![Markov 1980 fig3](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Markov_1980_fig3.png)
Lunar water is
water
Water (chemical formula ) is an inorganic, transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical substance, which is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known living organisms (in which it acts as a ...
that is present on the
Moon
The Moon is Earth's only natural satellite. It is the fifth largest satellite in the Solar System and the largest and most massive relative to its parent planet, with a diameter about one-quarter that of Earth (comparable to the width of ...
. Diffuse water molecules can persist at the Moon's sunlit surface, as discovered by NASA's
SOFIA observatory in 2020. Gradually
water vapor
(99.9839 °C)
, -
, Boiling point
,
, -
, specific gas constant
, 461.5 J/( kg·K)
, -
, Heat of vaporization
, 2.27 MJ/kg
, -
, Heat capacity
, 1.864 kJ/(kg·K)
Water vapor, water vapour or aqueous vapor is the gaseous pha ...
is
decomposed by sunlight, leaving
hydrogen
Hydrogen is the chemical element with the symbol H and atomic number 1. Hydrogen is the lightest element. At standard conditions hydrogen is a gas of diatomic molecules having the formula . It is colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, an ...
and oxygen lost to outer space. Scientists have found water
ice
Ice is water frozen into a solid state, typically forming at or below temperatures of 0 degrees Celsius or Depending on the presence of impurities such as particles of soil or bubbles of air, it can appear transparent or a more or less opaq ...
in the cold,
permanently shadowed crater
A permanently shadowed crater is a depression on a body in the Solar System within which lies a point that is always in darkness.
As of 2019, there are 324 known permanently shadowed regions on the Moon. Such regions also exist on Mercury and ...
s at the Moon's poles. Water molecules are also present in the extremely thin
lunar atmosphere
The atmosphere of the Moon is a very scant presence of gases surrounding the Moon. For most practical purposes, the Moon is considered to be surrounded by vacuum. The elevated presence of atomic and molecular particles in its vicinity compared to ...
.
Water (H2O), and the chemically related
hydroxyl
In chemistry, a hydroxy or hydroxyl group is a functional group with the chemical formula and composed of one oxygen atom covalently bonded to one hydrogen atom. In organic chemistry, alcohols and carboxylic acids contain one or more hydroxy ...
group (-OH), exist in forms chemically bound as
hydrates
In chemistry, a hydrate is a substance that contains water or its constituent elements. The chemical state of the water varies widely between different classes of hydrates, some of which were so labeled before their chemical structure was understo ...
and
hydroxide
Hydroxide is a diatomic anion with chemical formula OH−. It consists of an oxygen and hydrogen atom held together by a single covalent bond, and carries a negative electric charge. It is an important but usually minor constituent of water. I ...
s to lunar minerals (rather than free water), and evidence strongly suggests that this is the case in low concentrations as for much of the Moon's surface.
In fact, of surface matter,
adsorbed
Adsorption is the adhesion of atoms, ions or molecules from a gas, liquid or dissolved solid to a surface. This process creates a film of the ''adsorbate'' on the surface of the ''adsorbent''. This process differs from absorption, in which a ...
water is calculated to exist at trace concentrations of 10 to 1000
parts per million
In science and engineering, the parts-per notation is a set of pseudo-units to describe small values of miscellaneous dimensionless quantities, e.g. mole fraction or mass fraction. Since these fractions are quantity-per-quantity measures, they ...
. Inconclusive evidence of free water ice at the lunar poles had accumulated during the second half of the 20th century from a variety of observations suggesting the presence of bound hydrogen.
On 18 August 1976, the
Soviet
The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, ...
Luna 24
''Luna 24'' was a robotic probe of the Soviet Union's Luna programme. The last of the Luna series of spacecraft, the mission of the ''Luna 24'' probe was the third Soviet mission to return lunar soil samples from the Moon (the first two sampl ...
probe landed at
Mare Crisium
Mare Crisium (Latin ''crisium'', the "Sea of Crises") is a lunar mare located in the Moon's Crisium basin, just northeast of Mare Tranquillitatis. The basin is of the Pre-Imbrian period, 4.55 to 3.85 billion years ago.
Characteristics
Mare Cri ...
, took samples from the depths of 118, 143, and 184 cm of the lunar
regolith
Regolith () is a blanket of unconsolidated, loose, heterogeneous superficial deposits covering solid rock. It includes dust, broken rocks, and other related materials and is present on Earth, the Moon, Mars, some asteroids, and other terrestria ...
, and then took them to Earth. In February 1978, it was published that laboratory analysis of these samples shown they contained 0.1% water by mass.
Spectral measurements shown minima near 3, 5, and 6 µm, distinctive valence-vibration bands for water molecules, with intensities two or three times larger than the noise level.
On 24 September 2009, it was reported that the
NASA
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA ) is an independent agency of the US federal government responsible for the civil space program, aeronautics research, and space research.
NASA was established in 1958, succeeding t ...
's
Moon Mineralogy Mapper
The Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) is one of two instruments that NASA contributed to India's first mission to the Moon, Chandrayaan-1, launched October 22, 2008. It is an imaging spectrometer, and the team is led by Principal investigator Carle Piet ...
