langue d'oc

Occitan (; ), also known by its native speakers as (; ), sometimes also referred to as Provençal, is a Romance language spoken in Southern France, Monaco, Italy's Occitan Valleys, as well as Spain's Val d'Aran in Catalonia; collectively, these regions are sometimes referred to as Occitania. It is also spoken in Calabria (Southern Italy) in a linguistic enclave of Cosenza area (mostly Guardia Piemontese) named Gardiol, which is also considered a separate Occitanic language. Some include Catalan as a dialect of Occitan, as the linguistic distance between this language and some Occitan dialects (such as the Gascon language) is similar to the distance between different Occitan dialects. Catalan was considered a dialect of Occitan until the end of the 19th century and still today remains its closest relative.

Occitan is an official language of Catalonia, Spain, where a subdialect of Gascon known as Aranese is spoken (in the Val d'Aran). Since September 2010, the Parliament of Catalonia has considered Aranese Occitan to be the officially preferred language for use in the Val d'Aran.

Across history, the terms Limousin (''Lemosin''), Languedocien (''Lengadocian''), Gascon, in addition to Provençal (''Provençal'', ''Provençau'' or ''Prouvençau'') later have been used as synonyms for the whole of Occitan; nowadays, the term "Provençal" is understood mainly as the Occitan dialect spoken in Provence, in southeast France.

Unlike other Romance languages such as French or Spanish, Occitan does not have a single written standard form, nor does it have official status in France, home to most of its speakers. Instead, there are competing norms for writing Occitan, some of which attempt to be pan-dialectal, whereas others are based on a particular dialect. These efforts are hindered by the rapidly declining use of Occitan as a spoken language in much of southern France, as well as by the significant differences in phonology and vocabulary among different Occitan dialects.

According to the UNESCO Red Book of Endangered Languages, four of the six major dialects of Occitan (Provençal, Auvergnat, Limousin and Languedocien) are considered severely endangered, whereas the remaining two ( Gascon and Vivaro-Alpine) are considered definitely endangered.

Name

History of the modern term

The name Occitan comes from the term ("language of "), being the Occitan word for ''yes.'' While the term would have been in use orally for some time after the decline of Latin, as far as historical records show, the Italian medieval poet Dante was the first to have recorded the term in writing. In his , he wrote in Latin, ("for some say , others , yet others say "), thereby highlighting three major Romance literary languages that were well known in Italy, based on each language's word for "yes", the '' language'' (Occitan), the '' language'' (French), and the '' language'' (Italian).

The word came from Vulgar Latin ("this"), while originated from Latin ("this sit"). Old Catalan and now the Catalan of Northern Catalonia also have (). Other Romance languages derive their word for "yes" from the Latin , "thus t is t was done etc.", such as Spanish , Eastern Lombard , Italian , or Portuguese . In modern Catalan, as in modern Spanish, is usually used as a response, although the language retains the word , akin to , which is sometimes used at the end of yes–no questions and also in higher register as a positive response. French uses to answer "yes" in response to questions that are asked in the negative sense: for example, ("You don't have any brothers, do you ?" "Yes I do, I have seven.").

The name "Occitan" was attested around 1300 as , a crossing of and ( Aquitanian).

Other names for Occitan

For many centuries, the Occitan dialects (together with Catalan) were referred to as ''Limousin'' or ''Provençal'', after the names of two regions lying within the modern Occitan-speaking area. After Frédéric Mistral's Félibrige movement in the 19th century, Provençal achieved the greatest literary recognition and so became the most popular term for Occitan.

According to Joseph Anglade, a philologist and specialist of medieval literature who helped impose the then archaic term ''Occitan'' as the standard name, the word ''Lemosin'' was first used to designate the language at the beginning of the 13th century by Catalan troubadour Raimon Vidal de Besalú(n) in his :

The French language is worthier and better suited for romances and pastourelles; but he languagefrom Limousin is of greater value for writing poems and cançons and sirventés; and across the whole of the lands where our tongue is spoken, the literature in the Limousin language has more authority than any other dialect, wherefore I shall use this name in priority.

The term ''Provençal'', though implying a reference to the region of Provence, historically was used for Occitan as a whole, for "in the eleventh, the twelfth, and sometimes also the thirteenth centuries, one would understand under the name of Provence the whole territory of the old Provincia romana Gallia Narbonensis and even Aquitaine". The term first came into fashion in Italy.

