpretation of the five-year surviva ...
in the United States for all Hodgkin lymphoma subtypes is 85%, while that for non-Hodgkin lymphomas is 69%. Worldwide, lymphomas developed in 566,000 people in 2012 and caused 305,000 deaths. They make up 3–4% of all cancers, making them as a group the seventh-most common form. In children, they are the third-most common cancer. They occur more often in the
developed world A developed country (or industrialized country, high-income country, more economically developed country (MEDC), advanced country) is a sovereign state that has a high quality of life, developed economy and advanced technological infrastruct ...
than the
developing world A developing country is a sovereign state with a lesser developed industrial base and a lower Human Development Index (HDI) relative to other countries. However, this definition is not universally agreed upon. There is also no clear agreem ...
.


Signs and symptoms

Lymphoma may present with certain nonspecific symptoms; if the symptoms are persistent, an evaluation to determine their cause, including possible lymphoma, should be undertaken. *
Lymphadenopathy Lymphadenopathy or adenopathy is a disease of the lymph nodes, in which they are abnormal in size or consistency. Lymphadenopathy of an inflammatory type (the most common type) is lymphadenitis, producing swollen or enlarged lymph nodes. In cli ...
or swelling of lymph nodes, is the primary presentation in lymphoma. It is generally painless. *
B symptoms B symptoms are a set of symptoms, namely fever, night sweats, and unintentional weight loss, that can be associated with both Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. These symptoms are not specific to lymphomas, especially each one considere ...
(systemic symptoms) – can be associated with both Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. They consist of: **
Fever Fever, also referred to as pyrexia, is defined as having a body temperature, temperature above the human body temperature, normal range due to an increase in the body's temperature Human body temperature#Fever, set point. There is not a single ...
**
Night sweats Night sweats, also referred to as nocturnal hyperhidrosis (Hyperhidrosis - a medical term for excessive sweating + nocturnal - night), is the repeated occurrence of excessive sweating during sleep. The person may or may not also perspire exces ...
**
Weight loss Weight loss, in the context of medicine, health, or physical fitness, refers to a reduction of the total body mass, by a mean loss of fluid, body fat (adipose tissue), or lean mass (namely bone mineral deposits, muscle, tendon, and other conn ...
* Other symptoms: **
Anemia Anemia or anaemia (British English) is a blood disorder in which the blood has a reduced ability to carry oxygen due to a lower than normal number of red blood cells, or a reduction in the amount of hemoglobin. When anemia comes on slowly, th ...
, bleeding, increased susceptibility to infections ** Loss of appetite or anorexia **
Fatigue Fatigue describes a state of tiredness that does not resolve with rest or sleep. In general usage, fatigue is synonymous with extreme tiredness or exhaustion that normally follows prolonged physical or mental activity. When it does not resolve ...
** Respiratory distress or dyspnea **
Itching Itch (also known as pruritus) is a sensation that causes the desire or reflex to scratch. Itch has resisted many attempts to be classified as any one type of sensory experience. Itch has many similarities to pain, and while both are unpleasan ...


Mouth

Asymptomatic soft swelling, which may or may not be ulcerated, is primarily seen on the tonsils, buccal mucosa, palate, gums, salivary glands, tongue, the floor of the mouth, and retromolar region.


Diagnosis

Lymphoma is definitively diagnosed by a lymph-node biopsy, meaning a partial or total excision of a
lymph node A lymph node, or lymph gland, is a kidney-shaped organ of the lymphatic system and the adaptive immune system. A large number of lymph nodes are linked throughout the body by the lymphatic vessels. They are major sites of lymphocytes that inclu ...
examined under the microscope. This examination reveals
histopathological Histopathology (compound of three Greek words: ''histos'' "tissue", πάθος ''pathos'' "suffering", and -λογία ''-logia'' "study of") refers to the microscopic examination of tissue in order to study the manifestations of disease. Spec ...
features that may indicate lymphoma. After lymphoma is diagnosed, a variety of tests may be carried out to look for specific features characteristic of different types of lymphoma. These include: * Immunophenotyping *
Flow cytometry Flow cytometry (FC) is a technique used to detect and measure physical and chemical characteristics of a population of cells or particles. In this process, a sample containing cells or particles is suspended in a fluid and injected into the flo ...
* Fluorescence ''in situ'' hybridization testing


Classification

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), lymphoma classification should reflect in which lymphocyte population the neoplasm arises.Manli Jiang, N. Nora Bennani, and Andrew L. Feldman. Lymphoma classification update: T-cell lymphomas, Hodgkin lymphoma, and histiocytic/dendritic cell neoplasms. Expert Rev Hematol. 2017 Mar; 10(3): 239–249. Author Manuscript. Thus, neoplasms that arise from precursor lymphoid cells are distinguished from those that arise from mature lymphoid cells. Most mature lymphoid neoplasms comprise the non-Hodgkin lymphomas. Historically, mature histiocytic and dendritic cell (HDC) neoplasms have been considered mature lymphoid neoplasms, since these often involve lymphoid tissue. Lymphoma can also spread to the
central nervous system The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system consisting primarily of the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is so named because the brain integrates the received information and coordinates and influences the activity of all par ...
, often around the brain in the
meninges In anatomy, the meninges (, ''singular:'' meninx ( or ), ) are the three membranes that envelop the brain and spinal cord. In mammals, the meninges are the dura mater, the arachnoid mater, and the pia mater. Cerebrospinal fluid is located in th ...
, known as lymphomatous meningitis (LM).


Hodgkin lymphoma

Hodgkin lymphoma accounts for about 15% of lymphomas. It differs from other forms of lymphomas in its
prognosis Prognosis (Greek: πρόγνωσις "fore-knowing, foreseeing") is a medical term for predicting the likely or expected development of a disease, including whether the signs and symptoms will improve or worsen (and how quickly) or remain stabl ...
and several
pathological Pathology is the study of the causal, causes and effects of disease or injury. The word ''pathology'' also refers to the study of disease in general, incorporating a wide range of biology research fields and medical practices. However, when us ...
characteristics. A division into Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphomas is used in several of the older classification systems. A Hodgkin lymphoma is marked by the presence of a type of cell called the
Reed–Sternberg cell Reed–Sternberg cells (also known as lacunar histiocytes for certain types) are distinctive, giant cells found with light microscopy in biopsies from individuals with Hodgkin lymphoma. They are usually derived from B lymphocytes, classically con ...
.


