Language assessment or language testing is a field of study under the umbrella of
applied linguistics
Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problems. Some of the academic fields related to applied linguistics are education, psychology, communication rese ...
. Its main focus is the assessment of
first
First or 1st is the ordinal form of the number one (#1).
First or 1st may also refer to:
*World record, specifically the first instance of a particular achievement
Arts and media Music
* 1$T, American rapper, singer-songwriter, DJ, and rec ...
,
second
The second (symbol: s) is the unit of time in the International System of Units (SI), historically defined as of a day – this factor derived from the division of the day first into 24 hours, then to 60 minutes and finally to 60 seconds ...
or other language in the school, college, or university context; assessment of language use in the workplace; and assessment of language in the immigration, citizenship, and
asylum
Asylum may refer to:
Types of asylum
* Asylum (antiquity), places of refuge in ancient Greece and Rome
* Benevolent Asylum, a 19th-century Australian institution for housing the destitute
* Cities of Refuge, places of refuge in ancient Judea
...
contexts.
The assessment may include listening, speaking, reading,
writing
Writing is a medium of human communication which involves the representation of a language through a system of physically Epigraphy, inscribed, Printing press, mechanically transferred, or Word processor, digitally represented Symbols (semiot ...
, an integration of two or more of these skills, or other constructs of language ability. Equal weight may be placed on knowledge (understanding how the language works theoretically) and
proficiency (ability to use the language practically), or greater weight may be given to one aspect or the other.
History
![Centro de lingva testado Albion 02](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Centro_de_lingva_testado_Albion_02.jpg)
The history of language testing may have originated in the late nineteenth century testing of ESL at Cambridge and Oxford in England, but the earliest works in language assessment in the United States date back to the 1950s to the pioneering studies and test created by
Robert Lado
Dr. Robert Lado (May 31, 1915, Tampa, Florida – December 11, 1995, Washington) was an American expert on modern linguistics.
Early life
His parents were Spanish immigrants who relocated to Spain before he had a chance to learn English. He retu ...
and David Harris. The earliest large scale assessments in the United States were referred to as the Michigan Tests, developed by the English Language Institute at the University of Michigan, now known as
CaMLA
Michigan Language Assessment (MLA), also known as the Cambridge–Michigan Language Assessment (CaMLA) and previously the "English Language Institute Testing and Certification Division at the University of Michigan", has been providing English l ...
, and the
''Test of English as a Foreign Language'' (TOEFL) developed by
Educational Testing Service
Educational Testing Service (ETS), founded in 1947, is the world's largest private nonprofit educational testing and assessment organization. It is headquartered in Lawrence Township, New Jersey, but has a Princeton address.
ETS develops var ...
(ETS), Princeton, New Jersey.
The English Language Institute at the University of Michigan (
CaMLA
Michigan Language Assessment (MLA), also known as the Cambridge–Michigan Language Assessment (CaMLA) and previously the "English Language Institute Testing and Certification Division at the University of Michigan", has been providing English l ...
) was established in 1941 and was the first of its kind in the United States. Charles Fries, Director of ELI, and
Robert Lado
Dr. Robert Lado (May 31, 1915, Tampa, Florida – December 11, 1995, Washington) was an American expert on modern linguistics.
Early life
His parents were Spanish immigrants who relocated to Spain before he had a chance to learn English. He retu ...
, Director of Testing at ELI, were determined to put foreign language teaching and testing on a "scientific" footing. The first test launched in 1946 was the ''Lado Test of Aural Comprehension''. Approximately 10 years later, a full suite of tests had been assembled: "an English language test battery", which was administered to incoming foreign students at Michigan and other universities. Today this is known at the Michigan English Language Assessment Battery (
MELAB
The Michigan English Language Assessment Battery (or MELAB) was a standardized test, created by CaMLA, which evaluated proficiency in understanding, writing and speaking the English language. It was designed for adults whose first language is no ...