Currently, linguists use the terms ''Provençal'' and ''Limousin'' strictly to refer to specific varieties within Occitan, using ''Occitan'' for the language as a whole. Many non-specialists, however, continue to refer to the language as ''Provençal''.

History

One of the oldest written fragments of the language found dates back to 960, shown here in italics mixed with non-italicized Latin:

Carolingian litanies (), though the leader sang in Latin, were answered to in Old Occitan by the people (; ).

Other famous pieces include the '' Boecis'', a 258-line-long poem written entirely in the Limousin dialect of Occitan between the year 1000 and 1030 and inspired by Boethius's ''The Consolation of Philosophy''; the Waldensian (dated 1100), (–1076), the '' Romance of Flamenca'' (13th century), the '' Song of the Albigensian Crusade'' (1213–1219?), (12th or 13th century), (11th century) and (9th or 10th century).

Occitan was the vehicle for the influential poetry of the medieval troubadours () and : At that time, the language was understood and celebrated throughout most of educated Europe. It was the maternal language of the English queen Eleanor of Aquitaine and kings Richard I (who wrote troubadour poetry) and John.

With the gradual imposition of French royal power over its territory, Occitan declined in status from the 14th century on. The Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts (1539) decreed that the (French – though at the time referring to the Francien language and not the larger collection of dialects grouped under the name ) should be used for all French administration. Occitan's greatest decline occurred during the French Revolution, in which diversity of language was considered a threat.

In 1903, the four Gospels (, i.e. Matthew, Mark, Luke and John) were translated into Provençal as spoken in Cannes and Grasse. The translation was given the official Roman Catholic Imprimatur by vicar general A. Estellon.

The literary renaissance of the late 19th century (in which the 1904 Nobel Prize in Literature winner, Frédéric Mistral, among others, was involved) was attenuated by World War I, when (in addition to the disruption caused by any major war) many Occitan speakers spent extended periods of time alongside French-speaking comrades.

Origins

Because the geographical territory in which Occitan is spoken is surrounded by regions in which other Romance languages are used, external influences may have influenced its origin and development. Many factors favored its development as its own language.
* Mountains and seas: The range of Occitan is naturally bounded by the Mediterranean, Atlantic, Massif Central, Alps, and Pyrenees, respectively.
* Buffer zones: arid land, marshes, and areas otherwise impractical for farming and resistant of colonization provide further separation (territory between Loire and Garonne, the Aragon desert plateau).
* Constant populations: Some Occitan-speaking peoples are descended from people living in the region since prehistoric times.
* Deeper Roman influence: The Romans had established an earlier presence in Southern France in 121 BC beginning with Gallia Narbonensis, where the seeds of the Occitan language were first sowed. According to Müller, "France's linguistic separation began with Roman influence"
* A separate lexicon: Although Occitan is midway between the Gallo-Romance and Iberian Romance languages, it has "around 550 words inherited from Latin that no longer exist in the langues d'oïl or in Franco-Provençal"
* Lack of Germanic influence: "The Frankish lexicon and its phonetic influence often end above the / line"

Occitan in the Iberian Peninsula

Catalan in Spain's northern and central Mediterranean coastal regions and the Balearic Islands is closely related to Occitan, sharing many linguistic features and a common origin (see Occitano-Romance languages). The language was one of the first to gain prestige as a medium for literature among Romance languages in the Middle Ages. Indeed, in the 12th and 13th centuries, Catalan troubadours such as Guerau de Cabrera, Guilhem de Bergadan, Guilhem de Cabestany, Huguet de Mataplana, Raimon Vidal de Besalú, Cerverí de Girona, Formit de Perpinhan, and Jofre de Foixà wrote in Occitan.

At the end of the 11th century, the ''Franks'', as they were called at the time, started to penetrate the Iberian Peninsula through the Ways of St. James via Somport and Roncesvalles, settling in various locations in the Kingdoms of Navarre and Aragon enticed by the privileges granted them by the Navarrese kings. They settled in large groups, forming ethnic boroughs where Occitan was used for everyday life, in Pamplona, Sangüesa, and Estella-Lizarra, among others. These boroughs in Navarre may have been close-knit communities that tended not to assimilate with the predominantly Basque-speaking general population. Their language became the status language chosen by the Navarrese kings, nobility, and upper classes for official and trade purposes in the period stretching from the early 13th century to the late 14th century.