Non-Hodgkin lymphomas

Non-Hodgkin lymphoma Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL), also known as non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, is a group of blood cancers that includes all types of lymphomas except Hodgkin lymphomas. Symptoms include enlarged lymph nodes, fever, night sweats, weight loss, and tiredness. ...
s, which are defined as being all lymphomas except Hodgkin lymphoma, are more common than Hodgkin lymphoma. A wide variety of lymphomas are in this class, and the causes, the types of cells involved, and the prognoses vary by type. The number of cases per year of non-Hodgkin lymphoma increases with age. It is further divided into several subtypes.


Epstein–Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative diseases

Epstein–Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative diseases are a group of benign,
premalignant A precancerous condition is a condition, tumor or lesion involving abnormal cells which are associated with an increased risk of developing into cancer. Clinically, precancerous conditions encompass a variety of abnormal tissues with an increased ...
, and malignant diseases of
lymphoid cells A lymphocyte is a type of white blood cell (leukocyte) in the immune system of most vertebrates. Lymphocytes include natural killer cells (which function in cell-mediated, cytotoxic innate immunity), T cells (for cell-mediated, cytotoxic adapt ...
, i.e.
B cells B cells, also known as B lymphocytes, are a type of white blood cell of the lymphocyte subtype. They function in the humoral immunity component of the adaptive immune system. B cells produce antibody molecules which may be either secreted or ...
,
T cells A T cell is a type of lymphocyte. T cells are one of the important white blood cells of the immune system and play a central role in the adaptive immune response. T cells can be distinguished from other lymphocytes by the presence of a T-cell re ...
,
NK cells Natural killer cells, also known as NK cells or large granular lymphocytes (LGL), are a type of cytotoxic lymphocyte critical to the innate immune system that belong to the rapidly expanding family of known innate lymphoid cells (ILC) and represen ...
, and histiocytic-dendritic cells in which one or more of these cell types is infected with the
Epstein–Barr virus The Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), formally called ''Human gammaherpesvirus 4'', is one of the nine known human herpesvirus types in the herpes family, and is one of the most common viruses in humans. EBV is a double-stranded DNA virus. It is b ...
(EBV). The virus may be responsible for the development and/or progression of these diseases. In addition to EBV-positive Hodgkin lymphomas, the World Health Organization (2016) includes the following lymphomas, when associated with EBV infection, in this group of diseases:
Burkitt lymphoma Burkitt lymphoma is a cancer of the lymphatic system, particularly B lymphocytes found in the germinal center. It is named after Denis Parsons Burkitt, the Irish surgeon who first described the disease in 1958 while working in equatorial Africa. ...
; large B cell lymphoma, not otherwise specified; diffuse large B cell lymphoma associated with chronic inflammation; fibrin-associated diffuse large B cell lymphoma;
primary effusion lymphoma Primary effusion lymphoma (PEL) is classified as a diffuse large B cell lymphoma. It is a rare malignancy of plasmablastic cells that occurs in individuals that are infected with the Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (i.e. KSHV/HHV8). Plasmab ...
; plasmablastic lymphoma; extranodal NK/T cell lymphoma, nasal type; peripheral T cell lymphoma, not otherwise specified;
angioimmunoblastic T cell lymphoma Angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma (AITL, sometimes misspelled AILT, formerly known as "angioimmunoblastic lymphadenopathy with dysproteinemia") is a mature T-cell lymphoma of blood or lymph vessel immunoblasts characterized by a polymorphous lym ...
; follicular T cell lymphoma; and systemic T cell lymphoma of childhood.