). In 1953, the ELI also developed the ECPE (Examination for the Certificate of Proficiency in English) exam, under contract to the United States Information Agency, for use abroad.
TOEFL was launched in 1961 and was designed to assess the English language ability of students applying for admission to U.S. and Canadian colleges and universities. This test, which is used widely around the world, is still in use although it is now only available in the internet-based format (now called the TOEFL iBT).
Many tests from other companies, universities and agencies compete for this market:
iTEP (International Test of English Proficiency), the
Canadian English Language Proficiency Index Program
The Canadian English Language Proficiency Index Program, or CELPIP (), is an English language assessment tool which measures listening, reading, writing, and speaking skills. The test is administered by Paragon Testing Enterprises., a subsidiary o ...
(CELPIP) Test, the
Pearson Language Test's ''
Pearson Test of English'' (PTE),
CaMLA
Michigan Language Assessment (MLA), also known as the Cambridge–Michigan Language Assessment (CaMLA) and previously the "English Language Institute Testing and Certification Division at the University of Michigan", has been providing English l ...
assessments including the ''Michigan English Language Assessment Battery'' (
MELAB
The Michigan English Language Assessment Battery (or MELAB) was a standardized test, created by CaMLA, which evaluated proficiency in understanding, writing and speaking the English language. It was designed for adults whose first language is no ...
) and
Cambridge English Language Assessment
Cambridge Assessment English or Cambridge English develops and produces Cambridge English Qualifications and the International English Language Testing System (International English Language Testing System, IELTS). The organisation contributed ...
,
the British Council
The British Council is a British organisation specialising in international cultural and educational opportunities. It works in over 100 countries: promoting a wider knowledge of the United Kingdom and the English language (and the Welsh la ...
and the Australian IDP's ''
International English Language Testing System
The International English Language Testing System (IELTS ), is an international standardized test of English language proficiency for non-native English language speakers. It is jointly managed by the British Council, IDP: IELTS Australia a ...
'' (IELTS). In the United States, non-profit and other organizations such as the
Center for Applied Linguistics
The Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL) is a private, nonprofit organization founded in 1959 and headquartered in Washington, DC. Its mission is to promote language learning and cultural understanding. Its president and chief executive officer ...
, Washington, D.C. and
Language Testing International, White Plains, NY have developed language tests that are used by many public and private agencies. Many universities too, like the
University of California, Los Angeles
The University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) is a public land-grant research university in Los Angeles, California. UCLA's academic roots were established in 1881 as a teachers college then known as the southern branch of the California St ...
,
Teachers College
A normal school or normal college is an institution created to train teachers by educating them in the norms of pedagogy and curriculum. In the 19th century in the United States, instruction in normal schools was at the high school level, turni ...
, Columbia University, and the
University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign
The University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (U of I, Illinois, University of Illinois, or UIUC) is a public land-grant research university in Illinois in the twin cities of Champaign and Urbana. It is the Flagship#Colleges and universities in ...
, have developed English (and other) language tests to assess the abilities of their students and teaching assistants. These language assessments are generally known as proficiency or achievement assessments. Other modern English language tests developed include ''The General English Proficiency Test (GEPT)'' in Taiwan, the ''College English Test'' in China, and the ''STEP Eiken'' in Japan. New technology has also made a presence in the field: Versant's English and Dutch assessments use phone technology to record the speaking and automated scoring of their speaking tests, and the ETS is currently experimenting with automated scoring of their
writing tests.
Organizations
The International Language Testing Association (ILTA) is one of the many organizations that organizes conferences, workshops, and a public forum for the discussion of important matters. ILTA's major annual conference is the Language Testing Research Colloquium. ILTA's Lifetime Achievement Award winners include:
Carol Chapelle
Carol Ann Chapelle (born August 18, 1955) is an American Linguistics, linguist and Angela B. Pavitt Professor in English at Iowa State University.
Chapelle earned a doctorate in linguistics from the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign a ...