Written administrative records were in a '' koiné'' based on the Languedocien dialect from Toulouse with fairly archaic linguistic features, evidence survives of a written account in Occitan from Pamplona centered on the burning of borough San Nicolas from 1258, while the ''History of the War of Navarre'' by Guilhem Anelier (1276), albeit written in Pamplona, shows a linguistic variant from Toulouse.

Things turned out slightly otherwise in Aragon, where the sociolinguistic situation was different, with a clearer Basque-Romance bilingual situation (cf. Basques from the cited ), but a receding Basque language (Basque banned in the marketplace of Huesca, 1349). While the language was chosen as a medium of prestige in records and official statements along with Latin in the early 13th century, Occitan faced competition from the rising local Romance vernacular, the Navarro-Aragonese, both orally and in writing, especially after Aragon's territorial conquests south to Zaragoza, Huesca and Tudela between 1118 and 1134. It resulted that a second Occitan immigration of this period was assimilated by the similar Navarro-Aragonese language, which at the same time was fostered and chosen by the kings of Aragon. In the 14th century, Occitan across the whole southern Pyrenean area fell into decay and became largely absorbed into Navarro-Aragonese first and Castilian later in the 15th century, after their exclusive boroughs broke up (1423, Pamplona's boroughs unified).

Gascon-speaking communities were called to move in for trading purposes by Navarrese kings in the early 12th century to the coastal fringe extending from San Sebastian to the river Bidasoa, where they settled down. The language variant they used was different from the ones in Navarre, i.e. a Béarnese dialect of Gascon. Gascon remained in use in this area far longer than in Navarre and Aragon, until the 19th century, thanks mainly to the fact that Donostia and Pasaia maintained close ties with Bayonne.

Geographic distribution

Number of speakers

The area where Occitan was historically dominant has approximately 16 million inhabitants. Recent research has shown it may be spoken as a first language by approximately 789,000 people in France, Italy, Spain and Monaco. In Monaco, Occitan coexists with Monégasque Ligurian, which is the other native language. Up to seven million people in France understand the language, whereas twelve to fourteen million fully spoke it in 1921. In 1860, Occitan speakers represented more than 39% of the whole French population (52% for francophones proper); they were still 26% to 36% in the 1920s, but less than 7% in 1993.

Usage in France

Though it was still an everyday language for most of the rural population of southern France well into the 20th century, the language is now declining in every region where it was spoken.

A 2020 study conducted by the Office Public de la Langue Occitane on the territories of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine and Occitanie regions estimated around 540,000 speakers in these two regions. It is worth noting that the survey was conducted in the Occitan language for respondents who declared they were proficient in it. However, the regions including Auvergne and Provence were effectively excluded from this census, as the Office in question does not currently have a partnership with these territories.

According to the 1999 census, there were 610,000 native speakers (almost all of whom were also native French speakers) and perhaps another million people with some exposure to the language. Following the pattern of language shift, most of this remainder is to be found among the eldest populations. Occitan activists (called ''Occitanists'') have attempted, in particular with the advent of Occitan-language preschools (the '' Calandretas''), to reintroduce the language to the young.

Nonetheless, the number of proficient speakers of Occitan is thought to be dropping precipitously. A tourist in the cities in southern France is unlikely to hear a single Occitan word spoken on the street (or, for that matter, in a home), and is likely to only find the occasional vestige, such as street signs (and, of those, most will have French equivalents more prominently displayed), to remind them of the traditional language of the area.

Occitan speakers, as a result of generations of systematic suppression and humiliation (see Vergonha), seldom use the language in the presence of strangers, whether they are from abroad or from outside Occitania (in this case, often merely and abusively referred to as ''Parisiens'' or ''Nordistes'', which means ''northerners''). Occitan is still spoken by many elderly people in rural areas, but they generally switch to French when dealing with outsiders.

Occitan's decline is somewhat less pronounced in Béarn because of the province's history (a late addition to the Kingdom of France), though even there the language is little spoken outside the homes of the rural elderly. The village of Artix is notable for having elected to post street signs in the local language.