WHO classification

The WHO classification, published in 2001 and updated in 2008, is based upon the foundations laid within the "revised European–American lymphoma classification" (REAL). This system groups lymphomas by cell type (i.e. the normal cell type that most resembles the tumor) and defining
phenotypic In genetics, the phenotype () is the set of observable characteristics or traits of an organism. The term covers the organism's morphology or physical form and structure, its developmental processes, its biochemical and physiological proper ...
,
molecular A molecule is a group of two or more atoms held together by attractive forces known as chemical bonds; depending on context, the term may or may not include ions which satisfy this criterion. In quantum physics, organic chemistry, and bioche ...
, or
cytogenetic Cytogenetics is essentially a branch of genetics, but is also a part of cell biology/cytology (a subdivision of human anatomy), that is concerned with how the chromosomes relate to cell behaviour, particularly to their behaviour during mitosis an ...
characteristics. The five groups are shown in the table. Hodgkin lymphoma is considered separately within the WHO and preceding classifications, although it is recognized as being a tumor, albeit markedly abnormal, of lymphocytes of mature B cell lineage. Of the many forms of lymphoma, some are categorized as indolent (e.g.
small lymphocytic lymphoma Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is a type of cancer in which the bone marrow makes too many lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell). Early on, there are typically no symptoms. Later, non-painful lymph node swelling, feeling tired, fever, nigh ...
), compatible with a long life even without treatment, whereas other forms are aggressive (e.g.
Burkitt's lymphoma Burkitt lymphoma is a cancer of the lymphatic system, particularly B lymphocytes found in the germinal center. It is named after Denis Parsons Burkitt, the Irish surgeon who first described the disease in 1958 while working in equatorial Africa. ...
), causing rapid deterioration and death. However, most of the aggressive lymphomas respond well to treatment and are curable. The
prognosis Prognosis (Greek: πρόγνωσις "fore-knowing, foreseeing") is a medical term for predicting the likely or expected development of a disease, including whether the signs and symptoms will improve or worsen (and how quickly) or remain stabl ...
, therefore, depends on the correct diagnosis and classification of the disease, which is established after examination of a biopsy by a
pathologist Pathology is the study of the causal, causes and effects of disease or injury. The word ''pathology'' also refers to the study of disease in general, incorporating a wide range of biology research fields and medical practices. However, when us ...
(usually a
hematopathologist Hematopathology or hemopathology (both also spelled haem-, see spelling differences) is the study of diseases and disorders affecting and found in blood cells, their production, and any organs and tissues involved in hematopoiesis, such as bone m ...
).
Lymphoma subtypes (WHO 2008)
* B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia/small cell lymphoma :: 3 to 4% of lymphomas in adults :: Small resting lymphocytes mixed with variable numbers of large activated cells, lymph nodes diffusely effaced :: CD5, surface
immunoglobulin An antibody (Ab), also known as an immunoglobulin (Ig), is a large, Y-shaped protein used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects such as pathogenic bacteria and viruses. The antibody recognizes a unique molecule of the ...
:: 5-year survival rate 50%. :: Occurs in older adults, usually involves lymph nodes, bone marrow and spleen, most patients have peripheral blood involvement, indolent *
B-cell prolymphocytic leukemia B-cell prolymphocytic leukemia, referred to as B-PLL, is a rare blood cancer. It is a more aggressive, but still treatable, form of leukemia. Specifically, B-PLL is a prolymphocytic leukemia (PLL) that affects prolymphocytes – immature forms o ...
* Lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma (such as
Waldenström macroglobulinemia Waldenström macroglobulinemia () is a type of cancer affecting two types of B cells: lymphoplasmacytoid cells and plasma cells. Both cell types are white blood cells. It is characterized by having high levels of a circulating antibody, immunogl ...
) *
Splenic marginal zone lymphoma Splenic marginal zone lymphoma (SMZL) is a type of cancer (specifically a lymphoma) made up of B-cells that replace the normal architecture of the white pulp of the spleen. The neoplastic cells are both small lymphocytes and larger, transformed l ...
*
Hairy cell leukemia Hairy cell leukemia is an uncommon hematological malignancy characterized by an accumulation of abnormal B lymphocytes. It is usually classified as a subtype of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). Hairy cell leukemia makes up about 2% of all le ...
*
Plasma cell Plasma cells, also called plasma B cells or effector B cells, are white blood cells that originate in the lymphoid organs as B lymphocytes and secrete large quantities of proteins called antibodies in response to being presented specific substan ...
neoplasms: ** Plasma cell myeloma (also known as multiple myeloma) **
Plasmacytoma Plasmacytoma is a plasma cell dyscrasia in which a plasma cell tumour grows within soft tissue or within the axial skeleton. The International Myeloma Working Group lists three types: solitary plasmacytoma of bone (SPB); extramedullary plasmac ...
** Monoclonal immunoglobulin deposition diseases ** Heavy chain diseases * Extranodal marginal zone B cell lymphoma, also called
MALT lymphoma MALT lymphoma (MALToma) is a form of lymphoma involving the mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT), frequently of the stomach, but virtually any mucosal site can be affected. It is a cancer originating from B cells in the marginal zone of the MAL ...
:: About 5% of lymphomas in adults :: Variable cell size and differentiation, 40% show
plasma cell Plasma cells, also called plasma B cells or effector B cells, are white blood cells that originate in the lymphoid organs as B lymphocytes and secrete large quantities of proteins called antibodies in response to being presented specific substan ...
differentiation, homing of B cells to epithelium creates lymphoepithelial lesions. :: CD5,
CD10 Neprilysin (), also known as membrane metallo-endopeptidase (MME), neutral endopeptidase (NEP), cluster of differentiation 10 (CD10), and common acute lymphoblastic leukemia antigen (CALLA) is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the ''MME'' ge ...
, surface Ig :: Frequently occurs outside lymph nodes, very indolent, may be cured by local excision *
Nodal marginal zone B cell lymphoma Nodal marginal zone B cell lymphoma (NMZL) is an uncommon form of marginal-zone lymphoma that can produce colonization of the follicles in the lymph node. It is a form of low grade lymphoma with similar incidence in men and women and a mean age o ...
*
Follicular lymphoma Follicular lymphoma (FL) is a cancer that involves certain types of white blood cells known as lymphocytes. The cancer originates from the uncontrolled division of specific types of B-cells known as centrocytes and centroblasts. These cells normal ...
:: About 40% of lymphomas in adults :: Small "cleaved"
left Left may refer to: Music * ''Left'' (Hope of the States album), 2006 * ''Left'' (Monkey House album), 2016 * "Left", a song by Nickelback from the album ''Curb'', 1996 Direction * Left (direction), the relative direction opposite of right * L ...
cells (
centrocyte A centrocyte generally refers to a B cell with a cleaved nucleus, as may appear in e.g. follicular lymphoma.Table 12-8 in: 8th edition. Centrocytes are B cells that are found in the light zones of germinal centers. Centrocytes are the non-dividing ...
s) mixed with large activated cells (
centroblast A centroblast generally refers to an activated B cell that is enlarged (12–18 micrometer) and is rapidly proliferating in the germinal center of a lymphoid follicle. They are specifically located in the dark zone of the germinal center. Cent ...
s), usually nodular ("follicular") growth pattern ::
CD10 Neprilysin (), also known as membrane metallo-endopeptidase (MME), neutral endopeptidase (NEP), cluster of differentiation 10 (CD10), and common acute lymphoblastic leukemia antigen (CALLA) is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the ''MME'' ge ...
, surface Ig :: About 72–77% :: Occurs in older adults, usually involves lymph nodes, bone marrow and spleen, associated with t(14;18) translocation overexpressing