(M
3)
spectrometer
A spectrometer () is a scientific instrument used to separate and measure spectral components of a physical phenomenon. Spectrometer is a broad term often used to describe instruments that measure a continuous variable of a phenomenon where the ...
onboard India's ''
Chandrayaan-1
Chandrayaan-1 (, ) was the first Indian lunar probe under the Chandrayaan program. It was launched by the Indian Space Research Organisation in October 2008, and operated until August 2009. The mission included a lunar orbiter and an impact ...
'' probe had detected absorption features near 2.8–3.0 μm on the surface of the Moon. On 14 November 2008, India released the
Moon Impact Probe
The Moon Impact Probe (MIP) developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), India's national space agency, was a lunar probe that was released by ISRO's Chandrayaan-1 lunar remote sensing orbiter which in turn was launched, on 22 O ...
onboard Chandrayaan-1 orbiter to impact into the Shackleton crater which helped confirm the presence of water ice. For silicate bodies, such features are typically attributed to hydroxyl- and/or water-bearing materials.
In August 2018, NASA confirmed that M
3 showed water ice is present on the surface at the Moon poles. Water was confirmed to be on the sunlit surface of the Moon by
NASA
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA ) is an independent agency of the US federal government responsible for the civil space program, aeronautics research, and space research.
NASA was established in 1958, succeeding t ...
on October 26, 2020.
Water may have been delivered to the Moon over geological timescales by the regular bombardment of water-bearing
comet
A comet is an icy, small Solar System body that, when passing close to the Sun, warms and begins to release gases, a process that is called outgassing. This produces a visible atmosphere or coma, and sometimes also a tail. These phenomena ar ...
s,
asteroid
An asteroid is a minor planet of the inner Solar System. Sizes and shapes of asteroids vary significantly, ranging from 1-meter rocks to a dwarf planet almost 1000 km in diameter; they are rocky, metallic or icy bodies with no atmosphere.
...
s, and
meteoroid
A meteoroid () is a small rocky or metallic body in outer space.
Meteoroids are defined as objects significantly smaller than asteroids, ranging in size from grains to objects up to a meter wide. Objects smaller than this are classified as micr ...
s or continuously produced ''in situ'' by the hydrogen ions (
proton
A proton is a stable subatomic particle, symbol , H+, or 1H+ with a positive electric charge of +1 ''e'' elementary charge. Its mass is slightly less than that of a neutron and 1,836 times the mass of an electron (the proton–electron mass ...
s) of the
solar wind
The solar wind is a stream of charged particles released from the upper atmosphere of the Sun, called the corona. This plasma mostly consists of electrons, protons and alpha particles with kinetic energy between . The composition of the sola ...
impacting oxygen-bearing minerals.
The search for the presence of lunar water has attracted considerable attention and motivated several recent lunar missions, largely because of water's usefulness in rendering long-term lunar habitation feasible.
History of observations
20th century
;Apollo Program
The possibility of ice in the floors of polar lunar craters was first suggested in 1961 by
Caltech
The California Institute of Technology (branded as Caltech or CIT)The university itself only spells its short form as "Caltech"; the institution considers other spellings such a"Cal Tech" and "CalTech" incorrect. The institute is also occasional ...
researchers Kenneth Watson, Bruce C. Murray, and Harrison Brown. Although trace amounts of water were found in
lunar rock
Moon rock or lunar rock is rock originating from Earth's Moon. This includes lunar material collected during the course of human exploration of the Moon, and rock that has been ejected naturally from the Moon's surface and landed on Earth as ...
samples collected by
Apollo
Apollo, grc, Ἀπόλλωνος, Apóllōnos, label=genitive , ; , grc-dor, Ἀπέλλων, Apéllōn, ; grc, Ἀπείλων, Apeílōn, label=Arcadocypriot Greek, ; grc-aeo, Ἄπλουν, Áploun, la, Apollō, la, Apollinis, label= ...
astronauts, this was assumed to be a result of contamination, and the majority of the lunar surface was generally assumed to be completely dry.
["It's Official: Water Found on the Moon"](_blank)
''Space.com'', 23 September 2009 However, a 2008 study of lunar rock samples revealed evidence of water molecules trapped in volcanic glass beads.
[Moon Once Harbored Water, Lunar Lava Beads Show](_blank)
''Scientific American'', July 9, 2008
The first direct evidence of water vapor near the Moon was obtained by the
Apollo 14
Apollo 14 (January 31, 1971February 9, 1971) was the eighth crewed mission in the United States Apollo program, the third to land on the Moon, and the first to land in the lunar highlands. It was the last of the " H missions", landings at s ...
ALSEP
The Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP) comprised a set of scientific instruments placed by the astronauts at the landing site of each of the five Apollo missions to land on the Moon following Apollo 11 (Apollos 12, 14, 15, 16, ...
Suprathermal Ion Detector Experiment, SIDE, on March 7, 1971. A series of bursts of water vapor ions were observed by the instrument mass spectrometer at the lunar surface near the Apollo 14 landing site.
;Luna 24
In February 1978 Soviet scientists M. Akhmanova, B. Dement'ev, and M. Markov of the
Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry published a paper claiming a detection of water fairly definitively.