Usage outside France

* In the Val d'Aran, in the northwest corner of Catalonia, Spain, Aranese (a variety of Gascon) is spoken. It is an official language of Catalonia together with Catalan and Spanish.
* In Italy, Occitan is also spoken in the Occitan Valleys (Alps) in Piedmont. Gardiol also has existed at Guardia Piemontese (Calabria) since the 14th century. Italy adopted in 1999 a ''Linguistic Minorities Protection Law'', or "Law 482", which includes Occitan; however, Italian is the dominant language. The Piedmontese language is extremely close to Occitan.
* In Monaco, some Occitan speakers coexist with remaining native speakers of Monégasque ( Ligurian). French is the dominant language.
* Scattered Occitan-speaking communities have existed in different countries:
** There were Occitan-speaking colonies in Württemberg (Germany) since the 18th century, as a consequence of the Camisard war. The last Occitan speakers were heard in the 1930s.
** In the Spanish Basque country, Gascon was spoken in San Sebastián, perhaps as late as the early 20th century.
** In the Americas, Occitan speakers exist:
*** in the United States, in Valdese, North Carolina
*** in Canada, in Quebec where there are Occitan associations such as ''Association Occitane du Québec'' and ''Association des Occitans''.
*** Pigüé, Argentina – Community settled by 165 Occitans from the Rodez-Aveyron area of Cantal in the late 19th century.
*** Guanajuato, Mexico – A sparse number of Occitan settlers are known to have settled in that state in the 19th century.

Traditionally Occitan-speaking areas

* Aquitaine – excluding the Basque-speaking part of the Pyrénées-Atlantiques in the western part of the department and a small part of Gironde where the ''langue d'oïl'' Saintongeais dialect is spoken.
* Midi-Pyrénées – including one of France's largest cities, Toulouse. There are a few street signs in Toulouse in Occitan, and since late 2009 the Toulouse Metro announcements are bilingual French-Occitan, but otherwise the language is almost never heard spoken on the street.
* Languedoc-Roussillon (from "Lenga d'òc") – including the areas around the medieval city of Carcassonne, excluding the large part of the Pyrénées-Orientales where Catalan is spoken ( Fenolheda is the only Occitan-speaking area of the Pyrénées-Orientales).
* Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur – except for the Roya and Bévéra valleys, where there is a transitional dialect between Ligurian and Occitan, (''Roiasc'', including the Brigasc dialect of Ligurian). In the department of Alpes-Maritimes there were once isolated towns that spoke Ligurian called Figún, but those varieties are now extinct. The Mentonasc dialect of Ligurian, spoken in Menton, is a Ligurian transition dialect with a strong Occitan influence. French is the dominant language of the Alpes-Maritimes, Dauphiné and French Riviera areas.
* In Monaco, Occitan, imported by immigrants coexisted in the 19th and 20th centuries with the Monégasque dialect of Ligurian. French is the dominant language.
* Poitou-Charentes – Use of Occitan has declined here in the few parts it used to be spoken, replaced by French. Only Charente Limousine, the eastern part of the region, has resisted. The natural and historical languages of most of the region are the ''langues d'oïl'' Poitevin and Saintongeais.
* Limousin – A rural region (about 710,000 inhabitants) where Limousin is still spoken among the oldest residents. French is the dominant language.
* Auvergne – The language's use has declined in some urban areas. French is the dominant language. The department of Allier is divided between a southern, Occitan-speaking area and a northern, French-speaking area.
* Centre-Val de Loire – Some villages in the extreme South speak Occitan.
* Rhône-Alpes – While the south of the region is clearly Occitan-speaking, the central and northern Lyonnais, Forez and Dauphiné parts belong to the Franco-Provençal language area. French is the dominant language.
* Occitan Valleys (Piedmont) – Italian region where Occitan is spoken only in the southern and central Alpine valleys.
* Val d'Aran – part of Catalonia that speaks a mountain dialect of Gascon.

Pronunciation

The following section describes the pronunciation of the Languedocian dialect which is central geographically and the most conservative among Occitan dialects. For that reason it serves as a basis for standardization of Occitan.

Vowels

Consonants

Stress

Words ending with a vowel, ''s'' or ''n'' have stress on the penultimate syllable. Words ending with a consonant (but ''s'' or ''n'') or diphthongs have stress on the last syllable. Exceptions have marked stress.