Bcl-2 Bcl-2 (B-cell lymphoma 2), encoded in humans by the ''BCL2'' gene, is the founding member of the Bcl-2 family of regulator proteins that regulate cell death (apoptosis), by either inhibiting (anti-apoptotic) or inducing (pro-apoptotic) apoptosis. ...
, indolent *
Primary cutaneous follicle center lymphoma Primary cutaneous follicle center lymphoma is a type of lymphoma. It was recognized as a distinct disease entity in the 2008 WHO classification. PCFCL had been previously conceived as a variant of follicular lymphoma (FL). Cause Unlike FL, PCFCL ...
*
Mantle cell lymphoma Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a type of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL), comprising about 6% of NHL cases. There are only about 15,000 patients presently in the United States with mantle cell lymphoma. It is named for the mantle zone of the lymph n ...
:: About 3 to 4% of lymphomas in adults :: Lymphocytes of small to intermediate size growing in diffuse pattern :: CD5 :: About 50 to 70% :::: 50% for limited stage: :::: 70% for advanced stage: :: Occurs mainly in adult males, usually involves lymph nodes, bone marrow, spleen and
GI tract The gastrointestinal tract (GI tract, digestive tract, alimentary canal) is the tract or passageway of the digestive system that leads from the mouth to the anus. The GI tract contains all the major organs of the digestive system, in humans and ...
, associated with t(11;14) translocation overexpressing
cyclin D1 Cyclin D1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''CCND1'' gene. Gene expression The CCND1 gene encodes the cyclin D1 protein. The human CCND1 gene is located on the long arm of chromosome 11 (band 11q13). It is 13,388 base pairs lon ...
, moderately aggressive *
Diffuse large B cell lymphoma Diffusion is the net movement of anything (for example, atoms, ions, molecules, energy) generally from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. Diffusion is driven by a gradient in Gibbs free energy or chemical p ...
, not otherwise specified :: About 40 to 50% of lymphomas in adults :: Variable, most resemble B cells of large germinal centers, diffuse growth pattern :: Variable expression of
CD10 Neprilysin (), also known as membrane metallo-endopeptidase (MME), neutral endopeptidase (NEP), cluster of differentiation 10 (CD10), and common acute lymphoblastic leukemia antigen (CALLA) is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the ''MME'' ge ...
and surface Ig ::
Five-year survival rate The five-year survival rate is a type of survival rate for estimating the prognosis of a particular disease, normally calculated from the point of diagnosis. Lead time bias from earlier diagnosis can affect interpretation of the five-year surviva ...
60% :: Occurs in all ages, but most commonly in older adults, may occur outside lymph nodes, aggressive *
Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma associated with chronic inflammation Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma associated with chronic inflammation (DLBCL-CI) is a subtype of the Diffuse large B-cell lymphomas and a rare form of the Epstein–Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative diseases, i.e. conditions in which lymphoc ...
*
Epstein–Barr virus positive diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, not otherwise specified Epstein–Barr virus positive diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, not otherwise specified (also termed: EBV positive diffuse large B cell lymphoma, NOS; EBV+ DLBCL, NOS; or EBV+ DLBCL) was initially termed in the WHO 2008 classification as Epstein–Ba ...
* Lymphomatoid granulomatosis * Primary mediastinal (thymic) large B-cell lymphoma *
Intravascular large B-cell lymphoma Intravascular lymphomas (IVL) are rare cancers in which malignant lymphocytes proliferate and accumulate within blood vessels. Almost all other tyes of lymphoma involve the proliferation and accumulation of malignant lymphocytes in lymph nodes, ...
*
ALK+ large B-cell lymphoma ALK+ large B-cell lymphoma is a type of lymphoma. It was first reported in 1997. It is a rare, aggressive large B-cell process that shows ALK expression. It is distinct from anaplastic large cell lymphoma, a T-cell lymphoma. Signs and symptoms P ...
* Plasmablastic lymphoma *
Primary effusion lymphoma Primary effusion lymphoma (PEL) is classified as a diffuse large B cell lymphoma. It is a rare malignancy of plasmablastic cells that occurs in individuals that are infected with the Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (i.e. KSHV/HHV8). Plasmab ...
* Large B-cell lymphoma arising in HHV8-associated multicentric Castleman's disease * Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia :: < 1% of lymphomas in the United States :: Round lymphoid cells of intermediate size with several nucleoli, starry-sky appearance by diffuse spread with interspersed
apoptosis Apoptosis (from grc, ἀπόπτωσις, apóptōsis, 'falling off') is a form of programmed cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms. Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes (morphology) and death. These changes incl ...
:: CD10, surface Ig :: Five-year survival rate 50% :: Endemic in Africa, sporadic elsewhere, more common in immunocompromised and children, often visceral involvement, highly aggressive *
T-cell prolymphocytic leukemia T-cell-prolymphocytic leukemia (T-PLL) is a mature T-cell leukemia with aggressive behavior and predilection for blood, bone marrow, lymph nodes, liver, spleen, and skin involvement. T-PLL is a very rare leukemia, primarily affecting adults over t ...
* T-cell large granular lymphocyte leukemia *
Aggressive NK cell leukemia Aggressive NK-cell leukemia is a disease with an aggressive, systemic proliferation of natural killer cells (NK cells) and a rapidly declining clinical course. It is also called ''aggressive NK-cell lymphoma''. Signs and symptoms Patients usu ...
*
Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATL or ATLL) is a rare cancer of the immune system's T-cells caused by human T cell leukemia/lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1). All ATL cells contain integrated HTLV-1 provirus further supporting that causal role o ...
*
Extranodal NK/T-cell lymphoma, nasal type Extranodal NK/T-cell lymphoma, nasal type (ENKTCL-NT) (also termed angiocentric lymphoma, nasal-type NK lymphoma, NK/T-cell lymphoma, polymorphic/malignant midline reticulosis, and lethal midline granuloma) is a rare type of lymphoma that commonly ...
*
Enteropathy-associated T-cell lymphoma Enteropathy-associated T-cell lymphoma (EATL), previously termed enteropathy-associated T-cell lymphoma, type I and at one time termed enteropathy-type T-cell lymphoma (ETTL), is a complication of coeliac disease in which a malignant T-cell lympho ...
* Hepatosplenic T-cell lymphoma * Blastic NK cell lymphoma *
Mycosis fungoides Mycosis fungoides, also known as Alibert-Bazin syndrome or granuloma fungoides, is the most common form of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma. It generally affects the skin, but may progress internally over time. Symptoms include rash, tumors, skin lesion ...
/ Sézary syndrome :: Most common cutaneous lymphoid malignancy :: Usually small lymphoid cells with convoluted nuclei that often infiltrate the epidermis, creating
Pautrier microabscesses Mycosis fungoides, also known as Alibert-Bazin syndrome or granuloma fungoides, is the most common form of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma. It generally affects the skin, but may progress internally over time. Symptoms include rash, tumors, skin lesion ...
es :: CD4 :: 5-year
survival
75% :: Localized or more generalized skin symptoms, generally indolent, in a more aggressive variant, Sézary's disease, skin
erythema Erythema (from the Greek , meaning red) is redness of the skin or mucous membranes, caused by hyperemia (increased blood flow) in superficial capillaries. It occurs with any skin injury, infection, or inflammation. Examples of erythema not assoc ...
and peripheral blood involvement * Primary cutaneous CD30-positive T cell lymphoproliferative disorders **
Primary cutaneous anaplastic large cell lymphoma Primary cutaneous anaplastic large cell lymphoma belongs to the group of cutaneous processes that are CD30+ lymphoproliferative and are characterized by autoregressive, recurrent, single or multifocal ulcerating nodules. Single or localized nodul ...
**
Lymphomatoid papulosis Lymphomatoid papulosis (LyP) is a rare skin disorder. The overall prevalence rate of lymphomatoid papulosis is estimated at 1.2 to 1.9 cases per 1,000,000 population.
*_Peripheral_T-cell_lymphoma_not_otherwise_specified.html" ;"title="his is a widespread misinterpretation of a 1992 study saying "the period prev ...
* his_is_a_widespread_misinterpretation_of_a_1992_study_saying_"the_period_prev_...