Their study showed that the samples returned to Earth by the 1976 Soviet probe
Luna 24
''Luna 24'' was a robotic probe of the Soviet Union's Luna programme. The last of the Luna series of spacecraft, the mission of the ''Luna 24'' probe was the third Soviet mission to return lunar soil samples from the Moon (the first two sampl ...
contained about 0.1% water by mass, as seen in infrared absorption spectroscopy (at about wavelength), at a detection level about 10 times above the threshold.
;Clementine
![Moon South Pole](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Moon_South_Pole.jpg)
A proposed evidence of water ice on the Moon came in 1994 from the United States military
''Clementine'' probe. In an investigation known as the '
bistatic radar
Bistatic radar is a radar system comprising a transmitter and receiver that are separated by a distance comparable to the expected target distance. Conversely, a conventional radar in which the transmitter and receiver are co-located is called ...
experiment', ''Clementine'' used its transmitter to beam radio waves into the dark regions of the south pole of the Moon. Echoes of these waves were detected by the large dish antennas of the
Deep Space Network
The NASA Deep Space Network (DSN) is a worldwide Telecommunications network, network of American spacecraft communication ground segment facilities, located in the United States (California), Spain (Madrid), and Australia (Canberra), that suppo ...
on Earth. The magnitude and
polarisation of these echoes was consistent with an icy rather than rocky surface, but the results were inconclusive,
[Clementine Probe]
and their significance has been questioned. Earth-based radar measurements were used to identify the areas that are in permanent shadow and hence have the potential to harbour lunar ice: Estimates of the total extent of shadowed areas poleward of 87.5 degrees latitude are for the north and south poles, respectively.
Subsequent computer simulations encompassing additional terrain suggested that an area up to might be in permanent shadow.
;Lunar Prospector
The
Lunar Prospector
''Lunar Prospector'' was the third mission selected by NASA for full development and construction as part of the Discovery Program. At a cost of $62.8 million, the 19-month mission was designed for a low polar orbit investigation of the Moon, ...
probe, launched in 1998, employed a neutron spectrometer to measure the amount of
hydrogen
Hydrogen is the chemical element with the symbol H and atomic number 1. Hydrogen is the lightest element. At standard conditions hydrogen is a gas of diatomic molecules having the formula . It is colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, an ...
in the lunar
regolith
Regolith () is a blanket of unconsolidated, loose, heterogeneous superficial deposits covering solid rock. It includes dust, broken rocks, and other related materials and is present on Earth, the Moon, Mars, some asteroids, and other terrestria ...
near the polar regions. It was able to determine hydrogen abundance and location to within 50 parts per million and detected enhanced hydrogen concentrations at the lunar north and south poles. These were interpreted as indicating significant amounts of water ice trapped in permanently shadowed craters, but could also be due to the presence of the
hydroxyl radical
The hydroxyl radical is the diatomic molecule . The hydroxyl radical is very stable as a dilute gas, but it decays very rapidly in the condensed phase. It is pervasive in some situations. Most notably the hydroxyl radicals are produced from the ...
(
•OH) chemically bound to minerals. Based on data from Clementine and Lunar Prospector, NASA scientists have estimated that, if surface water ice is present, the total quantity could be of the order of . In July 1999, at the end of its mission, the Lunar Prospector probe was deliberately crashed into
Shoemaker crater, near the Moon's south pole, in the hope that detectable quantities of water would be liberated. However, spectroscopic observations from ground-based telescopes did not reveal the spectral signature of water.
;''Cassini–Huygens''
More suspicions about the existence of water on the Moon were generated by inconclusive data produced by ''
Cassini–Huygens
''Cassini–Huygens'' ( ), commonly called ''Cassini'', was a space research, space-research mission by NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Italian Space Agency (ASI) to send a space probe to study the planet Saturn and its system, i ...
'' mission,
which passed the Moon in 1999.
21st century
;Deep Impact
In 2005, observations of the Moon by the ''
Deep Impact'' spacecraft produced inconclusive spectroscopic data suggestive of water on the Moon. In 2006, observations with the
Arecibo
Arecibo (; ) is a city and municipality on the northern coast of Puerto Rico, on the shores of the Atlantic Ocean, located north of Utuado and Ciales; east of Hatillo; and west of Barceloneta and Florida. It is about west of San Juan, th ...
planetary radar showed that some of the near-polar ''Clementine'' radar returns, previously claimed to be indicative of ice, might instead be associated with rocks ejected from young craters. If true, this would indicate that the neutron results from Lunar Prospector were primarily from hydrogen in forms other than ice, such as trapped hydrogen molecules or organics. Nevertheless, the interpretation of the Arecibo data do not exclude the possibility of water ice in permanently shadowed craters. In June 2009, NASA's ''Deep Impact'' spacecraft, now redesignated
EPOXI
''EPOXI'' was a compilation of NASA Discovery program missions led by the University of Maryland and principal investigator Michael A'Hearn, with co-operation from the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and Ball Aerospace. ''EPOXI'' uses the '' Deep Imp ...
, made further confirmatory bound hydrogen measurements during another lunar flyby.
;Kaguya
As part of its lunar mapping programme, Japan's
Kaguya probe, launched in September 2007 for a 19-month mission, carried out
gamma ray spectrometry observations from orbit that can measure the abundances of various elements on the Moon's surface. Japan's Kaguya probe's high resolution imaging sensors failed to detect any signs of water ice in permanently shaded craters around the south pole of the Moon, and it ended its mission by crashing into the lunar surface in order to study the ejecta plume content.