(USA), Alan Davies (UK), Lyle Bachman (USA), Bernard Spolsky (Israel), John Clark (USA),
Charles Alderson
Charles Alderson (born 1946) is a British linguist. He is currently an honorary professor at the Department of Linguistics and English Language of Lancaster University, United Kingdom. His research focuses on language assessment.
Career
Ald ...
(UK) and Elana Shohamy (Israel).
Educational Testing Service, Princeton, New Jersey, the home of the TOEFL, offers an annual outstanding Doctoral Dissertation Award in Second or Foreign Language and the
University of Cambridge
, mottoeng = Literal: From here, light and sacred draughts.
Non literal: From this place, we gain enlightenment and precious knowledge.
, established =
, other_name = The Chancellor, Masters and Schola ...
, UK, also offers an annual outstanding master's degree Award in second language testing. In Europe, there are two organizations: the Association of Language Testers of Europe (ALTE) and the European Association for Language Testing and Assessment (EALTA). All of these associations have developed
Codes of Ethics and Practice that all language assessment professionals are expected to adhere to.
Annual conferences
There are many annual conferences on general or specific topics. Among the most important conferences is ILTA's official conference: the Language Testing Research Colloquium (LTRC), which has been held every year since 1978. In the last few years, it has been held in different parts of the world: Temecula, California, USA (2004); Ottawa, Canada (2005); Melbourne, Australia (2006); Barcelona, Spain (2007); Hangzhou, China (2008), and Denver, Colorado (2009), Cambridge, UK (2010), Ann Arbor, Michigan (2011), Princeton, New Jersey (2012), and Seoul, South Korea (2013).
ALTE's international conferences are held in different cities in Europe: Barcelona, Spain (2002); Berlin, Germany (2005); Cambridge, UK (2008); Krakow, Poland (2011); Paris,France (2014); Bologna, Italy (2017) ) with regional conferences in Perugia, Prague, Budapest, Sofia, and Lisbon. Similarly, there are regional meetings in China, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan. International conference themes have included supporting the European Year of Languages (2001), the impact of multilingualism (2005), the wider social and educational impact of assessment (2008) and the role of language frameworks (2011). Selected conference papers have been published through the
Studies in Language Testing (SiLT)
Studies in Language Testing (SiLT) is a series of academic books containing papers in the fields of education and applied linguistics related to language testing and assessment.
It has been published by Cambridge English Language Assessment an ...
volumes.
Language assessments in aviation
The aviation personnel is required to be regularly tested on aviation language proficiency. The testing is required on the international basis by ICAO Doc 9835. Within the EASA region, the aviation language assessments are required by Ec 1178/2011, Part FCL, FCL.055.
Endorsements
Each flight crew license is endorsed by the respective endorsement specifying the holder's language proficiency. The level acceptable for the operational use in the aviation is 4 thru 6. The validity of the respective level varies with the region.
Organizations
The organizations authorized to conduct the language assessments on behalf of national aviation authorities are so-called "Language assessment bodies" or "Testing service providers".
Each and every Language assessment body is issued with the Certificate of approval with its authorizations. Aero Language and Myflower College are one of several organizations in Europe authorized to conduct the language assessments for pilots and air traffic controllers.
Publications
There are two premier journals in the field: ''Language Assessment Quarterly'' (published by
Routledge
Routledge () is a British multinational publisher. It was founded in 1836 by George Routledge, and specialises in providing academic books, journals and online resources in the fields of the humanities, behavioural science, education, law, and ...
/
Taylor & Francis
Taylor & Francis Group is an international company originating in England that publishes books and academic journals. Its parts include Taylor & Francis, Routledge, F1000 (publisher), F1000 Research or Dovepress. It is a division of Informa ...
) and ''
Language Testing
''Language Testing'' is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal covering language testing and assessment. Its editors-in-chief are Luke Harding (Lancaster University) and Paula Winke (Michigan State University). It was established in 1984 and ...