*_Peripheral_T-cell_lymphoma_not_otherwise_specified ::_Most_common_T_cell_lymphoma ::_Variable,_usually_a_mix_small_to_large_lymphoid_cells_with_irregular_nuclear_contours ::_CD3_(immunology).html" ;"title="Peripheral T-cell lymphoma not otherwise specified">his is a widespread misinterpretation of a 1992 study saying "the period prev ...
* Peripheral T-cell lymphoma not otherwise specified :: Most common T cell lymphoma :: Variable, usually a mix small to large lymphoid cells with irregular nuclear contours :: CD3 (immunology)">CD3 :: Probably consists of several rare tumor types, often disseminated and generally aggressive * Angioimmunoblastic T cell lymphoma * Anaplastic large cell lymphoma: Anaplastic large cell lymphoma#ALK-positive anaplastic large cell lymphoma, ALK-positive and Anaplastic large cell lymphoma#ALK-negative anaplastic large cell lymphoma, ALK-negative types * Anaplastic large cell lymphoma#Breast implant-associated anaplastic large cell lymphoma, Breast plant-associated anaplastic large cell lymphoma * B-lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma not otherwise specified * B-lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma with recurrent genetic abnormalities *
T-lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma T-lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma (WHO 2008), previously labeled precursor T-lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma (WHO 2001) is a form of lymphoid leukemia and lymphoma in which too many T-cell lymphoblasts (immature white blood cells) are found in the ...
:: 15% of childhood
acute lymphoblastic leukemia Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is a cancer of the lymphoid line of blood cells characterized by the development of large numbers of immature lymphocytes. Symptoms may include feeling tired, pale skin color, fever, easy bleeding or bruisin ...
and 90% of lymphoblastic lymphoma. ::
Lymphoblast __NOTOC__ A lymphoblast is a modified naive lymphocyte with altered cell morphology. It occurs when the lymphocyte is activated by an antigen (from antigen-presenting cells) and increased in volume by nucleus and cytoplasm growth as well as new mRN ...
s with irregular nuclear contours, condensed chromatin, small nucleoli and scant cytoplasm without granules ::
TdT Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT), also known as DNA nucleotidylexotransferase (DNTT) or terminal transferase, is a specialized DNA polymerase expressed in immature, pre-B, pre-T lymphoid cells, and acute lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphom ...
,
CD2 CD2 (cluster of differentiation 2) is a cell adhesion molecule found on the surface of T cells and natural killer (NK) cells. It has also been called T-cell surface antigen T11/Leu-5, LFA-2, LFA-3 receptor, erythrocyte receptor and rosette rece ...
,
CD7 CD7 (Cluster of Differentiation 7) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''CD7'' gene. Function This gene encodes a transmembrane protein which is a member of the immunoglobulin superfamily. This protein is found on thymocytes and matur ...
:: It often presents as a
mediastinal mass A mediastinal tumor is a tumor in the mediastinum, the cavity that separates the lungs from the rest of the chest. It contains the heart, esophagus, trachea, thymus, and aorta. The most common mediastinal masses are neurogenic tumors (20% of medi ...
because of involvement of the
thymus The thymus is a specialized primary lymphoid organ of the immune system. Within the thymus, thymus cell lymphocytes or ''T cells'' mature. T cells are critical to the adaptive immune system, where the body adapts to specific foreign invaders. ...
. It is highly associated with ''
NOTCH1 Neurogenic locus notch homolog protein 1 (Notch 1) is a protein encoded in humans by the ''NOTCH1'' gene. Notch 1 is a single-pass transmembrane receptor. Function This gene encodes a member of the Notch family. Members of this Type 1 transm ...
'' mutations, and is most common in adolescent males. * Classical
Hodgkin lymphoma Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) is a type of lymphoma, in which cancer originates from a specific type of white blood cell called lymphocytes, where multinucleated Reed–Sternberg cells (RS cells) are present in the patient's lymph nodes. The condition wa ...
s: **
Nodular sclerosis Nodular sclerosis (or "NSHL") is a form of Hodgkin's lymphoma that is the most common subtype of HL in developed countries. It affects females slightly more than males and has a median age of onset at ~28 years. It is composed of large tumor nodul ...
form of Hodgkin lymphoma :: Most common type of Hodgkin lymphoma :: Reed-Sternberg cell variants and inflammation, usually broad sclerotic bands that consist of collagen ::
CD15 Sialyl LewisX (sLeX), also known as cluster of differentiation 15s (CD15s) or stage-specific embryonic antigen 1 (SSEA-1), is a tetrasaccharide carbohydrate which is usually attached to O- glycans on the surface of cells. It is known to play a vi ...
,
CD30 CD30, also known as TNFRSF8 (TNF receptor superfamily member 8), is a cell membrane protein of the tumor necrosis factor receptor family and a tumor marker. Function This receptor is expressed by activated, but not by resting, T and B cells ...
:: Most common in young adults, often arises in the
mediastinum The mediastinum (from ) is the central compartment of the thoracic cavity. Surrounded by loose connective tissue, it is an undelineated region that contains a group of structures within the thorax, namely the heart and its vessels, the esophagu ...
or
cervical lymph node Cervical lymph nodes are lymph nodes found in the neck. Of the 800 lymph nodes in the human body, 300 are in the neck. Cervical lymph nodes are subject to a number of different pathological conditions including tumours, infection and inflammati ...
s ** Mixed cellularity Hodgkin lymphoma :: Second-most common form of Hodgkin lymphoma :: Many classic Reed-Sternberg cells and inflammation :: CD15, CD30 :: Most common in men, more likely to be diagnosed at advanced stages than the nodular sclerosis form
Epstein–Barr virus The Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), formally called ''Human gammaherpesvirus 4'', is one of the nine known human herpesvirus types in the herpes family, and is one of the most common viruses in humans. EBV is a double-stranded DNA virus. It is b ...
involved in 70% of cases ** Lymphocyte-rich ** Lymphocyte depleted or not depleted *
Nodular lymphocyte-predominant Hodgkin lymphoma Nodular lymphocyte predominant Hodgkin lymphoma (NLPHL) is a slow-growing CD20 positive form of Hodgkin lymphoma, a cancer of the immune system's B cells. NLPHL is an uncommon sub-type of Hodgkin lymphoma, making up 5-10% of Hodgkin lymphomas. It ...
* Associated with a primary immune disorder * Associated with the human immunodeficiency virus (
HIV The human immunodeficiency viruses (HIV) are two species of ''Lentivirus'' (a subgroup of retrovirus) that infect humans. Over time, they cause acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), a condition in which progressive failure of the immune ...
) * Post-transplant * Associated with
methotrexate Methotrexate (MTX), formerly known as amethopterin, is a chemotherapy agent and immune-system suppressant. It is used to treat cancer, autoimmune diseases, and ectopic pregnancies. Types of cancers it is used for include breast cancer, leuke ...
therapy *
Primary central nervous system lymphoma Primary central nervous system lymphoma (PCNSL), also termed primary diffuse large B-cell lymphoma of the central nervous system (DLBCL-CNS), is a primary intracranial tumor appearing mostly in patients with severe immunodeficiency (typically pa ...
occurs most often in immunocompromised patients, in particular those with AIDS, but it can occur in the immunocompetent, as well. It has a poor prognosis, particularly in those with AIDS. Treatment can consist of
corticosteroids Corticosteroids are a class of steroid hormones that are produced in the adrenal cortex of vertebrates, as well as the synthetic analogues of these hormones. Two main classes of corticosteroids, glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids, are involve ...
,
radiotherapy Radiation therapy or radiotherapy, often abbreviated RT, RTx, or XRT, is a therapy using ionizing radiation, generally provided as part of cancer treatment to control or kill malignant cells and normally delivered by a linear accelerator. Radia ...
, and
chemotherapy Chemotherapy (often abbreviated to chemo and sometimes CTX or CTx) is a type of cancer treatment that uses one or more anti-cancer drugs (chemotherapeutic agents or alkylating agents) as part of a standardized chemotherapy regimen. Chemotherap ...
, often with methotrexate.