;Chang'e 1
The People's Republic of China's
Chang'e 1
Chang'e 1 (; ) was an unmanned Chinese lunar-orbiting spacecraft, part of the first phase of the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program. The spacecraft was named after the Chinese Moon goddess, Chang'e.
Chang'e 1 was launched on 24 October 2007 at 1 ...
orbiter, launched in October 2007, took the first detailed photographs of some polar areas where ice water is likely to be found.
["Who's Orbiting the Moon?"](_blank)
, NASA, February 20, 2008
;Chandrayaan-1
![Water Detected at High Latitudes on the Moon](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Water_Detected_at_High_Latitudes_on_the_Moon.jpg)
India's
ISRO
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO; ) is the national space agency of India, headquartered in Bengaluru. It operates under the Department of Space (DOS) which is directly overseen by the Prime Minister of India, while the Chairman ...
spacecraft
Chandrayaan-1
Chandrayaan-1 (, ) was the first Indian lunar probe under the Chandrayaan program. It was launched by the Indian Space Research Organisation in October 2008, and operated until August 2009. The mission included a lunar orbiter and an impact ...
released the
Moon Impact Probe
The Moon Impact Probe (MIP) developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), India's national space agency, was a lunar probe that was released by ISRO's Chandrayaan-1 lunar remote sensing orbiter which in turn was launched, on 22 O ...
(MIP) that impacted
Shackleton Crater
Shackleton is an impact crater that lies at the lunar south pole. The peaks along the crater's rim are exposed to almost continual sunlight, while the interior is perpetually in shadow. The low-temperature interior of this crater functions as a ...
, of the lunar south pole, at 20:31 on 14 November 2008 releasing subsurface debris that was analysed for presence of water ice. During its 25-minute descent, the impact probe's Chandra's Altitudinal Composition Explorer (CHACE) recorded evidence of water in 650 mass spectra gathered in the thin atmosphere above the Moon's surface and
hydroxyl
In chemistry, a hydroxy or hydroxyl group is a functional group with the chemical formula and composed of one oxygen atom covalently bonded to one hydrogen atom. In organic chemistry, alcohols and carboxylic acids contain one or more hydroxy ...
absorption lines in reflected sunlight.
On September 25, 2009, NASA declared that data sent from its M
3 confirmed the existence of hydrogen over large areas of the Moon's surface,
albeit in low concentrations and in the form of hydroxyl group (OH) chemically bound to soil.
This supports earlier evidence from spectrometers aboard the ''
Deep Impact'' and
''Cassini'' probes.
["Moon crash will create six-mile plume of dust as Nasa searches for water"](_blank)
''The Times'', October 3, 2009 On the Moon, the feature is seen as a widely distributed absorption that appears strongest at cooler high latitudes and at several fresh feldspathic craters. The general lack of correlation of this feature in sunlit M
3 data with neutron spectrometer H abundance data suggests that the formation and retention of OH and H
2O is an ongoing surficial process. OH/H
2O production processes may feed polar cold traps and make the lunar regolith a candidate source of volatiles for human exploration.
Although M
3 results are consistent with recent findings of other NASA instruments onboard Chandrayaan-1, the discovered water molecules in the Moon's polar regions is not consistent with the presence of thick deposits of nearly pure water ice within a few meters of the lunar surface, but it does not rule out the presence of small (<∼), discrete pieces of ice mixed in with the regolith. Additional analysis with M
3 published in 2018 had provided more direct evidence of water ice near the surface within 20° latitude of both poles. In addition to observing reflected light from the surface, scientists used M
3's near-infrared absorption capabilities in the permanently shadowed areas of the polar regions to find absorption spectra consistent with ice. At the north pole region, the water ice is scattered in patches, while it is more concentrated in a single body around the south pole. Because these polar regions do not experience the high temperatures (greater than 373 Kelvin), it was postulated that the poles act as
cold trap
In vacuum applications, a cold trap is a device that condenses all vapors except the permanent gases into a liquid or solid. The most common objective is to prevent vapors being evacuated from an experiment from entering a vacuum pump where they ...
s where vaporized water is collected on the Moon.
In March 2010, it was reported that the
Mini-SAR on board Chandrayaan-1 had discovered more than 40 permanently darkened craters near the Moon's north pole that are hypothesized to contain an estimated 600 million metric tonnes of water-ice.
The radar's high CPR is not uniquely diagnostic of either roughness or ice; the science team must take into account the environment of the occurrences of high CPR signal to interpret its cause. The ice must be relatively pure and at least a couple of meters thick to give this signature.
The estimated amount of water ice potentially present is comparable to the quantity estimated from the previous mission of
Lunar Prospector
''Lunar Prospector'' was the third mission selected by NASA for full development and construction as part of the Discovery Program. At a cost of $62.8 million, the 19-month mission was designed for a low polar orbit investigation of the Moon, ...
's neutron data.
;Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter , Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite
On October 9, 2009, the
Centaur
A centaur ( ; grc, κένταυρος, kéntauros; ), or occasionally hippocentaur, is a creature from Greek mythology with the upper body of a human and the lower body and legs of a horse.