'' (published by
Sage Publications
SAGE Publishing, formerly SAGE Publications, is an American independent publishing company founded in 1965 in New York by Sara Miller McCune and now based in Newbury Park, California.
It publishes more than 1,000 journals, more than 800 books ...
) that publishes major findings from researchers. Both these journals are indexed in Thompson's SSCI list. Other journals that publish articles from the field include ''
Applied Linguistics
Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problems. Some of the academic fields related to applied linguistics are education, psychology, communication rese ...
'', ''
Language Learning
Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend language (in other words, gain the ability to be aware of language and to understand it), as well as to produce and use words and sentences to ...
'', ''
TESOL Quarterly
''TESOL Quarterly'' is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal published by Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of TESOL International Association. It covers English language teaching and learning, standard English as a second dialect, including articles ...
'', ''
Assessing Writing
''Assessing Writing'' is a quarterly Peer review, peer-reviewed academic journal covering the writing Assessment, assessment of written language in language education. It was established in 1994 and is published by Elsevier. The editor-in-chief are ...
'', and ''
System
A system is a group of Interaction, interacting or interrelated elements that act according to a set of rules to form a unified whole. A system, surrounded and influenced by its environment (systems), environment, is described by its boundaries, ...
''. Some of these journals have special issue volumes on Ethics in language assessment, structural equation modeling, language assessment in Asia, Classroom assessment, etc. and commentaries, brief reports, and book and test reviews.
The field has exploded in the last twenty years in terms of textbooks and research publications. The most popular books include: Lyle Bachman's ''Fundamental considerations in language testing,'' and ''Statistical Analyses for Language Assessment,'' Lyle Bachman and Adrian Palmer's ''Language Testing in Practice'' and ''Language Assessment in Practice,' Glenn Fulcher and Fred Davidson's 'Language Testing and Assessment: An Advanced Resource Book',
Charles Alderson
Charles Alderson (born 1946) is a British linguist. He is currently an honorary professor at the Department of Linguistics and English Language of Lancaster University, United Kingdom. His research focuses on language assessment.
Career
Ald ...
's 'Assessing Reading,'' John Read's ''Assessing Vocabulary,'' James Purpura's ''Assessing Grammar,'' Gary Buck's ''Assessing Listening,'' Sara Weigle's ''
Assessing Writing
''Assessing Writing'' is a quarterly Peer review, peer-reviewed academic journal covering the writing Assessment, assessment of written language in language education. It was established in 1994 and is published by Elsevier. The editor-in-chief are ...
,' Glenn Fulcher's 'Practical Language Testing' and 'Testing Second Language Speaking'. Edited volumes include:
Alister Cumming
Alister Henry Cumming (born 1953) is a Canadian linguist. He is currently a professor emeritus at the University of Toronto. He is most noted for early studies of composing processes in a second language in the 1980s, establishing that writing sk ...
's ''Validation in Language Testing,'' Antony John Kunnan's ''Validation in Language Assessment,'' and ''Fairness in Language Assessment,'' and the 'Routledge Handbook of Language Testing', edited by Glenn Fulcher and Fred Davidson.
The most popular book series are Michael Milanovic, Cyril Weir, and Lynda Taylor's
Studies in Language Testing (SiLT)
Studies in Language Testing (SiLT) is a series of academic books containing papers in the fields of education and applied linguistics related to language testing and assessment.
It has been published by Cambridge English Language Assessment an ...
series, and Lyle Bachman and Charles Alderson's ''Cambridge Language Assessment Series.''
Courses
Language assessment or language testing courses are taught as required or elective courses in many graduate and
doctoral programs, particularly in the subjects of
applied linguistics
Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problems. Some of the academic fields related to applied linguistics are education, psychology, communication rese ...
,
English for Speakers of Other Languages
English as a second or foreign language is the use of English by speakers with different native languages. Language education for people learning English may be known as English as a second language (ESL), English as a foreign language (EFL ...