Examples are:

''La mecanica''; destriar; cuélher; cantan; penós; gaton.

Grammar

The following section describes the grammar of the Languedocian dialect which is central geographically and most conservative among Occitan dialects. For that reason it serves as a basis for standardization of Occitan.

Pronouns

Personal pronouns are shown in the following table.

Possessives

Possessives are shown in the following table.

Demonstratives

Demonstratives (''this'', ''that'', ''these'', ''those'') are shown in the following table.

Nouns

There are 2 genders: masculine, and feminine. Feminine nouns are usually created by adding termination ''-a''. Plural is created by adding ''-s'' to nouns.

Articles

There are two indefinite articles in singular (a/an): masculine ''un'' and feminine ''una'' and one in plural: ''de''. ''de'' before vowels is shortend to ''d. It's summarized in the following table.

Definite articles (the) are shown in the following table.

''l is used before a vowel.

Prepositions ''a'', ''de'', ''per'' and ''sus'' followed by articles ''lo'' and ''los'' are merged with them according to the following table.

For instance
''a+los = als.''

Verbs

Verbs inflect for person, number, tense and mood. There are 3 conjugations: ''-ar'', ''-ir'' and -''re''. Verbs ending with ''-ir'' have two subconjugations: with and without a suffix.

Pattern of inflection of regular verbs belonging to the first conjugation is presented in the following table.

''Parlar'' (= ''to speak''), ''parlat'' (= ''spoken''), ''parlant'' (= ''speaking'').

Conjugation ''-ir'' with the suffix is shown below.

''Dormir'' (= ''to sleep''), ''dormit'' (= ''slept''), ''dormint'' (= ''sleeping'').

Second conjugation without the suffix is shown below.

''Sentir'' (= ''to feel''), ''sentit'' (= ''felt''), ''sentent'' (= ''feeling'').

The third conjugation is shown below.

''Batre'' (= ''to beat''), ''batut'' (= ''beaten''), ''beatent'' (= ''beating'')

Irregular verbs

Two very important irregular verbs are ''èsser/èstre'' (= ''to be'') and ''aver'' (= ''to have'').

Conjugation of ''èsser/èstre'' is shown below.

''estat'' (= ''been''), ''essent'' (= ''being'')

Conjugation of ''aver'' is shown below.

''agut'' (= ''had''), ''avent'' (= ''having'')

Reflexive verbs

Reflexive verbs are verbs which require reflexive pronoun ''se''. Pronoun ''se'' inflects for person and number. An example is ''se levar'' (= ''to get up''). It's inflacted according to the following table.

Negation

Negation is done by adding ''pas'' after a verb. For example:
* ''Parli pas'' (= ''I don't speak'').
* ''An pas parlat'' (= ''They haven't spoken'').
* ''Vesi pas res'' (= ''I don't see anything'').
* ''Lo tròbi pas enluòc'' (= ''I don't find him anywhere'').
* ''Sortís pas jamai'' (= ''He never goes out'').
* ''Degun es pas vengut'' (= ''Nobody came'').

Dialects

Occitan is fundamentally defined by its dialects, rather than being a unitary language, as it lacks an official written standard. Like other languages that fundamentally exist at a spoken, rather than written, level (e.g. the Rhaeto-Romance languages, Franco-Provençal, Astur-Leonese, and Aragonese), every settlement technically has its own dialect, with the whole of Occitania forming a classic dialect continuum that changes gradually along any path from one side to the other. Nonetheless, specialists commonly divide Occitan into six main dialects:
* Gascon: includes the Béarnese and Aranese (spoken in Spain).
** Judeo-Gascon
* Languedocien (''lengadocian'')
* Limousin (''lemosin'')
* Auvergnat (''auvernhat'')
* Provençal (''provençau'' or ''prouvençau''), including the Niçard subdialect.
** Judeo-Provençal
** Judeo-Niçard
* Vivaro-Alpine (''vivaroaupenc''), also known as "Alpine" or "Alpine Provençal", and sometimes considered a subdialect of Provençal

The northern and easternmost dialects have more morphological and phonetic features in common with the Gallo-Italic and Oïl languages (e.g. nasal vowels; loss of final consonants; initial ''cha/ja-'' instead of ''ca/ga-''; uvular R, uvular ; the front-rounded sound instead of a diphthong, instead of before a consonant), whereas the southernmost dialects have more features in common with the Ibero-Romance languages (e.g. betacism; voiced fricatives between vowels in place of voiced stops; -''ch''- in place of -''it''-), and Gascon has a number of unusual features not seen in other dialects (e.g. in place of ; loss of between vowels; intervocalic ''-r-'' and final ''-t/ch'' in place of medieval --).