Centaurs are thought of in many Greek myths as being ...
upper stage of its
Atlas V
Atlas V is an expendable launch system and the fifth major version in the Atlas (rocket family), Atlas launch vehicle family. It was originally designed by Lockheed Martin, now being operated by United Launch Alliance (ULA), a joint venture be ...
carrier rocket was directed to impact
Cabeus crater
Cabeus is a Lunar craters, lunar impact crater that is located about from the Lunar south pole, south pole of the Moon. At this location the crater is seen obliquely from Earth, and it is almost Crater of eternal darkness, perpetually in deep sh ...
at 11:31 UTC, followed shortly by the NASA's
Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite
The Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS) was a robotic spacecraft operated by NASA. The mission was conceived as a low-cost means of determining the nature of hydrogen detected at the polar regions of the Moon. Launched immed ...
(LCROSS) spacecraft that flew through the ejecta plume.
LCROSS detected a significant amount of hydroxyl group in the material thrown up from a south polar crater by an impactor;
this may be attributed to water-bearing materials – what appears to be "near pure crystalline water-ice" mixed in the regolith.
["Ice deposits found at Moon's pole"]
''BBC News'', 2 March 2010.[ What was actually detected was the chemical group hydroxyl (OH), which is suspected to be from water,] but could also be hydrate
In chemistry, a hydrate is a substance that contains water or its constituent elements. The chemical state of the water varies widely between different classes of hydrates, some of which were so labeled before their chemical structure was understo ...
s, which are inorganic salts containing chemically bound water molecules. The nature, concentration and distribution of this material requires further analysis;[ chief mission scientist Anthony Colaprete has stated that the ejecta appears to include a range of fine-grained particulates of near pure crystalline water-ice.][ A later definitive analysis found the concentration of water to be "5.6 ± 2.9% by mass".]
The Mini-RF instrument on board the ''Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter
The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) is a NASA robotic spacecraft currently orbiting the Moon in an eccentric polar mapping orbit. Data collected by LRO have been described as essential for planning NASA's future human and robotic missions t ...
'' (LRO) observed the plume of debris from the impact of the LCROSS orbiter, and it was concluded that the water ice must be in the form of small (< ~10 cm), discrete pieces of ice distributed throughout the regolith, or as thin coating on ice grains.["Mini-RF Monostatic Radar Observations of Permanently Shadowed Crater Floors." L. M. Jozwiak, G. W. Patterson, R. Perkins. Lunar ISRU 2019: Developing a New Space Economy Through Lunar Resources and Their Utilization. July 15–17, 2019, Columbia, Maryland.] This, coupled with monostatic radar observations, suggest that the water ice present in the permanently shadowed regions of lunar polar craters is unlikely to be present in the form of thick, pure ice deposits.
The data acquired by the Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector (LEND) instrument onboard LRO show several regions where the epithermal neutron
The neutron detection temperature, also called the neutron energy, indicates a free neutron's kinetic energy, usually given in electron volts. The term ''temperature'' is used, since hot, thermal and cold neutrons are moderated in a medium wi ...
flux from the surface is suppressed, which is indicative of enhanced hydrogen content. Further analysis of LEND data suggests that water content in the polar regions is not directly determined by the illumination conditions of the surface, as illuminated and shadowed regions do not manifest any significant difference in the estimated water content. According to the observations by this instrument alone, "the permanent low surface temperature of the cold traps is not a necessary and sufficient condition for enhancement of water content in the regolith."
LRO laser altimeter's examination of the Shackleton crater
Shackleton is an impact crater that lies at the lunar south pole. The peaks along the crater's rim are exposed to almost continual sunlight, while the interior is perpetually in shadow. The low-temperature interior of this crater functions as a ...
at the lunar south pole
The lunar south pole is the southernmost point on the Moon, at 90°S. It is of special interest to scientists because of the occurrence of water ice in permanently shadowed areas around it. The lunar south pole region features craters that ar ...
suggests up to 22% of the surface of that crater is covered in ice.
;Melt inclusions in Apollo 17 samples
In May 2011, Erik Hauri et al. reported 615-1410 ppm water in melt inclusions
A melt inclusion is a small parcel or "blobs" of melt(s) that is entrapped by crystals growing in magma and eventually forming igneous rocks. In many respects it is analogous to a fluid inclusion within magmatic hydrothermal systems. Melt inclusio ...
in lunar sample 74220, the famous high-titanium "orange glass soil" of volcanic origin collected during the Apollo 17
Apollo 17 (December 7–19, 1972) was the final mission of NASA's Apollo program, the most recent time humans have set foot on the Moon or traveled beyond low Earth orbit. Commander Gene Cernan and Lunar Module Pilot Harrison Schmitt walked on ...
mission in 1972. The inclusions were formed during explosive eruptions on the Moon approximately 3.7 billion years ago.
This concentration is comparable with that of magma in Earth's upper mantle
The upper mantle of Earth is a very thick layer of rock inside the planet, which begins just beneath the crust (at about under the oceans and about under the continents) and ends at the top of the lower mantle at . Temperatures range from appr ...
. While of considerable selenological interest, this announcement affords little comfort to would-be lunar colonists. The sample originated many kilometers below the surface, and the inclusions are so difficult to access that it took 39 years to detect them with a state-of-the-art ion microprobe instrument.
;Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy
In October 2020, astronomers reported detecting molecular water on the sunlit surface of the Moon
The Moon is Earth's only natural satellite. It is the fifth largest satellite in the Solar System and the largest and most massive relative to its parent planet, with a diameter about one-quarter that of Earth (comparable to the width of ...
by several independent scientific teams, including the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA). The estimated abundance is about 100 to 400 ppm, with a distribution over a small latitude range, likely a result of local geology and not a global phenomenon. It was suggested that the detected water is stored within glasses or in voids between grains sheltered from the harsh lunar environment, thus allowing the water to remain on the lunar surface. Using data from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter
The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) is a NASA robotic spacecraft currently orbiting the Moon in an eccentric polar mapping orbit. Data collected by LRO have been described as essential for planning NASA's future human and robotic missions t ...
, it was shown that besides the large, permanently shadowed regions in the Moon's polar regions, there are many unmapped cold traps, substantially augmenting the areas where ice may accumulate. Approximately 10–20% of the permanent cold-trap area for water is found to be contained in "micro cold traps" found in shadows on scales from 1 km to 1 cm, for a total area of ~40,000 km2, about 60% of which is in the South, and a majority of cold traps for water ice are found at latitudes >80° due to permanent shadows.
October 26, 2020: In a paper published in Nature Astronomy, a team of scientists used SOFIA, an infrared telescope mounted inside a 747 jumbo jet, to make observations that showed unambiguous evidence of water on parts of the Moon where the sun shines. “This discovery reveals that water might be distributed across the lunar surface and not limited to the cold shadowed places near the lunar poles,” Paul Hertz
Paul may refer to:
*Paul (given name), a given name (includes a list of people with that name)
*Paul (surname), a list of people
People
Christianity
*Paul the Apostle (AD c.5–c.64/65), also known as Saul of Tarsus or Saint Paul, early Chris ...
, the director of NASA's astrophysics division, said.
;Lunar IceCube
Lunar IceCube
Lunar IceCube is a NASA nanosatellite orbiter mission to prospect, locate, and estimate amount and composition of water ice deposits on the Moon for future exploitation by robots or humans. It was launched as a secondary payload mission on A ...
is a 6U cube sat that will estimate amount and composition of lunar ice, using an infrared imaging spectrometer developed by NASAs Goddard Space Flight Center
The Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) is a major NASA space research laboratory located approximately northeast of Washington, D.C. in Greenbelt, Maryland, United States. Established on May 1, 1959 as NASA's first space flight center, GSFC empl ...
.
;PRIME-1
A dedicated on-site experiment by NASA dubbed PRIME-1
Polar Resources Ice Mining Experiment-1 (PRIME-1) is a NASA Lunar project, initially expected to launch and be deployed in December, 2022, but likely to be launched in 2023.
PRIME-1 will be the first on-site resource utilization demonstration o ...
is slated to land on the Moon in December, 2022 near Shackleton Crater at the Lunar South Pole. The mission will drill for water ice.
;Lunar Trailblazer
Slated to launch as a ride-along mission in 2025, the Lunar Trailblazer satellite is part of NASA's Small Innovative Missions for Planetary Exploration (SIMPLEx) program. The satellite carries two instruments—a high-resolution spectrometer, which will detect and map different forms of water, and a thermal mapper. The mission's primary objectives are to characterize the form of lunar water, how much is present and where; determine how lunar volatiles change and move over time; measure how much and what form of water exists in permanently shadowed regions of the Moon; and to assess how differences in the reflectivity and temperature of lunar surfaces affect the concentration of lunar water.
Possible water cycle
Production
Lunar water has two potential origins: water-bearing comet
A comet is an icy, small Solar System body that, when passing close to the Sun, warms and begins to release gases, a process that is called outgassing. This produces a visible atmosphere or coma, and sometimes also a tail. These phenomena ar ...
s (and other bodies) striking the Moon, and ''in situ'' production. It has been theorized that the latter may occur when hydrogen ions (protons
A proton is a stable subatomic particle, symbol , H+, or 1H+ with a positive electric charge of +1 ''e'' elementary charge. Its mass is slightly less than that of a neutron and 1,836 times the mass of an electron (the proton–electron mass ...
) in the solar wind
The solar wind is a stream of charged particles released from the upper atmosphere of the Sun, called the corona. This plasma mostly consists of electrons, protons and alpha particles with kinetic energy between . The composition of the sola ...
chemically combine with the oxygen
Oxygen is the chemical element with the symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the chalcogen group in the periodic table, a highly reactive nonmetal, and an oxidizing agent that readily forms oxides with most elements as wel ...
atoms present in the lunar minerals (oxide
An oxide () is a chemical compound that contains at least one oxygen atom and one other element in its chemical formula. "Oxide" itself is the dianion of oxygen, an O2– (molecular) ion. with oxygen in the oxidation state of −2. Most of the E ...
s, silicate
In chemistry, a silicate is any member of a family of polyatomic anions consisting of silicon and oxygen, usually with the general formula , where . The family includes orthosilicate (), metasilicate (), and pyrosilicate (, ). The name is al ...
s, etc.) to produce small amounts of water trapped in the minerals' crystal lattices or as hydroxyl
In chemistry, a hydroxy or hydroxyl group is a functional group with the chemical formula and composed of one oxygen atom covalently bonded to one hydrogen atom. In organic chemistry, alcohols and carboxylic acids contain one or more hydroxy ...
groups, potential water precursors. (This mineral-bound water, or mineral surface, must not be confused with water ice.)