,
English as a second or foreign language
English as a second or foreign language is the use of English by speakers with different native languages. Language education for people learning English may be known as English as a second language (ESL), English as a foreign language (EF ...
, or educational linguistics. These programs are known as MA or PhD programs in Applied Linguistics, Educational Linguistics,
TESOL,
TEFL
Teaching English as a second language (TESL) or Teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL) are terms that refer to teaching English to students whose first language is not English. The terms TESL, TEFL, and TESOL distinguish betwee ...
, or
TESL. The focus of most courses is on test development,
psychometric
Psychometrics is a field of study within psychology concerned with the theory and technique of measurement. Psychometrics generally refers to specialized fields within psychology and education devoted to testing, measurement, assessment, and ...
qualities of tests,
validity
Validity or Valid may refer to:
Science/mathematics/statistics:
* Validity (logic), a property of a logical argument
* Scientific:
** Internal validity, the validity of causal inferences within scientific studies, usually based on experiments
** ...
,
reliability
Reliability, reliable, or unreliable may refer to:
Science, technology, and mathematics Computing
* Data reliability (disambiguation), a property of some disk arrays in computer storage
* High availability
* Reliability (computer networking), a ...
and fairness of tests, and
classical true score measurement theory. Additional courses focus on
item response theory
In psychometrics, item response theory (IRT) (also known as latent trait theory, strong true score theory, or modern mental test theory) is a paradigm for the design, analysis, and scoring of tests, questionnaires, and similar instruments measuring ...
,
factor analysis
Factor analysis is a statistical method used to describe variability among observed, correlated variables in terms of a potentially lower number of unobserved variables called factors. For example, it is possible that variations in six observed ...
,
structural equation modeling,
G theory,
latent growth modeling Latent growth modeling is a statistical technique used in the structural equation modeling (SEM) framework to estimate growth trajectories. It is a longitudinal analysis technique to estimate growth over a period of time. It is widely used in the f ...
,
qualitative analysis of test performance data such as conversation and
discourse analysis
Discourse analysis (DA), or discourse studies, is an approach to the analysis of written, vocal, or sign language use, or any significant semiotic event.
The objects of discourse Analysis ( discourse, writing, conversation, communicative event ...
, and politics and language policy issues.
Universities that have regular courses and programs that focus on language assessment at the PhD level include
Iowa State University
Iowa State University of Science and Technology (Iowa State University, Iowa State, or ISU) is a public land-grant research university in Ames, Iowa. Founded in 1858 as the Iowa Agricultural College and Model Farm, Iowa State became one of the n ...
,
University of Illinois
The University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (U of I, Illinois, University of Illinois, or UIUC) is a public land-grant research university in Illinois in the twin cities of Champaign and Urbana. It is the flagship institution of the University ...
,
Urbana-Champaign,
University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa
The University of Hawaii at Mānoa (University of Hawaii—Mānoa, UH Mānoa, Hawai'i, or simply UH) is a Public university, public Land-grant university, land-grant research university in Manoa, Mānoa, a neighborhood in Honolulu, Hawaii. It ...
, Teachers College, Columbia University,
Penn State University
The Pennsylvania State University (Penn State or PSU) is a public state-related land-grant research university with campuses and facilities throughout Pennsylvania. Founded in 1855 as the Farmers' High School of Pennsylvania, Penn State became ...
,
Georgia State University
Georgia State University (Georgia State, State, or GSU) is a Public university, public research university in Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia. Founded in 1913, it is one of the University System of Georgia's four research universities. It is also the ...
,
Northern Arizona University
Northern Arizona University (NAU) is a public research university based in Flagstaff, Arizona. It was founded in 1899 as the final public university established in the Arizona Territory, 13 years before Arizona was admitted as the 48th state.
...
,
McGill University
McGill University (french: link=no, Université McGill) is an English-language public research university located in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Founded in 1821 by royal charter granted by King George IV,Frost, Stanley Brice. ''McGill Universit ...