Previous classifications

Several previous classifications have been used, including Rappaport 1956, Lennert/Kiel 1974, BNLI, Working formulation (1982), and REAL (1994). The
Working Formulation The Working formulation is an obsolete classification of non-Hodgkin lymphomas, first proposed in 1982. It has since been replaced by other lymphoma classifications, the latest published by the WHO in 2016 but is still used by cancer agencies for c ...
of 1982 was a classification of
non-Hodgkin lymphoma Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL), also known as non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, is a group of blood cancers that includes all types of lymphomas except Hodgkin lymphomas. Symptoms include enlarged lymph nodes, fever, night sweats, weight loss, and tiredness. ...
. It excluded the Hodgkin lymphomas and divided the remaining lymphomas into four grades (low, intermediate, high, and miscellaneous) related to prognosis, with some further subdivisions based on the size and shape of affected cells. This purely histological classification included no information about
cell surface markers The cluster of differentiation (also known as cluster of designation or classification determinant and often abbreviated as CD) is a protocol used for the identification and investigation of cell surface molecules providing targets for immunophen ...
, or genetics, and it made no distinction between
T-cell lymphoma T-cell lymphoma is a rare form of cancerous lymphoma affecting T-cells. Lymphoma arises mainly from the uncontrolled proliferation of T-cells and can become cancerous. T-cell lymphoma is categorized under Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) and represents ...
s and
B-cell lymphoma The B-cell lymphomas are types of lymphoma affecting B cells. Lymphomas are "blood cancers" in the lymph nodes. They develop more frequently in older adults and in immunocompromised individuals. B-cell lymphomas include both Hodgkin's lympho ...
s. It was widely accepted at the time of its publication but is now obsolete. In 1994, the Revised European-American Lymphoma (REAL) classification applied immunophenotypic and genetic features in identifying distinct clinicopathologic entities among all the lymphomas except Hodgkin lymphoma. For coding purposes, the
ICD-O The International Classification of Diseases for Oncology (ICD-O) is a domain-specific extension of the ICD, International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems for tumor diseases. This classification is widely used by ...
(codes 9590–9999) and
ICD-10 ICD-10 is the 10th revision of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD), a medical classification list by the World Health Organization (WHO). It contains codes for diseases, signs and symptoms, ...
(codes C81-C96) are available.


Staging

After a diagnosis and before treatment, cancer is staged. This refers to determining if the cancer has spread, and if so, whether locally or to distant sites. Staging is reported as a grade between I (confined) and IV (spread). The stage of a lymphoma helps predict a patient's prognosis and is used to help select the appropriate therapy. The Ann Arbor staging system is routinely used for staging of both HL and NHL. In this staging system, stage I represents localized disease contained within a lymph node group, II represents the presence of lymphoma in two or more lymph nodes groups, III represents spread of the lymphoma to lymph nodes groups on both sides of the diaphragm, and IV indicates spread to tissue outside the lymphatic system. Different suffixes imply the involvement of different organs, for example, S for the spleen and H for the liver. Extra-lymphatic involvement is expressed with the letter E. In addition, the presence of B symptoms (one or more of the following: unintentional loss of 10% body weight in the last 6 months, night sweats, or persistent fever of 38 °C or more) or their absence is expressed with B or A, respectively. CT scan or
PET scan Positron emission tomography (PET) is a functional imaging technique that uses radioactive substances known as radiotracers to visualize and measure changes in metabolic processes, and in other physiological activities including blood flow, r ...
imaging modalities are used to stage cancer. PET scanning is advised for
fluorodeoxyglucose 18F.html" ;"title="sup>18F">sup>18Fluorodeoxyglucose ( INN), or fluorodeoxyglucose F 18 (USAN and USP), also commonly called fluorodeoxyglucose and abbreviated 18F.html" ;"title="sup>18F">sup>18FDG, 2- 18F.html" ;"title="sup>18F">sup>18FDG or ...
-avid lymphomas, such as Hodgkin lymphoma, as a staging tool that can even replace bone marrow biopsy. For other lymphomas, CT scanning is recommended for staging. Age and poor
performance status In medicine (oncology and other fields), performance status is an attempt to quantify cancer patients' general well-being and activities of daily life. This measure is used to determine whether they can receive chemotherapy, whether dose adjustment ...
are other established poor prognostic factors. This means that people who are elderly or too sick to take care of themselves are more likely to die from lymphoma than others. File:Nodular Mantle Cell Lymphoma - high power view - by Gabriel Caponetti.jpg, Mantle cell lymphoma: Notice the irregular nuclear contours of the medium-sized lymphoma cells and the presence of a pink histiocyte. By immunohistochemistry, the lymphoma cells expressed CD20, CD5, and Cyclin D1 (high-power view, H&E) File:Hodgkin lymphoma, nodular lymphocyte predominant - low power view - H&E - by Gabriel Caponetti.jpg, Hodgkin lymphoma, nodular lymphocyte predominant (low-power view): Notice the nodular architecture and the areas of "mottling".(H&E) File:Hodgkin lymphoma, nodular lymphocyte predominant - high power view - H&E - by Gabriel Caponetti.jpg, Hodgkin lymphoma, nodular lymphocyte predominant (high-power view): Notice the presence of L&H cells, also known as "popcorn cells". (H&E)