The hydroxyl
In chemistry, a hydroxy or hydroxyl group is a functional group with the chemical formula and composed of one oxygen atom covalently bonded to one hydrogen atom. In organic chemistry, alcohols and carboxylic acids contain one or more hydroxy ...
surface groups (X–OH) formed by the reaction of protons (H+) with oxygen
Oxygen is the chemical element with the symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the chalcogen group in the periodic table, a highly reactive nonmetal, and an oxidizing agent that readily forms oxides with most elements as wel ...
atoms accessible at oxide surface (X=O) could further be converted in water molecules (H2O) adsorbed onto the oxide mineral's surface. The mass balance of a chemical rearrangement supposed at the oxide surface could be schematically written as follows:
:2 X–OH → X=O + X + H2O
or,
:2 X–OH → X–O–X + H2O
where "X" represents the oxide surface.
The formation of one water molecule requires the presence of two adjacent hydroxyl groups or a cascade of successive reactions of one oxygen atom with two protons. This could constitute a limiting factor and decreases the probability of water production if the proton density per surface unit is too low.
Trapping
Solar radiation
Solar irradiance is the power per unit area (surface power density) received from the Sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range of the measuring instrument.
Solar irradiance is measured in watts per square metre (W/m ...
would normally strip any free water or water ice from the lunar surface, splitting it into its constituent elements, hydrogen
Hydrogen is the chemical element with the symbol H and atomic number 1. Hydrogen is the lightest element. At standard conditions hydrogen is a gas of diatomic molecules having the formula . It is colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, an ...
and oxygen
Oxygen is the chemical element with the symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the chalcogen group in the periodic table, a highly reactive nonmetal, and an oxidizing agent that readily forms oxides with most elements as wel ...
, which then escape to space. However, because of the only very slight axial tilt of the Moon's spin axis to the ecliptic plane
The ecliptic or ecliptic plane is the orbital plane of the Earth around the Sun. From the perspective of an observer on Earth, the Sun's movement around the celestial sphere over the course of a year traces out a path along the ecliptic again ...
(1.5 °), some deep craters near the poles never receive any sunlight, and are permanently shadowed (see, for example, Shackleton crater
Shackleton is an impact crater that lies at the lunar south pole. The peaks along the crater's rim are exposed to almost continual sunlight, while the interior is perpetually in shadow. The low-temperature interior of this crater functions as a ...
, and Whipple crater). The temperature in these regions never rises above about 100 K (about −170 ° Celsius), and any water that eventually ended up in these craters could remain frozen and stable for extremely long periods of time — perhaps billions of years, depending on the stability of the orientation of the Moon's axis.
While the ice deposits may be thick, they are most likely mixed with the regolith, possibly in a layered formation.
Transport
Although free water cannot persist in illuminated regions of the Moon, any such water produced there by the action of the solar wind on lunar minerals might, through a process of evaporation and condensation, migrate to permanently cold polar areas and accumulate there as ice, perhaps in addition to any ice brought by comet impacts.
The hypothetical mechanism of water transport / trapping (if any) remains unknown: indeed lunar surfaces directly exposed to the solar wind where water production occurs are too hot to allow trapping by water condensation (and solar radiation also continuously decomposes water), while no (or much less) water production is expected in the cold areas not directly exposed to the Sun. Given the expected short lifetime of water molecules in illuminated regions, a short transport distance would in principle increase the probability of trapping. In other words, water molecules produced close to a cold, dark polar crater should have the highest probability of surviving and being trapped.
To what extent, and at what spatial scale, direct proton exchange (protolysis) and proton surface diffusion directly occurring at the naked surface of oxyhydroxide
Iron(III) oxide-hydroxide or ferric oxyhydroxideA. L. Mackay (1960): "β-Ferric Oxyhydroxide". ''Mineralogical Magazine'' (''Journal of the Mineralogical Society''), volume 32, issue 250, pages 545-557. is the chemical compound of iron, oxygen, ...
minerals exposed to space vacuum (see surface diffusion and self-ionization of water
The self-ionization of water (also autoionization of water, and autodissociation of water) is an ionization reaction in pure water or in an aqueous solution, in which a water molecule, H2O, deprotonates (loses the nucleus of one of its hydrogen ...
) could also play a role in the mechanism of the water transfer towards the coldest point is presently unknown and remains a conjecture.
Liquid water
4–3.5 billion years ago, the Moon
The Moon is Earth's only natural satellite. It is the List of natural satellites, fifth largest satellite in the Solar System and the largest and most massive relative to its parent planet, with a diameter about one-quarter that of Earth ( ...
could have had sufficient atmosphere and liquid water on its surface. Warm and pressurized regions in the Moon's interior might still contain liquid water.
Uses
The presence of large quantities of water on the Moon would be an important factor in rendering lunar habitation
Lunar habitation is any human social and material structure and activity on the Moon making human habitation on the Moon.