,
University of Toronto
The University of Toronto (UToronto or U of T) is a public research university in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, located on the grounds that surround Queen's Park. It was founded by royal charter in 1827 as King's College, the first institution ...
,
Lancaster University
Lancaster University (legally The University of Lancaster) is a public university, public research university in Lancaster, Lancashire, Lancaster, Lancashire, England. The university was established in 1964 by royal charter, as one of several pla ...
(UK),
University of Leicester
, mottoeng = So that they may have life
, established =
, type = public research university
, endowment = £20.0 million
, budget = £326 million
, chancellor = David Willetts
, vice_chancellor = Nishan Canagarajah
, head_labe ...
,
University of Bristol
, mottoeng = earningpromotes one's innate power (from Horace, ''Ode 4.4'')
, established = 1595 – Merchant Venturers School1876 – University College, Bristol1909 – received royal charter
, type ...
,
University of Cambridge
, mottoeng = Literal: From here, light and sacred draughts.
Non literal: From this place, we gain enlightenment and precious knowledge.
, established =
, other_name = The Chancellor, Masters and Schola ...
,
University of Bedfordshire
The University of Bedfordshire is a public research university with campuses in Bedfordshire and Buckinghamshire, England. The University has roots from 1882, however, it gained university status in 1993 as the University of Luton. The Universi ...
, and
Guangdong University of Foreign Studies
Guangdong University of Foreign Studies (GDUFS) is a public university with emphasis in foreign languages and cultures, overseas economy and trade, and international strategies in Guangzhou, Guangdong, China. The university offers 61 bachel ...
(China); at the MA level include
Lancaster University
Lancaster University (legally The University of Lancaster) is a public university, public research university in Lancaster, Lancashire, Lancaster, Lancashire, England. The university was established in 1964 by royal charter, as one of several pla ...
,
University of Leicester
, mottoeng = So that they may have life
, established =
, type = public research university
, endowment = £20.0 million
, budget = £326 million
, chancellor = David Willetts
, vice_chancellor = Nishan Canagarajah
, head_labe ...
,
University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa
The University of Hawaii at Mānoa (University of Hawaii—Mānoa, UH Mānoa, Hawai'i, or simply UH) is a Public university, public Land-grant university, land-grant research university in Manoa, Mānoa, a neighborhood in Honolulu, Hawaii. It ...
, California State Universities at Fullerton, Los Angeles, Long Beach, San Jose, and San Francisco.
Scales
General scales
Language-specific scales
Other Test Types
* Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC)
Accepted and trusted by 14,000+ organizations in more than 160 countries, the TOEIC® tests assess your English-language proficiency across all four language skills needed to succeed in the global workplace — listening, reading, speaking and writing. With your TOEIC score, you can: get a fair, accurate evaluation of your ability to communicate in English; show potential employers your full range of communication skills; differentiate yourself from the competition; expand your job opportunities.
The TOEIC Tests (For Test Takers)
/ref>
See also
* List of language proficiency tests
The following is a non-exhaustive list of standardized tests that assess a person's language proficiency of a foreign/secondary language. Various types of such exams exist per many languages—some are organized at an international level even th ...
* Language proficiency
Language proficiency is the ability of an individual to use language with a level of accuracy that transfers meaning in production and comprehension. There is no singular definition of language proficiency: while certain groups limit its scope to ...
* Washback effect
Washback effect refers to the impact of testing on curriculum design, teaching practices, and learning behaviors. The influences of testing can be found in the choices of learners and teachers: teachers may teach directly for specific test prepara ...
References
External links
International Language Testing Association
Language Assessment Quarterly
European Association for Language Testing and Assessment
Association of Language Testers of Europe
Language Testing International
Language Testing Resources
Language Testing in Asia
Studies in Language Testing (SiLT)
Online language proficiency test ( Level4, Level5, Level6 ) for pilots in english or german
{{DEFAULTSORT:Language Assessment
Applied linguistics
Language tests