Differential diagnosis

Certain lymphomas (
extranodal NK/T-cell lymphoma, nasal type Extranodal NK/T-cell lymphoma, nasal type (ENKTCL-NT) (also termed angiocentric lymphoma, nasal-type NK lymphoma, NK/T-cell lymphoma, polymorphic/malignant midline reticulosis, and lethal midline granuloma) is a rare type of lymphoma that commonly ...
and type II enteropathy-associated T-cell lymphoma) can be mimicked by two benign diseases which involve the excessive proliferation of non-malignant NK cells in the GI tract,
natural killer cell enteropathy Natural killer cell enteropathy, also termed NK cell enteropathy (NKCE), and a closely related disorder, lymphomatoid gastropathy (LG), are non-malignant diseases in which one type of lymphocyte, the natural killer cell (i.e. NK cell), proliferat ...
, a disease wherein NK cell infiltrative lesions occur in the intestine, colon, stomach, or esophagus, and lymphomatoid gastropathy, a disease wherein these cells' infiltrative lesions are limited to the stomach. These diseases do not progress to cancer, may regress spontaneously and do not respond to, and do not require, chemotherapy or other lymphoma treatments.


Treatment

Prognoses and treatments are different for HL and between all the different forms of NHL, and also depend on the
grade Grade most commonly refers to: * Grade (education), a measurement of a student's performance * Grade, the number of the year a student has reached in a given educational stage * Grade (slope), the steepness of a slope Grade or grading may also ref ...
of tumour, referring to how quickly a cancer replicates. Paradoxically, high-grade lymphomas are more readily treated and have better prognoses:
Burkitt lymphoma Burkitt lymphoma is a cancer of the lymphatic system, particularly B lymphocytes found in the germinal center. It is named after Denis Parsons Burkitt, the Irish surgeon who first described the disease in 1958 while working in equatorial Africa. ...
, for example, is a high-grade tumour known to double within days, and is highly responsive to treatment.


Low-grade

Many low-grade lymphomas remain indolent (growing slowly or not at all) for many years – sometimes, for the rest of the person's life. With an indolent lymphoma, such as follicular lymphoma,
watchful waiting Watchful waiting (also watch and wait or WAW) is an approach to a medical problem in which time is allowed to pass before medical intervention or therapy is used. During this time, repeated testing may be performed. Related terms include ''expec ...
is often the initial course of action, because monitoring is less risky and less harmful than early treatment. If a low-grade lymphoma becomes symptomatic, radiotherapy or chemotherapy are the treatments of choice. Although these treatments do not permanently cure the lymphoma, they can alleviate the symptoms, particularly painful
lymphadenopathy Lymphadenopathy or adenopathy is a disease of the lymph nodes, in which they are abnormal in size or consistency. Lymphadenopathy of an inflammatory type (the most common type) is lymphadenitis, producing swollen or enlarged lymph nodes. In cli ...
. People with these types of lymphoma can live near-normal lifespans, even though the disease is technically
incurable A cure is a substance or procedure that ends a medical condition, such as a medication, a surgical operation, a change in lifestyle or even a philosophical mindset that helps end a person's sufferings; or the state of being healed, or cured. The ...
. Some centers advocate the use of single agent
rituximab Rituximab, sold under the brand name Rituxan among others, is a monoclonal antibody medication used to treat certain autoimmune diseases and types of cancer. It is used for non-Hodgkin lymphoma, chronic lymphocytic leukemia (in non-geriatric p ...
in the treatment of follicular lymphoma rather than the wait-and-watch approach.
Watchful waiting Watchful waiting (also watch and wait or WAW) is an approach to a medical problem in which time is allowed to pass before medical intervention or therapy is used. During this time, repeated testing may be performed. Related terms include ''expec ...
is not a desirable strategy for everyone, as it leads to significant distress and
anxiety Anxiety is an emotion which is characterized by an unpleasant state of inner turmoil and includes feelings of dread over anticipated events. Anxiety is different than fear in that the former is defined as the anticipation of a future threat wh ...
in some people. It has been called "watch and worry".


High-grade

Treatment of some other, more aggressive, forms of lymphoma can result in a cure in the majority of cases, but the prognosis for people with a poor response to therapy is worse. Treatment for these types of lymphoma typically consists of aggressive chemotherapy, including the CHOP or R-CHOP regimen. A number of people are cured with first-line chemotherapy. Most relapses occur within the first two years, and the relapse risk drops significantly thereafter. For people who relapse, high-dose chemotherapy followed by autologous stem cell transplantation is a proven approach. The treatment of side effects is also important as they can occur due to the chemotherapy or the stem cell transplantation. It was evaluated whether mesenchymal stromal cells can be used for the treatment and prophylaxis of graft-versus-host diseases. The evidence is very uncertain about the therapeutic effect of mesenchymal stromal cells to treat graft-versus-host diseases on the all-cause mortality and complete disappear of chronic acute graft-versus-host diseases. Mesenchymal stromal cells may result in little to no difference in the all-cause mortality, relapse of malignant disease and incidence of acute and chronic graft-versus-host diseases if they are used for prophylactic reason. Moreover, it was seen that
platelet transfusion Platelet transfusion, also known as platelet concentrate, is used to prevent or treat bleeding in people with either a low platelet count or poor platelet function. Often this occurs in people receiving cancer chemotherapy. Preventive transfusi ...
s for people undergoing a chemotherapy or a stem cell transplantation for the prevention of bleeding events had different effects on the number of participants with a bleeding event, the number of days on which a bleeding occurred, the mortality secondary to bleeding and the number of platelet transfusions depending on the way they were used (therapeutic, depending on a threshold, different dose schedules or prophylactic). Four chimeric antigen receptor CAR-T cell therapies are FDA-approved for non-Hodgkin lymphoma, including lisocabtagene maraleucel (for relapsed or refractory large B-cell lymphoma with two failed systemic treatments),
axicabtagene ciloleucel Axicabtagene ciloleucel, sold under the brand name Yescarta, is a medication used for the treatment for large B-cell lymphoma that has failed conventional treatment. T cells are removed from a person with lymphoma and genetically engineered to p ...
,
tisagenlecleucel Tisagenlecleucel, sold under the brand name Kymriah, is a CAR T cells medication for the treatment of B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) which uses the body's own T cells to fight cancer (adoptive cell transfer). Serious side effects occu ...
(for large B-cell lymphoma), and
brexucabtagene autoleucel Brexucabtagene autoleucel, sold under the brand name Tecartus, is a cell-based gene therapy medication for the treatment of mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) and acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). The most common side effects include serious inf ...
(for
mantle cell lymphoma Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a type of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL), comprising about 6% of NHL cases. There are only about 15,000 patients presently in the United States with mantle cell lymphoma. It is named for the mantle zone of the lymph n ...
). These therapies come with certification and other restrictions.