Therefore, it is more than the particular surface space habitats and more specific than the moonbases which can consist of a ...
cost-effective since transporting water (or hydrogen and oxygen) from Earth would be prohibitively expensive. If future investigations find the quantities to be particularly large, water ice could be mined to provide liquid water for drinking and plant propagation, and the water could also be split into hydrogen and oxygen by solar panel-equipped electric power stations or a nuclear generator, providing breathable oxygen as well as the components of rocket fuel. The hydrogen component of the water ice could also be used to draw out the oxides
An oxide () is a chemical compound that contains at least one oxygen atom and one other element in its chemical formula. "Oxide" itself is the dianion of oxygen, an O2– (molecular) ion. with oxygen in the oxidation state of −2. Most of the E ...
in the lunar soil and harvest even more oxygen.
Analysis of lunar ice would also provide scientific information about the impact history of the Moon and the abundance of comets and asteroids in the early Inner Solar System
The Solar SystemCapitalization of the name varies. The International Astronomical Union, the authoritative body regarding astronomical nomenclature, specifies capitalizing the names of all individual astronomical objects but uses mixed "Solar S ...
.
Ownership
The hypothetical discovery of usable quantities of water on the Moon may raise legal questions about who owns the water and who has the right to exploit it. The United Nations Outer Space Treaty
russian: link=yes, Договор о космосе es, link=yes, Tratado sobre el espacio ultraterrestre
, long_name = Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moo ...
does not prevent the exploitation of lunar resources, but does prevent the appropriation of the Moon by individual nations and is generally interpreted as barring countries from claiming ownership of Lunar
Lunar most commonly means "of or relating to the Moon".
Lunar may also refer to:
Arts and entertainment
* ''Lunar'' (series), a series of video games
* "Lunar" (song), by David Guetta
* "Lunar", a song by Priestess from the 2009 album ''Prior t ...
resources. However most legal experts agree that the ultimate test of the question will arise through precedents of national or private activity.
The Moon Treaty specifically stipulates that exploitation of lunar resources is to be governed by an "international regime", but that treaty has only been ratified by a few nations, and primarily those with no independent spaceflight capabilities.
Luxembourg and the US[https://www.planetaryresources.com/2015/11/president-obama-signs-bill-recognizing-asteroid-resource-property-rights-into-law/] have granted their citizens the right to mine and own space resources, including the resources of the Moon. US President Donald Trump expressly stated that in his Executive Order of 6 April 2020.[
]
See also
* In situ resource utilization
In space exploration, in situ resource utilization (ISRU) is the practice of collection, processing, storing and use of materials found or manufactured on other astronomical objects (the Moon, Mars, asteroids, etc.) that replace materials that ...
* Lunar resources
The Moon bears substantial natural resources which could be exploited in the future. Potential lunar resources may encompass processable materials such as volatiles and minerals, along with geologic structures such as lava tubes that together, m ...
* Shackleton Energy Company
Shackleton Energy Company was a Texas company (2007–mid-2010s) formed to build equipment and technologies necessary for mining the Moon. They failed to secure funding and have met no public milestones.
History
Shackleton was formed in 2007 ...
* Water on Mars
Almost all water on Mars today exists as ice, though it also exists in small quantities as vapor in the atmosphere. What was thought to be low-volume liquid brines in shallow Martian soil, also called recurrent slope lineae, may be grains of ...
;Missions mapping lunar water
* Chandrayaan-1
Chandrayaan-1 (, ) was the first Indian lunar probe under the Chandrayaan program. It was launched by the Indian Space Research Organisation in October 2008, and operated until August 2009. The mission included a lunar orbiter and an impact ...
lunar orbiter
* Chandrayaan-2
Chandrayaan-2 (, ; ) is the second lunar exploration mission developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), after Chandrayaan-1. It consists of a lunar orbiter, and also included the ''Vikram'' lander, and the ''Pragyan'' lunar ...
lunar orbiter and rover
* Lunar Flashlight
Lunar Flashlight is a low-cost CubeSat lunar orbiter mission to explore, locate, and estimate size and composition of water ice deposits on the Moon for future exploitation by robots or humans.
The spacecraft, of the 6U CubeSat format, w ...
solar sail orbiter
* Lunar IceCube
Lunar IceCube is a NASA nanosatellite orbiter mission to prospect, locate, and estimate amount and composition of water ice deposits on the Moon for future exploitation by robots or humans. It was launched as a secondary payload mission on A ...
lunar orbiter
* LunaH-Map lunar obiter
* Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter
The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) is a NASA robotic spacecraft currently orbiting the Moon in an eccentric polar mapping orbit. Data collected by LRO have been described as essential for planning NASA's future human and robotic missions t ...
References
External links
CubeSat for investigating ice on the Moon
— SPIE Newsroom
— NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
Fluxes of fast and epithermal neutrons from Lunar Prospector: Evidence for water ice at the lunar poles
— Science
Moon has a litre of water for every tonne of soil
— Times Online
Unambiguous evidence of water on the Moon
— Slashdot Science Story
{{DEFAULTSORT:Lunar Water
Articles containing video clips
Water
Water (chemical formula ) is an inorganic, transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical substance, which is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known living organisms (in which it acts as a ...
Moon
The Moon is Earth's only natural satellite. It is the fifth largest satellite in the Solar System and the largest and most massive relative to its parent planet, with a diameter about one-quarter that of Earth (comparable to the width of ...
Water
Water (chemical formula ) is an inorganic, transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical substance, which is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known living organisms (in which it acts as a ...