There are also significant lexical differences, where some dialects have words cognate with French, and others have Catalan and Spanish cognates. Nonetheless, there is a significant amount of mutual intelligibility and some of the words with two cognates can be used in the same dialect as synonymous (''totjorn/sempre'' in provençal or ''maison/ostau'' in gascon for instance).

There is also no particular geographical distribution of the cognates, with some shared by distant dialects and other not shared with bordering foreign languages (for instance ''maison'' in both Gascon and Niçard, cognate of French but not of Spanish or Italian, although these dialects are geographically closer to these languages).

Gascon is the most divergent, and descriptions of the main features of Occitan often consider Gascon separately. Max Wheeler notes that "probably only its copresence within the French cultural sphere has kept asconfrom being regarded as a separate language", and compares it to Franco-Provençal, which is considered a separate language from Occitan but is "probably not more divergent from Occitan overall than Gascon is".

There is no general agreement about larger groupings of these dialects.

Max Wheeler divides the dialects into two groups:
* Southwestern (Gascon and Languedocien), more conservative
* Northeastern (Limousin, Auvergnat, Provençal and Vivaro-Alpine), more innovative

Pierre Bec divides the dialects into three groups:
* Gascon, standing alone
* Southern Occitan (Languedocien and Provençal)
* Northern Occitan (Limousin, Auvergnat, Vivaro-Alpine)

In order to overcome the pitfalls of the traditional romanistic view, Bec proposed a "supradialectal" classification that groups Occitan with Catalan as a part of a wider Occitano-Romanic group. One such classification posits three groups:
* "Arverno-Mediterranean" (''arvèrnomediterranèu''), same as Wheeler's northeastern group, i.e. Limousin, Auvergnat, Provençal and Vivaro-Alpine
* "Central Occitan" (''occitan centrau''), Languedocien, excepting the Southern Languedocien subdialect
* "Aquitano-Pyrenean" (''aquitanopirenenc''), Southern Languedocien, Gascon and Catalan
According to this view, Catalan is an ausbau language that became independent from Occitan during the 13th century, but originates from the Aquitano-Pyrenean group.

Domergue Sumien proposes a slightly different supradialectal grouping.Domergue Sumien (2006), ''La standardisation pluricentrique de l'occitan: nouvel enjeu sociolinguistique, développement du lexique et de la morphologie'', Publications de l'Association Internationale d'Études Occitanes, Turnhout: Brepols
* Arverno-Mediterranean (''arvèrnomediterranèu''), same as in Bec and Wheeler, divided further:
** Niçard-Alpine (''niçardoaupenc''), Vivaro-Alpine along with the Niçard subdialect of Provençal.
** Trans-Occitan (''transoccitan''), the remainder of Provençal along with Limousin and Auvergnat.
* Pre-Iberian (''preïberic'').
** Central Occitan (''occitan centrau''), same as in Bec.
** Aquitano-Pyrenean (''aquitanopirenenc''), same as in Bec.

Jewish dialects

Occitan has 3 dialects spoken by Jewish communities that are all now extinct.

Judeo-Gascon

A sociolect of the Gascon dialect spoken by Spanish and Portuguese Jews in Gascony. It, like many other Jewish dialects and languages, contained large amounts of Hebrew loanwords. It went extinct after World War 2 with the last speakers being elderly Jews in Bayonne. About 850 unique words and a few morphological and grammatical aspects of the dialect were transmitted to Southern Jewish French.

Judeo-Provençal

Judeo-Provençal was a dialect of Occitan spoken by Jews in Provence. The dialect declined in usage after Jews were expelled from the area in 1498, and was probably extinct by the 20th century.

Judeo-Niçard

The least attested of the Judeo-Occitan dialects, Judeo-Niçard was spoken by the community of Jews living in Nice

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