Hodgkin lymphoma

Hodgkin lymphoma typically is treated with radiotherapy alone, as long as it is localized. Advanced Hodgkin disease requires systemic chemotherapy, sometimes combined with radiotherapy. Chemotherapy used includes the
ABVD ABVD is a chemotherapy regimen used in the first-line treatment of Hodgkin lymphoma, replacing the older MOPP protocol. It consists of concurrent treatment with the chemotherapy drugs: * Adriamycin (also known as doxorubicin/ hydroxydaunorubicin, ...
regimen, which is commonly used in the United States. Other regimens used in the management of Hodgkin lymphoma include
BEACOPP BEACOPP is a chemotherapy regimen for treatment of Hodgkin lymphoma developed by the German Hodgkin Study Group used for patients in Stages > II or early (IA or IB) with unfavorable risk factors. Patients typically receive treatment in cycles of 21 ...
and
Stanford V Stanford University, officially Leland Stanford Junior University, is a private research university in Stanford, California. The campus occupies , among the largest in the United States, and enrolls over 17,000 students. Stanford is considere ...
. Considerable controversy exists regarding the use of ABVD or BEACOPP. Briefly, both regimens are effective, but BEACOPP is associated with more toxicity. Encouragingly, a significant number of people who relapse after ABVD can still be salvaged by stem cell transplant. Scientists evaluated whether positron-emission-tomography scans between the chemotherapy cycles can be used to make assumptions about the survival. The evidence is very uncertain about the effect of negative (= good prognosis) or positive (= bad prognosis) interim PET scan results on the progression-free survival. Negative interim PET scan results may result in an increase in progression-free survival compared if the adjusted result was measured. Negative interim PET scan results probably result in a large increase in the overall survival compared to those with a positive interim PET scan result. Current research evaluated whether
Nivolumab Nivolumab, sold under the brand name Opdivo, is a medication used to treat a number of types of cancer. This includes melanoma, lung cancer, malignant pleural mesothelioma, renal cell carcinoma, Hodgkin lymphoma, head and neck cancer, urotheli ...
can be used for the treatment of a Hodgkin's lymphoma. The evidence is very uncertain about the effect of Nivolumab for patients with a Hodgkin's lymphoma on the overall survival, the quality of life, the survival without a progression, the response rate (=complete disappear) and grade 3 or 4 serious adverse events.


Palliative care

Palliative care Palliative care (derived from the Latin root , or 'to cloak') is an interdisciplinary medical caregiving approach aimed at optimizing quality of life and mitigating suffering among people with serious, complex, and often terminal illnesses. Wit ...
, a specialized medical care focused on the symptoms, pain, and stress of a serious illness, is recommended by multiple national cancer treatment guidelines as an accompaniment to curative treatments for people with lymphoma. It is used to address both the direct symptoms of lymphoma and many unwanted side effects that arise from treatments. Palliative care can be especially helpful for children who develop lymphoma, helping both children and their families deal with the physical and emotional symptoms of the disease. For these reasons, palliative care is especially important for people requiring bone marrow transplants.


Supportive treatment

Adding physical exercises to the standard treatment for adult patients with haematological malignancies like lymphomas may result in little to no difference in the mortality, the quality of life and the physical functioning. These exercises may result in a slight reduction in depression. Furthermore, aerobic physical exercises probably reduce fatigue. The evidence is very uncertain about the effect on anxiety and serious adverse events.   


Prognosis


Epidemiology

Lymphoma is the most common form of
hematological malignancy Tumors of the hematopoietic and lymphoid tissues (American English) or tumours of the haematopoietic and lymphoid tissues (British English) are tumors that affect the blood, bone marrow, lymph, and lymphatic system. Because these tissues are all ...
, or "blood cancer", in the developed world. Taken together, lymphomas represent 5.3% of all cancers (excluding simple basal cell and squamous cell skin cancers) in the United States and 55.6% of all blood cancers. According to the
U.S. National Institutes of Health The National Institutes of Health, commonly referred to as NIH (with each letter pronounced individually), is the primary agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical and public health research. It was founded in the late 1 ...
, lymphomas account for about 5%, and Hodgkin lymphoma in particular accounts for less than 1% of all cases of cancer in the United States. Because the whole lymphatic system is part of the body's immune system, people with a weakened immune system such as from HIV infection or from certain drugs or medication also have a higher number of cases of lymphoma.


History

Thomas Hodgkin Thomas Hodgkin RMS (17 August 1798 – 5 April 1866) was a British physician, considered one of the most prominent pathologists of his time and a pioneer in preventive medicine. He is now best known for the first account of Hodgkin's disease, ...
published the first description of lymphoma in 1832, specifically of the form named after him. Since then, many other forms of lymphoma have been described. The term "lymphoma" is from Latin lympha ("water") and from Greek -oma ("morbid growth, tumor").


Research

The two types of lymphoma research are clinical or
translational research Translational research (also called translation research, translational science, or, when the context is clear, simply translation) is research aimed at translating (converting) results in basic research into results that directly benefit humans. ...
and
basic research Basic research, also called pure research or fundamental research, is a type of scientific research with the aim of improving scientific theories for better understanding and prediction of natural or other phenomena. In contrast, applied resear ...
. Clinical/translational research focuses on studying the disease in a defined and generally immediately applicable way, such as testing a new drug in people. Studies may focus on effective means of treatment, better ways of treating the disease, improving the quality of life for people, or appropriate care in remission or after cures. Hundreds of
clinical trials Clinical trials are prospective biomedical or behavioral research studies on human participants designed to answer specific questions about biomedical or behavioral interventions, including new treatments (such as novel vaccines, drugs, dietar ...
are being planned or conducted at any given time. Basic science research studies the disease process at a distance, such as seeing whether a suspected carcinogen can cause healthy cells to turn into lymphoma cells in the laboratory or how the DNA changes inside lymphoma cells as the disease progresses. The results from basic research studies are generally less immediately useful to people with the disease, but can improve scientists' understanding of lymphoma and form the foundation for future, more effective treatments.


Other animals


References


External links

* {{Authority control Anatomical pathology Hematology Pediatric cancers Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate