![Tetradrachm Athens 480-420BC MBA Lyon](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Tetradrachm_Athens_480-420BC_MBA_Lyon.jpg)
Knowledge can be defined as
awareness of facts or as
practical skills
Training is teaching, or developing in oneself or others, any skills and knowledge or fitness that relate to specific useful competencies. Training has specific goals of improving one's capability, capacity, productivity and performance. It ...
, and may also refer to
familiarity with objects or situations. Knowledge of facts, also called
propositional knowledge, is often defined as
true belief that is distinct from opinion or guesswork by virtue of
justification
Justification may refer to:
* Justification (epistemology), a property of beliefs that a person has good reasons for holding
* Justification (jurisprudence), defence in a prosecution for a criminal offenses
* Justification (theology), God's act of ...
. While there is wide agreement among philosophers that propositional knowledge is a form of true belief, many controversies in philosophy focus on justification: whether it is needed at all, how to understand it, and whether something else besides it is needed. These controversies intensified due to a series of
thought experiments by Edmund Gettier and have provoked various alternative definitions. Some of them deny that justification is necessary and replace it, for example, with
reliability or the manifestation of
cognitive virtues. Others contend that justification is needed but formulate additional requirements, for example, that no
defeaters of the belief are present or that the person would not have the belief if it was false.
Knowledge can be produced in many different ways. The most important source of
empirical knowledge is
perception, which refers to the usage of the
senses
A sense is a biological system used by an organism for sensation, the process of gathering information about the world through the detection of stimuli. (For example, in the human body, the brain which is part of the central nervous system rec ...
. Many theorists also include
introspection as a source of knowledge, not of external physical objects, but of one's own
mental states
A mental state, or a mental property, is a state of mind of a person. Mental states comprise a diverse class, including perception, pain experience, belief, desire, intention, emotion, and memory. There is controversy concerning the exact definiti ...
. Other sources often discussed include
memory,
rational intuition
Logical Intuition, or mathematical intuition or rational intuition, is a series of instinctive foresight, know-how, and savviness often associated with the ability to perceive logical or mathematical truth—and the ability to solve mathematical ch ...
,
inference
Inferences are steps in reasoning, moving from premises to logical consequences; etymologically, the word '' infer'' means to "carry forward". Inference is theoretically traditionally divided into deduction and induction, a distinction that in ...
, and
testimony. According to
foundationalism
Foundationalism concerns philosophical theories of knowledge resting upon non-inferential justified belief, or some secure foundation of certainty such as a conclusion inferred from a basis of sound premises.Simon Blackburn, ''The Oxford Dictio ...
, some of these sources are basic in the sense that they can justify beliefs without depending on other mental states. This claim is rejected by
coherentists, who contend that a sufficient degree of coherence among all the mental states of the believer is necessary for knowledge.
Many different aspects of knowledge are investigated and it plays a role in various disciplines. It is the primary subject of the field of
epistemology, which studies what we know, how we come to know it, and what it means to know something. The problem of the ''value of knowledge'' concerns the question of why knowledge is more valuable than mere true belief.
Philosophical skepticism is the controversial thesis that we lack any form of knowledge or that knowledge is impossible.
Formal epistemology studies, among other things, the rules governing how knowledge and related states behave and in what relations they stand to each other.
Science tries to acquire knowledge using the
scientific method, which is based on repeatable
experimentation,
observation
Observation is the active acquisition of information from a primary source. In living beings, observation employs the senses. In science, observation can also involve the perception and recording of data via the use of scientific instruments. The ...
, and
measurement
Measurement is the quantification of attributes of an object or event, which can be used to compare with other objects or events.
In other words, measurement is a process of determining how large or small a physical quantity is as compared ...
. Many religions hold that humans should seek knowledge and that God or the divine is the source of knowledge.
Definitions
Numerous definitions of knowledge have been suggested.
Most definitions of knowledge in
analytic philosophy
Analytic philosophy is a branch and tradition of philosophy using analysis, popular in the Western world and particularly the Anglosphere, which began around the turn of the 20th century in the contemporary era in the United Kingdom, United Sta ...
recognize three fundamental types. "Knowledge-that", also called propositional knowledge, can be expressed using that-clauses as in "I know that Dave is at home".
"Knowledge-how" (
know-how) expresses practical
competence
Competence may refer to:
*Competence (geology), the resistance of a rock against deformation or plastic flow.
*Competence (human resources), a standardized requirement for an individual to properly perform a specific job
*Competence (law), the me ...
, as in "she knows how to swim". Finally, "
knowledge by acquaintance
In philosophy, a distinction is often made between two different kinds of knowledge: knowledge by acquaintance and knowledge by description. Whereas knowledge by description is something like ordinary propositional knowledge (e.g. "I know that ...
" refers to a familiarity with the known object based on previous direct
experience.
Most definitions of knowledge in analytic philosophy aim to identify the
essential features of propositional knowledge. There is wide, though not universal, agreement among philosophers that knowledge involves a
cognitive
Cognition refers to "the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses". It encompasses all aspects of intellectual functions and processes such as: perception, attention, thought, ...
success or an epistemic contact with
reality, and that
propositional knowledge is a form of true belief.
Despite the agreement about the general characteristics of knowledge listed above, many deep disagreements remain regarding its exact definition. These disagreements relate to the goals and methods within epistemology and other fields, or to differences concerning the standards of knowledge that people intend to uphold. Some theorists focus on knowledge's most salient features in their attempt to give a practically useful definition. Others try to provide a theoretically precise definition by listing the conditions that are
individually necessary and jointly sufficient. The term "analysis of knowledge" (or equivalently, "conception of knowledge" or "theory of knowledge") is often used for this approach.
It can be understood in analogy to how
chemists analyze a sample by seeking a list of all the chemical elements composing it.
An example of this approach is characterizing knowledge as
justified true belief (JTB), which is seen by many philosophers as the standard definition.
Others seek a common core among diverse examples of knowledge,
such as Paul Silva's "awareness first" epistemology or Barry Allen's definition of knowledge as "superlative artifactual performance".
Methodological differences concern whether researchers base their inquiry on abstract and general intuitions or on concrete and specific cases, referred to as ''methodism'' and ''particularism'', respectively.
Another source of disagreement is the role of
ordinary language in one's inquiry: the weight given to how the term "knowledge" is used in everyday discourse.
According to
Ludwig Wittgenstein, for example, there is no clear-cut definition of knowledge since it is just a cluster of concepts related through
family resemblance. Different conceptions of the standards of knowledge are also responsible for various disagreements. Some epistemologists hold that knowledge demands very high requirements, like
infallibility, and is therefore quite rare. Others see knowledge as a rather common phenomenon, prevalent in many everyday situations, without excessively high standards.
In analytic philosophy, knowledge is usually understood as a mental state possessed by an individual person, but the term is sometimes used to refer to a characteristic of a group of people as group knowledge, social knowledge, or collective knowledge. In a slightly different sense, it can also mean knowledge stored in documents, as in "knowledge housed in the library" or the
knowledge base of an
expert system
In artificial intelligence, an expert system is a computer system emulating the decision-making ability of a human expert.
Expert systems are designed to solve complex problems by reasoning through bodies of knowledge, represented mainly as if ...
.
Justified true belief
![Justified true belief](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Justified_true_belief.png)
Many philosophers define knowledge as ''justified true belief'' (JTB). This definition characterizes knowledge through three essential features: as (1) a
belief that is (2)
true and (3)
justified.
In the dialogue ''
Theaetetus Theaetetus (Θεαίτητος) is a Greek name which could refer to:
* Theaetetus (mathematician) (c. 417 BC – 369 BC), Greek geometer
* ''Theaetetus'' (dialogue), a dialogue by Plato, named after the geometer
* Theaetetus (crater), a lunar imp ...
'' by the
ancient Greek philosopher Plato,
Socrates pondered the distinction between knowledge and true belief but rejected the JTB definition of knowledge.
The most widely accepted feature is truth: one can believe something false but one cannot know something false.
A few
ordinary language philosophers
Ordinary language philosophy (OLP) is a philosophical methodology that sees traditional philosophical problems as rooted in misunderstandings philosophers develop by stipulative definition, distorting or forgetting how words are ordinarily used ...
have raised doubts that knowledge is a form of belief based on everyday expressions like "I do not believe that; I know it".
Most theorists reject this distinction and explain such expressions through ambiguities of
natural language
In neuropsychology, linguistics, and philosophy of language, a natural language or ordinary language is any language that has evolved naturally in humans through use and repetition without conscious planning or premeditation. Natural languages ...
.
The main controversy surrounding the JTB definition concerns its third feature: justification.
This component is often included because of the impression that some true beliefs are not forms of knowledge. Specifically, this covers cases of
superstition
A superstition is any belief or practice considered by non-practitioners to be irrational or supernatural, attributed to fate or magic, perceived supernatural influence, or fear of that which is unknown. It is commonly applied to beliefs and ...
,
lucky guesses, or erroneous
reasoning
Reason is the capacity of consciously applying logic by drawing conclusions from new or existing information, with the aim of seeking the truth. It is closely associated with such characteristically human activities as philosophy, science, lang ...
. The corresponding beliefs may even be true but it seems there is more to knowledge than just being right about something.
The JTB definition solves this problem by identifying proper justification as the additional component needed, which is absent in the above-mentioned cases. Many philosophers have understood justification internalistically (''
internalism''): a belief is justified if it is supported by another
mental state of the person, such as a
perceptual experience
Experience refers to Consciousness, conscious events in general, more specifically to perceptions, or to the practical knowledge and familiarity that is produced by these conscious processes. Understood as a conscious event in the widest sense, ex ...
, a
memory, or a second belief. This mental state has to constitute a sufficiently strong
evidence
Evidence for a proposition is what supports this proposition. It is usually understood as an indication that the supported proposition is true. What role evidence plays and how it is conceived varies from field to field.
In epistemology, evidenc ...
or reason for the believed proposition. Some modern versions modify the JTB definition by using an ''externalist'' conception of justification instead. This means that justification depends not just on factors internal to the subject but also on external factors. They can include, for example, that the belief was produced by a reliable process or that the believed fact caused the belief.
Gettier problem and alternatives
![Justified_True_Belief_model_of_knowledge](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Justified_True_Belief_model_of_knowledge.svg)
The JTB definition came under severe criticism in the 20th century, when
Edmund Gettier gave a series of counterexamples.
They purport to present concrete cases of justified true beliefs that fail to constitute knowledge. The reason for their failure is usually a form of
epistemic luck
The Gettier problem, in the field of epistemology, is a landmark philosophical problem concerning the understanding of descriptive knowledge. Attributed to American philosopher Edmund Gettier, Gettier-type counterexamples (called "Gettier-cases") ...
: the justification is not relevant to the truth.
In a well-known example, there is a country road with many
barn facades and only one real barn. The person driving is not aware of this, stops by a lucky coincidence in front of the real barn, and forms the belief that he is in front of a barn. It has been argued that this justified true belief does not constitute knowledge since the person wouldn't have been able to tell the difference without the fortuitous accident.
So even though the belief is justified, it is a lucky coincidence that it is also true. The responses to these counterexamples have been diverse. According to some, they show that the JTB definition of knowledge is deeply flawed and that a radical reconceptualization of knowledge is necessary, often by denying justification a role.
This can happen, for example, by replacing justification with reliability or by understanding knowledge as the manifestation of
cognitive virtues. Other approaches include defining it in regard to the cognitive role it plays in providing reasons for doing or thinking something or seeing it as the most general factive mental state operator.
Various theorists are diametrically opposed to the radical reconceptualization and either deny that Gettier cases pose problems or they try to solve them by making smaller modifications to how justification is defined. Such approaches result in a minimal modification of the JTB definition.
Between these two extremes, some philosophers have suggested various moderate departures. They agree that the JTB definition is a step in the right direction: justified true belief is a necessary condition of knowledge. However, they disagree that it is a sufficient condition. They hold instead that an additional criterion, some feature ''X'', is necessary for knowledge. For this reason, they are often referred to as ''JTB+X'' definitions of knowledge.
A closely related approach speaks not of justification but of warrant and defines warrant as justification together with whatever else is necessary to arrive at knowledge.
Many candidates for the fourth feature have been suggested. In this regard, knowledge may be defined as justified true belief that does not depend on any false beliefs, that there are no
defeaters present, or that the person would not have the belief if it was false.
Such and similar definitions are successful at avoiding many of the original Gettier cases. However, they often fall prey to newly conceived counterexamples. To avoid all possible cases, it may be necessary to find a criterion that excludes all forms of epistemic luck. It has been argued that such a criterion would set the required standards of knowledge very high: the belief has to be infallible to succeed in all cases.
This would mean that very few of our beliefs amount to knowledge, if any.
For example,
Richard Kirkham
Richard Ladd Kirkham (born June 18, 1955) is an American philosopher. Among his published works are ''Theories of Truth'' (his most-cited work, published by MIT Press in 1992), "Does the Gettier Problem Rest on a Mistake?" ''Mind'' (1984. Vol. 93 ...
suggests that our definition of knowledge requires that the evidence for the belief necessitates its truth.
[ ] There is still very little consensus in the academic discourse as to which of the proposed modifications or reconceptualizations is correct.
Types
The English word ''knowledge'' can translate a variety of words in other languages that refer to different states.
The Latin words ''cognitio'' and ''scientia'' can both be translated as "knowledge".
Romance languages have two major verbs that would both be translated as "to know": for example, ''connaître'' and ''savoir'' in French or ''conocer'' and ''saber'' in Spanish.
In ancient Greek, there were four such important knowledge words: ''
epistēmē'' (unchanging theoretical knowledge), ''
technē
In philosophy, techne (; , ) is a term that refers to making or doing, which in turn is derived from the Proto-Indo-European root "Teks-" meaning "to weave," also "to fabricate". As an activity, ''technē'' is concrete, variable, and context-dep ...
'' (expert technical knowledge), ''
mētis'' (strategic knowledge), and ''
gnōsis'' (personal intellectual knowledge).
All these different types of knowledge can be considered forms of cognitive success.
Propositional knowledge
Propositional knowledge, also referred to as
descriptive knowledge, is the paradigmatic type of knowledge in analytic philosophy, and various classifications are used to distinguish between its different subtypes.
The distinctions between the major types are usually drawn based on the linguistic formulations used to express them.
Propositional knowledge is ''propositional'' in the sense that it involves a relation to a proposition. Since propositions are often expressed through that-clauses, it is also referred to as ''knowledge-that'', as in "Akari knows that
Canberra
Canberra ( )
is the capital city of Australia. Founded following the federation of the colonies of Australia as the seat of government for the new nation, it is Australia's largest inland city and the eighth-largest city overall. The ci ...
is the capital of
Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
".
In this case, Akari stands in the
relation
Relation or relations may refer to:
General uses
*International relations, the study of interconnection of politics, economics, and law on a global level
*Interpersonal relationship, association or acquaintance between two or more people
*Public ...
of knowing to the proposition "Canberra is the capital of Australia". Closely related types of knowledge are ''know-wh'', for example, ''knowing where'' the
Taj Mahal is or ''knowing who'' killed
J. F. Kennedy
John Fitzgerald Kennedy (May 29, 1917 – November 22, 1963), often referred to by his initials JFK and the nickname Jack, was an American politician who served as the 35th president of the United States from 1961 until his assassination i ...
.
These expressions are normally understood as types of propositional knowledge since they usually can be paraphrased using a that-clause.
Propositional knowledge is either occurrent and dispositional. This mirrors the distinction between
occurrent and dispositional beliefs: to know occurrently means to entertain the corresponding representation currently, to be aware of it. "Dispositional knowledge" refers to the mere ability to do so without its execution. In this regard, a person fully immersed in a go-kart race has dispositional but not occurrent knowledge of where their home is. The reason is that they are currently occupied with something else but could easily provide this information if they stopped and focused on it.
Non-propositional knowledge
![Bicycle_ride](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Bicycle_ride.jpg)
For non-propositional knowledge, no essential relation to a proposition is involved. The two most well-known forms are knowledge-how (know-how or
procedural knowledge
Procedural knowledge (also known as Know-how, knowing-how, and sometimes referred to as practical knowledge, imperative knowledge, or performative knowledge) is the knowledge exercised in the performance of some task. Unlike descriptive knowledge ( ...
) and knowledge by acquaintance.
The term "know-how" refers to some form of practical ability or skill. It can be defined as having the corresponding competence.
Examples include knowing how to ride a bicycle or knowing how to play the guitar. Some of the abilities responsible for know-how may also involve certain forms of knowledge-that, as in knowing how to prove a
mathematical theorem. But this is not generally the case.
It is usually argued that mainly humans and maybe other higher animals possess propositional knowledge since it requires an advanced form of mind. Practical knowledge, on the other hand, is more common in the animal kingdom. In this regard, an
ant knows how to walk even though it presumably lacks a mind sufficiently developed enough to stand in a relation to the corresponding proposition by representing it.
Knowledge by acquaintance refers to familiarity with an individual that results from direct experiential contact with this individual.
It often, but not exclusively, concerns a relation to a person. On the linguistic level, it does not require a that-clause and can be expressed using a
direct object. So when someone claims that they know Wladimir Klitschko personally, they are expressing that they had a certain kind of contact with him and not that they know a certain fact about him. This is usually understood to mean that it constitutes a relation to a concrete individual and not to a proposition. Knowledge by acquaintance plays a central role in
Bertrand Russell's epistemology. He contrasts it with knowledge by description, which is a form of propositional knowledge not based on direct perceptual experience. So by watching a documentary about
Wladimir Klitschko, the viewer may acquire various forms of knowledge by description about him, for example, about his nationality or his career in boxing, without acquiring knowledge by acquaintance of him. However, there is some controversy about whether it is possible to acquire knowledge by acquaintance in its pure non-propositional form. In this regard, some theorists have suggested that it might be better to understand it as one type of propositional knowledge that is only expressed in a grammatically different way.
Other distinctions
A priori and a posteriori
The distinction between a priori and a posteriori knowledge came to prominence in
Immanuel Kant's philosophy and is often discussed in the academic literature. To which category a knowledge attitude belongs depends on the role of experience in its formation and justification.
To know something a posteriori means to know it on the basis of experience.
For example, to know that it is currently raining or that the baby is crying belongs to a posteriori knowledge since it is based on some form of experience, like visual or auditory experience.
A priori knowledge, on the other hand, is possible without any experience to justify or support the known proposition.
Mathematical knowledge, for example, that 2 + 2 = 4, is a paradigmatic case of a priori knowledge since no empirical investigation is necessary to confirm this fact.
The distinction between a posteriori and a priori knowledge is usually equated with the distinction between empirical and non-empirical knowledge.
This distinction pertains primarily to knowledge but it can also be applied to propositions or arguments. For example, an a priori proposition is a proposition that can be known independently of experience.
The prime example of the relevant experience in question is
sensory experience
The theory of sense data is a view in the philosophy of perception, popularly held in the early 20th century by philosophers such as Bertrand Russell, C. D. Broad, H. H. Price, A. J. Ayer, and G. E. Moore. Sense data are taken to be mind-depende ...
. However, some non-sensory experiences, like memory and introspection, are often included as well. But certain conscious phenomena are excluded in this context. For example, the conscious phenomenon of a rational insight into the solution of a mathematical problem does not make the resulting knowledge a posteriori.
It is sometimes pointed out that, in a trivial sense, some form of experience is required even for a priori knowledge: the experience needed to learn the language in which the claim is expressed. For a priori knowledge, this is the only form of experience required. For this reason, knowing that "all bachelors are unmarried" is considered a form of a priori knowledge since, given an understanding of the terms "bachelor" and "unmarried", no further experience is necessary to know that it is true.
One difficulty for a priori knowledge is to explain how it is possible. It is usually seen as unproblematic that one can come to know things through experience but it is not clear how knowledge is possible without experience. One of the earliest solutions to this problem is due to Plato, who argues that, in the context of
geometry, the soul already possesses the knowledge and just needs to recollect or remember it to access it again.
A similar explanation is given by
René Descartes, who holds that a priori knowledge exists as
innate knowledge present in the
mind
The mind is the set of faculties responsible for all mental phenomena. Often the term is also identified with the phenomena themselves. These faculties include thought, imagination, memory, will, and sensation. They are responsible for various m ...
of each human.
A different approach is to posit a special mental faculty responsible for this type of knowledge, often referred to as ''rational insight'' or ''rational intuition''.
The distinction between a priori and a posteriori knowledge is closely related to two other distinctions: the distinction between
analytic and synthetic propositions and the distinction between necessary and
contingent
Contingency or Contingent may refer to:
* Contingency (philosophy), in philosophy and logic
* Contingency plan, in planning
* Contingency table, in statistics
* Contingency theory, in organizational theory
* Contingency theory (biology) in evoluti ...
propositions.
Traditionally, it was often assumed that these distinctions coincide. On this view, a priori knowledge concerns propositions that are analytic and necessary while a posteriori knowledge is about propositions that are synthetic and contingent. However, this position is rejected by many contemporary philosophers. One reason is that these distinctions belong to different fields. The a priori–a posteriori distinction belongs to
epistemology and is about how one knows things. The analytic–synthetic distinction pertains to
semantics and concerns how the meanings of terms make a proposition true. The necessary–contingent distinction is
metaphysical and asks, for example, whether a proposition is true in all
possible worlds or just in some of them.
Various discussions in the academic literature concern the question of how these distinctions overlap or fail to overlap, for example, on cases of synthetic a priori truths or of contingent a priori truths.
Self-knowledge
In philosophy, "self-knowledge" usually refers to a person's knowledge of their own
sensations,
thought
In their most common sense, the terms thought and thinking refer to conscious cognitive processes that can happen independently of sensory stimulation. Their most paradigmatic forms are judging, reasoning, concept formation, problem solving, a ...
s, beliefs, and other mental states. Many philosophers hold that it is a special type of knowledge since it is more direct than knowledge of the external world, which is mediated through the senses. Traditionally, it was often claimed that self-knowledge is indubitable, for example, that when someone is in pain, they cannot be wrong about this fact. However, various contemporary theorists reject this position. A closely related issue is to explain how self-knowledge works. Some understand it as a form of knowledge by acquaintance while others claim that there is an inner sense that works in analogy to how the external
five senses
A sense is a biological system used by an organism for sensation, the process of gathering information about the world through the detection of stimuli. (For example, in the human body, the brain which is part of the central nervous system rec ...
work. According to a different perspective, self-knowledge is indirect in the sense that a person has to interpret their internal and external behavior in order to learn about their mental states, similar to how one can learn about the
mental states of other people by interpreting their external behavior.
In a slightly different sense, the term ''self-knowledge'' can also refer to the knowledge of the
self as a persisting entity that has certain
personality traits,
preference
In psychology, economics and philosophy, preference is a technical term usually used in relation to choosing between alternatives. For example, someone prefers A over B if they would rather choose A than B. Preferences are central to decision theo ...
s, physical attributes, relationships, goals, and
social identities
Social organisms, including human(s), live collectively in interacting populations. This interaction is considered social whether they are aware of it or not, and whether the exchange is voluntary or not.
Etymology
The word "social" derives from ...
. This meaning is of particular interest to
psychology and refers to a person's awareness of their own characteristics.
Self-knowledge is closely related to
self-concept
In the psychology of self, one's self-concept (also called self-construction, self-identity, self-perspective or self-structure) is a collection of beliefs about oneself. Generally, self-concept embodies the answer to the question ''"Who am I? ...
, the difference being that the self-concept also includes unrealistic aspects of how a person sees themselves. In this regard, self-knowledge is often measured by comparing a person's self-assessment of their character traits with how other people assess this person's traits.
Situated knowledge
Situated knowledge is knowledge specific to a particular situation.
It is closely related to practical or tacit knowledge, which is learned and applied in specific circumstances. This especially concerns certain forms of acquiring knowledge, such as
trial and error or learning from experience.
In this regard, situated knowledge usually lacks a more explicit structure and is not articulated in terms of universal ideas.
The term is often used in
feminism and
postmodernism
Postmodernism is an intellectual stance or Rhetorical modes, mode of discourseNuyen, A.T., 1992. The Role of Rhetorical Devices in Postmodernist Discourse. Philosophy & Rhetoric, pp.183–194. characterized by philosophical skepticism, skepticis ...
to point out that many forms of knowledge are not absolute but depend on the concrete historical, cultural, and linguistic context.
Understood in this way, it is frequently used to argue against absolute or universal knowledge claims stated in the scientific discourse.
Donna Haraway is a prominent defender of this position.
One of her arguments is based on the idea that perception is embodied and is not a universal "gaze from nowhere".
The
American Psychological Association notes that some interpreters associate with this position a form of
epistemological relativism
Factual relativism (also called epistemic relativism, epistemological relativism, alethic relativism or cognitive relativism) argues that truth itself is relative. This form of relativism has its own particular problem, regardless of whether one i ...
because of how knowledge depends on the local conditions of the culture in which it arises.
Haraway herself criticised relativism:
Higher and lower knowledge
Many forms of eastern spirituality and religion distinguish between ''higher'' and ''lower knowledge''. They are also referred to as
para vidya
Parā Vidyā (Sanskrit: परा विद्या) is a combination of two words – ''parā'', in Hindu philosophy, means - existence, paramount object, the highest point or degree, final beatitude; and ''vidyā'' means - knowledge, phil ...
and
apara vidya in
Hinduism or the
two truths doctrine in
Buddhism. Lower knowledge is based on the senses and the intellect.
In this regard, all forms of empirical and objective knowledge belong to this category.
Most of the knowledge needed in one's everyday functioning is lower knowledge. It is about mundane or conventional things that are in tune with common sense, like that mice are smaller than elephants. It is relevant to many practical issues, like how to repair a car or how to persuade a customer.
Scientific knowledge, for example, that the chemical composition of water is H
2O, is often seen as one of the most advanced forms of lower knowledge.
Higher knowledge, on the other hand, is understood as knowledge of
God,
the absolute
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (; ; 27 August 1770 – 14 November 1831) was a German philosopher. He is one of the most important figures in German idealism and one of the founding figures of modern Western philosophy. His influence extends a ...
, the
true self
The true self (also known as real self, authentic self, original self and vulnerable self) and the false self (also known as fake self, idealized self, superficial self and pseudo self) are a psychological dualism conceptualized by English psychoa ...
, or the
ultimate reality. It belongs neither to the external world of physical objects nor to the internal world of the experience of emotions and concepts. Many spiritual teachings emphasize the increased importance, or sometimes even exclusive importance, of higher knowledge in comparison to lower knowledge. This is usually based on the idea that achieving higher knowledge is one of the central steps on the spiritual path. In this regard, higher knowledge is seen as what frees the individual from ignorance, helps them realize God, or liberates them from the cycle of rebirth.
This is often combined with the view that lower knowledge is in some way based on a delusion: it belongs to the realm of mere appearances or
Maya, while higher knowledge manages to view the reality underlying these appearances.
In the Buddhist tradition, the attainment of higher knowledge or ultimate truth is often associated with seeing the world from the perspective of
sunyata, i.e. as a form of
emptiness lacking inherent existence or intrinsic nature.
Sources of knowledge
![Five_Senses](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Five_Senses.jpg)
Sources of knowledge are "rational capacities for knowledge" or ways how people come to know things. Various sources of knowledge are discussed in the academic literature, often in terms of the mental faculties responsible. They include perception, introspection, memory, inference, and testimony. However, not everyone agrees that all of them actually lead to knowledge. Usually,
perception or observation, i.e. using one of the
senses
A sense is a biological system used by an organism for sensation, the process of gathering information about the world through the detection of stimuli. (For example, in the human body, the brain which is part of the central nervous system rec ...
, is identified as the most important source of empirical knowledge.
So knowing that the baby is sleeping constitutes observational knowledge if it was caused by a perception of the snoring baby. But this would not be the case if one learned about this fact through a telephone conversation with one's spouse.
Direct realists explain observational knowledge by holding that perception constitutes a direct contact with the perceived object.
Indirect realists, on the other hand, contend that this contact happens indirectly: we can only directly perceive
sense data, which are then interpreted as representing external objects. This distinction is important since it affects whether the knowledge of external objects is direct or indirect and may thus have an impact on how certain the knowledge is.
Introspection is often seen in analogy to perception as a source of knowledge, not of external physical objects, but of internal
mental states
A mental state, or a mental property, is a state of mind of a person. Mental states comprise a diverse class, including perception, pain experience, belief, desire, intention, emotion, and memory. There is controversy concerning the exact definiti ...
. Traditionally, various theorists have ascribed a special epistemic status to introspection by claiming that it is infallible or that there is no introspective difference between appearance and reality. However, this claim has been contested in the contemporary discourse. Critics argue that it may be possible, for example, to mistake an unpleasant itch for a pain or to confuse the experience of a slight ellipse for the experience of a circle.
Perceptual and introspective knowledge often act as a form of fundamental or basic knowledge. According to some
empiricists, perceptual knowledge is the only source of basic knowledge and provides the foundation for all other knowledge.
Memory is usually identified as another source of knowledge. It differs from perception and introspection in that it is not as independent or fundamental as they are since it depends on other previous experiences.
The faculty of memory retains knowledge acquired in the past and makes it accessible in the present, as when remembering a past event or a friend's phone number. It is generally considered a reliable source of knowledge, but it may deceive us at times nonetheless, either because the original experience was unreliable or because the memory degraded and does not accurately represent the original experience anymore.
Knowledge based on perception, introspection, or memory may also give rise to ''inferential knowledge'', which comes about when reasoning is applied to draw inferences from another known fact.
In this regard, the perceptual knowledge of a Czech stamp on a postcard may give rise to the inferential knowledge that one's friend is visiting the Czech Republic. According to
rationalists, some forms of knowledge are completely independent of observation and introspection. They are needed to explain how certain a priori beliefs, like the mathematical belief that 2 + 2 = 4, constitute knowledge. Some theorists hold that the faculty of ''pure reason'' or ''rational intuition'' is responsible in these cases since there seem to be no sensory perceptions that could justify such general and abstract knowledge.
However, difficulties in providing a clear account of pure reason or rational intuition have led various empirically minded epistemologists to doubt that they constitute independent sources of knowledge.
A closely related approach is to hold that this type of knowledge is ''innate''. According to Plato's theory of recollection, for example, it is accessed through a
special form of remembering.
Testimony is often included as an additional source of knowledge. Unlike the other sources, it is not tied to one specific cognitive faculty. Instead, it is based on the idea that one person can come to know a fact because another person talks about this fact. Testimony can happen in numerous ways, like regular speech, a letter, the newspaper, or an online blog. The problem of testimony consists in clarifying under what circumstances and why it constitutes a source of knowledge. A popular response is that it depends on the reliability of the person pronouncing the testimony: only testimony from reliable sources can lead to knowledge.
Structure of knowledge
The expression "structure of knowledge" refers to the way in which the mental states of a person need to be related to each other for knowledge to arise. Most theorists hold that, among other things, an agent has to have good reasons for holding a belief if this belief is to amount to knowledge. So when challenged, the agent may justify their belief by referring to their reason for holding it. In many cases, this reason is itself a belief that may as well be challenged. So when the agent believes that Ford cars are cheaper than BMWs because they believe to have heard this from a reliable source, they may be challenged to justify why they believe that their source is reliable. If it turns out that their reasons are not well supported, this also affects the epistemic status of the original belief. However, whatever support they present may also be challenged.
This threatens to lead to an
infinite regress since the epistemic status at each step depends on the epistemic status of the previous step. Theories of the structure of knowledge offer responses for how to solve this problem.
![Foundationalism, coherentism, infinitism](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Foundationalism%2C_coherentism%2C_infinitism.svg)
The three most common theories are
foundationalism
Foundationalism concerns philosophical theories of knowledge resting upon non-inferential justified belief, or some secure foundation of certainty such as a conclusion inferred from a basis of sound premises.Simon Blackburn, ''The Oxford Dictio ...
,
coherentism, and
infinitism. Foundationalists and coherentists deny the existence of this infinite regress, in contrast to infinitists.
According to foundationalists, some ''basic reasons'' have their epistemic status independent of other reasons and thereby constitute the endpoint of the regress. Against this view, it has been argued that the concept of "basic reason" is contradictory: there should be a reason for why some reasons are basic and others are non-basic, in which case the basic reasons would depend on another reason after all and would therefore not be basic. An additional problem consists in finding plausible candidates for basic reasons.
Coherentists and infinitists avoid these problems by denying the distinction between basic and non-basic reasons. Coherentists argue that there is only a finite number of reasons, which mutually support each other and thereby ensure each other's epistemic status.
Their critics contend that this constitutes the fallacy of
circular reasoning
Circular may refer to:
* The shape of a circle
* ''Circular'' (album), a 2006 album by Spanish singer Vega
* Circular letter (disambiguation)
** Flyer (pamphlet), a form of advertisement
* Circular reasoning, a type of logical fallacy
* Circular ...
. For example, if belief ''b1'' supports belief ''b2'' and belief ''b2'' supports belief ''b1'', the agent has a reason for accepting one belief if they already have the other. However, their mutual support alone is not a good reason for newly accepting both beliefs at once. A closely related issue is that there can be various distinct sets of coherent beliefs and coherentists face the problem of explaining why we should accept one coherent set rather than another.
For infinitists, in contrast to foundationalists and coherentists, there is an infinite number of reasons. This position faces the problem of explaining how human knowledge is possible at all since it seems that the human mind is limited and cannot possess an infinite number of reasons.
In their traditional forms, foundationalists, coherentists and infinitists all face the
Gettier problem, i.e. that having a reason or justification for a true belief is not sufficient for knowledge in cases where cognitive luck is responsible for the success.
Value of knowledge
![File-Los portadores de la antorcha](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Los_portadores_de_la_antorcha.jpg)
The value of knowledge is an important topic in epistemology. Its main question is whether or why knowledge is more valuable than mere true belief.
There is wide agreement that knowledge is good in some sense. For example, knowledge can help a student pass the exam or ensure that a doctor prescribes the right medicine.
However, the thesis that knowledge is better than true belief is more controversial. An early discussion of this problem is found in Plato's
Meno in relation to the claim that both knowledge and true belief can successfully guide
action and, therefore, have apparently the same value. For example, it seems that mere true belief is as effective as knowledge when trying to find the way to
Larissa
Larissa (; el, Λάρισα, , ) is the capital and largest city of the Thessaly region in Greece. It is the fifth-most populous city in Greece with a population of 144,651 according to the 2011 census. It is also capital of the Larissa regiona ...
.
According to Plato, knowledge is better because it is more stable.
A different approach is to hold that knowledge gets its additional value from justification. However, if the value in question is understood primarily as an
instrumental value
In moral philosophy, instrumental and intrinsic value are the distinction between what is a ''means to an end'' and what is as an ''end in itself''. Things are deemed to have instrumental value if they help one achieve a particular end; intrinsic ...
, it is not clear in what sense knowledge is better than mere true belief since they are usually equally useful.
The problem of the value of knowledge is often discussed in relation to
reliabilism and
virtue epistemology.
Reliabilism can be defined as the thesis that knowledge is reliably-formed true belief. On this view, it seems difficult to explain how a reliable belief-forming process adds additional value.
According to an analogy by
Linda Zagzebski
Linda Trinkaus Zagzebski (born 1946) is an American philosopher. She is the Emerita George Lynn Cross Research Professor, as well as Emerita Kingfisher College Chair of the Philosophy of Religion and Ethics, at the University of Oklahoma. She wr ...
, a cup of coffee made by a reliable coffee machine has the same value as an equally good cup of coffee made by an unreliable coffee machine.
This difficulty in solving the value problem is sometimes used as an argument against reliabilism. Virtue epistemologists have a different approach to the value problem. They see knowledge as the manifestation of cognitive virtues and can thus argue that knowledge has additional value due to its association with virtue. However, not everyone agrees that knowledge actually has additional value over true belief. A similar view is defended by
Jonathan Kvanvig
Jonathan Lee Kvanvig (born December 7, 1954) is Professor of Philosophy at Washington University in St. Louis.
Kvanvig has published extensively in areas such as epistemology, philosophy of religion, logic, and philosophy of language. Some of his ...
, who argues that the main epistemic value resides not in knowledge but in
understanding, which implies grasping how one's beliefs cohere with each other.
Philosophical skepticism
Philosophical skepticism in its strongest form, also referred to as ''global skepticism'', is the thesis that we lack any form of knowledge or that knowledge is impossible. This position is quite radical and very few philosophers have explicitly defended it. However, it has been influential nonetheless, usually in a negative sense: many researchers see it as a serious challenge to any epistemological theory and often try to show how their preferred theory overcomes it.
For example, it is commonly accepted that
perceptual experience
Experience refers to Consciousness, conscious events in general, more specifically to perceptions, or to the practical knowledge and familiarity that is produced by these conscious processes. Understood as a conscious event in the widest sense, ex ...
constitutes a source of knowledge. However, according to the
dream argument, this is not the case since dreaming provides unreliable information and since the agent could be dreaming in that moment. In this case, they would be unable to distinguish actual perceptual experience from the dreaming experience. Since they may be dreaming at any time without being aware of this, it is then argued that there is no perceptual knowledge.
A similar often cited
thought experiment assumes that the agent is actually a
brain in a vat
In philosophy, the brain in a vat (BIV) is a scenario used in a variety of thought experiments intended to draw out certain features of human conceptions of knowledge, reality, truth, mind, consciousness, and meaning. It is a modern incarnatio ...
that is just fed electrical stimuli. Such a brain would have the false impression of having a body and interacting with the external world. The basic thrust of the argument is the same: since the agent is unable to tell the difference, they do not know that they have a body responsible for reliable perceptions.
One issue revealed through these thought experiments is the problem of
underdetermination: that the evidence available is not sufficient to make a rational decision between competing theories. And if two contrary hypotheses explain the appearances equally well then the agent is not justified in believing one of those hypotheses rather than the other. Based on this premise, the general skeptic just has to argue that this is true for all our knowledge, that there is always an alternative and very different explanation.
Another skeptic argument is based on the idea that human cognition is fallible and therefore lacks absolute certainty. More specific arguments target particular theories of knowledge, such as foundationalism or coherentism, and try to show that their concept of knowledge is deeply flawed.
An important argument against global skepticism is that it seems to contradict itself: the claim that there is no knowledge appears to constitute a knowledge-claim itself.
Other responses come from common sense philosophy and reject global skepticism based on the fact that it contradicts common sense. It is then argued against skepticism by seeing common sense as more reliable than the abstract reasoning cited in favor of skepticism.
Certain less radical forms of skepticism deny that knowledge exists within a specific area or discipline, sometimes referred to as ''local'' or ''selective skepticism''.
It is often motivated by the idea that certain phenomena do not accurately represent their subject matter. They may thus lead to false impressions concerning its nature. External world skeptics hold that we can only know about our own sensory impressions and experiences but not about the external world. This is based on the idea that beliefs about the external world are mediated through
the senses
A sense is a biological system used by an organism for sensation, the process of gathering information about the world through the detection of Stimulus (physiology), stimuli. (For example, in the human body, the brain which is part of the cen ...
. The senses are faulty at times and may thus show things that are not really there. This problem is avoided on the level of sensory impressions, which are given to the experiencer directly without an intermediary. In this sense, the person may be wrong about seeing a red Ferrari in the street (it might have been a Maserati or a mere light reflection) but they cannot be wrong about having a sensory impression of seeing a patch of red color.
The inverse path is taken by some materialists, who accept the existence of the external physical world but deny the existence of the internal realm of mind and consciousness based on the difficulty of explaining how the two realms can exist together.
Other forms of local skepticism accept scientific knowledge but deny the possibility of moral knowledge, for example, because there is no reliable way to empirically measure whether a moral claim is true or false.
The issue of the definition and standards of knowledge is central to the question of whether skepticism in its different forms is true. If very high standards are used, for example, that knowledge implies infallibility, then skepticism becomes more plausible. In this case, the skeptic only has to show that no belief is absolutely certain; that while the actual belief is true, it could have been false. However, the more these standards are weakened to how the term is used in everyday language, the less plausible skepticism becomes.
In various disciplines
Formal epistemology
Formal epistemology studies knowledge using formal tools, such as mathematics and logic. An important issue in this field concerns the epistemic principles of knowledge. They are rules governing how knowledge and related states behave and in what relations they stand to each other. The transparency principle, also referred to as the ''luminosity of knowledge'', is an often discussed principle. It states that knowing something implies the second-order knowledge that one knows it. So if Heike knows that today is Monday, then she also knows that she knows that today is Monday.
According to the ''conjunction principle'', having two justified beliefs in two separate propositions implies that the agent is also justified in believing in the conjunction of these two propositions. The ''closure principle'' states that if the agent has a justified belief in one proposition and this proposition entails another proposition, then the agent is also justified in believing this other proposition. The ''evidence transfer principle'' applies this idea to evidence: if, in the case above, a certain piece of evidence justifies the first belief then it also justifies the second belief.
Science
The development of the
scientific method has made a significant contribution to how knowledge of the physical world and its phenomena is acquired. To be termed scientific, a method of
inquiry
An inquiry (also spelled as enquiry in British English) is any process that has the aim of augmenting knowledge, resolving doubt, or solving a problem. A theory of inquiry is an account of the various types of inquiry and a treatment of the ...
must be based on gathering
observable and
measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning and experimentation. The scientific method consists of the collection of
data through
observation
Observation is the active acquisition of information from a primary source. In living beings, observation employs the senses. In science, observation can also involve the perception and recording of data via the use of scientific instruments. The ...
and
experimentation, and the formulation and testing of
hypotheses
A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. For a hypothesis to be a scientific hypothesis, the scientific method requires that one can test it. Scientists generally base scientific hypotheses on previous obser ...
. Science and the nature of scientific knowledge have also become the subject of
philosophy
Philosophy (from , ) is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. Some ...
. As science itself has developed, scientific knowledge now includes a broader usage in the
soft sciences
Hard science and soft science are colloquial terms used to compare scientific fields on the basis of perceived methodological rigor, exactitude, and objectivity. Roughly speaking, the formal sciences & natural sciences are considered "hard", whe ...
such as the
social sciences.
Sir Francis Bacon was critical of the historical development of the scientific method; his works established and popularized an inductive methodology for scientific inquiry. His aphorism, "
knowledge is power", is found in the Meditations Sacrae (1597).
Religion
Knowledge plays a central role in many
religions. Knowledge claims about the
existence of God or
religious doctrine
Doctrine (from la, doctrina, meaning "teaching, instruction") is a codification of beliefs or a body of teachings or instructions, taught principles or positions, as the essence of teachings in a given branch of knowledge or in a belief system ...
s about how each one should live their lives are found in almost every culture.
However, such knowledge claims are often controversial and are commonly rejected by
religious skeptics
Religion is usually defined as a social system, social-cultural system of designated religious behaviour, behaviors and practices, morality, morals, beliefs, worldviews, religious text, texts, sacred site, sanctified places, prophecy, prophecie ...
and
atheists.
The
epistemology of religion is the field of inquiry that investigates whether
belief in God and in other religious doctrines is
rational and amounts to knowledge.
It is different from other forms of epistemology because of its unique subject matter.
One important view in this field is
evidentialism. It states that belief in religious doctrines is justified if it is supported by sufficient evidence. Suggested examples of evidence for religious doctrines include
religious experiences such as direct contact with the divine or inner testimony as when hearing God's voice.
However, evidentialists often reject that belief in religious doctrines amount to knowledge based on the claim that we lack sufficient evidence.
A famous saying in this regard is due to Bertrand Russell. When asked how he would justify his lack of belief in God when facing His judgment after death, he replied "Not enough evidence, God! Not enough evidence."
However, religious teachings about the existence and nature of God are not always understood as knowledge claims by their defenders and some explicitly state that the proper attitude towards such doctrines is not knowledge but
faith. This is often combined with the assumption that these doctrines are true but cannot be fully understood by reason or verified through rational inquiry. For this reason, it is claimed that one should accept them even though they do not amount to knowledge.
Such a view is reflected in a famous saying by Immanuel Kant where he claims that he "had to deny knowledge in order to make room for faith."
Distinct religions often differ from each other concerning the doctrines they proclaim as well as their understanding of the role of knowledge in religious practice.
Knowledge plays a central role in
Abrahamic religions. In
Jewish tradition, knowledge (
Hebrew: דעת ''da'ath'') is considered one of the most valuable traits a person can acquire. Observant Jews recite three times a day in the
Amidah
The ''Amidah Amuhduh'' ( he, תפילת העמידה, ''Tefilat HaAmidah'', 'The Standing Prayer'), also called the ''Shemoneh Esreh'' ( 'eighteen'), is the central prayer of the Jewish liturgy. Observant Jews recite the ''Amidah'' at each o ...
"You favor people with knowledge and teach mortals understanding. Favor us with your knowledge, understanding, and wisdom. Blessed are you, Adonai, who favors people with knowledge."
The
Tanakh states, "A wise man is strong; yes, a man of knowledge grows in strength." The
Old Testament
The Old Testament (often abbreviated OT) is the first division of the Christian biblical canon, which is based primarily upon the 24 books of the Hebrew Bible or Tanakh, a collection of ancient religious Hebrew writings by the Israelites. The ...
's
tree of the knowledge of good and evil contained the knowledge that separated Man from God: "And the LORD God said, Behold, the man is become as one of us, to know good and evil..." ()
In many expressions of
Christianity, such as
Catholicism and
Anglicanism
Anglicanism is a Western Christian tradition that has developed from the practices, liturgy, and identity of the Church of England following the English Reformation, in the context of the Protestant Reformation in Europe. It is one of the ...
, knowledge is one of the
seven gifts of the Holy Spirit. As
Pope Francis points out, "the knowledge that comes from the Holy Spirit, however, is not limited to human knowledge; it is a special gift, which leads us to grasp, through creation, the greatness and love of God and his profound relationship with every creature."
In
Islam
Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism#Islam, monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God in Islam, God (or ...
, knowledge (Arabic: علم, ''ʿilm'') is given great significance. "The Knowing" (''al-ʿAlīm'') is one of the
99 names reflecting distinct attributes of
God. The
Qur'an asserts that knowledge comes from God () and various ''
hadith'' encourage the acquisition of knowledge.
Muhammad is reported to have said "Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave" and "Verily the men of knowledge are the inheritors of the prophets". Islamic scholars, theologians and jurists are often given the title ''
alim
Alim (''ʿAlīm'' , also anglicized as ''Aleem'') is one of the Names of God in Islam, meaning "''All-knowing one''". It is also used as a personal name, as a short form of Abdul Alim, "''Servant of the All-Knowing''":
Given name
* Alim ad-Din A ...
'', meaning "knowledgeble".
In
Gnostic beliefs, everyone is said to possess a piece of the highest good or
Ultimate God deep within themselves that had fallen from the spiritual world into the bodies of humans, sometimes called a
divine spark. It is trapped in their material bodies created by the inferior God or
Demiurge unless secret knowledge from the outside universe called
gnosis is achieved. The one who brings such knowledge is considered the savior or redeemer.
Hindu
Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism.Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...
Scriptures present two kinds of knowledge, ''Paroksh Gyan'' and ''Prataksh Gyan''. ''Paroksh Gyan'' (also spelled ''
Paroksha
In Indian philosophy, Paroksha refers to mediate knowledge or indirect cognition, mediated by sensory-intellectual apparatus, in which thought systems psychological insights that have evolved in the context of two levels of realities, empirical and ...
-Jnana'') is secondhand knowledge: knowledge obtained from books, hearsay, etc. ''Pratyaksh Gyan'' (also spelled ''Pratyaksha-Jnana'') is the knowledge borne of direct experience, i.e., knowledge that one discovers for oneself. Knowledge is of special importance in the classical path of Hinduism known as ''
jnana yoga
Jnana yoga (), also known as the jnana ''marga'' (), is one of the three classical paths ('' margas'') for moksha (liberation) in Hinduism, which emphasizes the "path of knowledge", also known as the "path of self-realization". The other two ...
'' or ''path of knowledge''. Its aim is to achieve oneness with the divine by fostering an understanding of the
self and its relation to
Brahman or ultimate reality.
According to the
Jain texts like
Tattvārthsūtra
''Tattvārthasūtra'', meaning "On the Nature '' ''artha">nowiki/>''artha''.html" ;"title="artha.html" ;"title="nowiki/>''artha">nowiki/>''artha''">artha.html" ;"title="nowiki/>''artha">nowiki/>''artha''of Reality 'tattva'' (also known as ...
and
Sarvārthasiddhi, there are five kinds of knowledge: sensory knowledge, scriptural knowledge, clairvoyance, telepathy, and omniscience (Mati Jñāna, Śruta Jñāna, Avadhi Jñāna, Manah prayāya, and
Kevala Jnana). The first two kinds are regarded as indirect knowledge since the soul depends on the sense and the mind to acquire them. This is not the case for the remaining three kinds, which constitute direct knowledge.
Anthropology
The ''anthropology of knowledge'' is a multi-disciplinary field of inquiry.
It studies how knowledge is acquired, stored, retrieved, and communicated.
Special interest is given to how knowledge is reproduced and undergoes changes in relation to social and cultural circumstances.
In this context, the term ''knowledge'' is used in a very broad sense, roughly equivalent to terms like ''understanding'' and ''
culture''.
This means that the forms and reproduction of understanding are studied irrespective of their
truth value. In epistemology, on the other hand, knowledge is usually restricted to forms of true belief. The main focus in
anthropology is on
empirical observations of how people ascribe truth values to meaning contents, like when affirming an assertion, even if these contents are false.
But it also includes practical components: knowledge is what is employed when interpreting and acting on the world and involves diverse phenomena, such as feelings, embodied skills, information, and concepts. It is used to understand and anticipate events in order to prepare and react accordingly.
The reproduction of knowledge and its changes often happen through some form of
communication.
This includes face-to-face discussions and online communications as well as seminars and rituals. An important role in this context falls to
institution
Institutions are humanly devised structures of rules and norms that shape and constrain individual behavior. All definitions of institutions generally entail that there is a level of persistence and continuity. Laws, rules, social conventions a ...
s, like university departments or scientific journals in the academic context.
A ''
tradition'' may be defined as knowledge that has been reproduced within a
society or geographic region over several generations. However, societies also respond to various external influences, such as other societies, whose understanding is often interpreted and incorporated in a modified form.
An important finding is that individuals belonging to the same social group usually understand things and organize knowledge in similar ways to one another. In this regard, social identities play a significant role: individuals who associate themselves with similar identities, like age-influenced, professional, religious, and ethnic identities, tend to embody similar forms of knowledge.
See also
*
Outline of knowledge
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to knowledge:
Knowledge – familiarity with someone or something, which can include facts, information, descriptions, and/or skills acquired through experience or educ ...
guide to the subject of knowledge presented as a
tree structured list of its subtopics
*
Outline of human intelligence
*
Decolonization of knowledge
*
Desacralization of knowledge
In traditionalist philosophy, desacralization of knowledge or secularization of knowledge is the process of separation of knowledge from its divine source—God or the Ultimate Reality. The process reflects a paradigm shift in modern conception ...
*
Epistemic modal logic Epistemic modal logic is a subfield of modal logic that is concerned with reasoning about knowledge. While epistemology has a long philosophical tradition dating back to Ancient Greece, epistemic logic is a much more recent development with applic ...
*
Inductive inference
*
Inductive probability
Inductive probability attempts to give the probability of future events based on past events. It is the basis for inductive reasoning, and gives the mathematical basis for learning and the perception of patterns. It is a source of knowledge about t ...
*
Intelligence
*
Knowledge transfer
Knowledge transfer is the sharing or disseminating of knowledge and the providing of inputs to problem solving. In organizational theory, knowledge transfer is the practical problem of transferring knowledge from one part of the organization t ...
*
Metaknowledge
Meta-knowledge or metaknowledge is knowledge about knowledge.
Some authors divide meta-knowledge into orders:
* ''zero order meta-knowledge'' is knowledge whose domain is not knowledge (and hence zero order meta-knowledge is not meta-knowledge ''p ...
*
Omniscience
Omniscience () is the capacity to know everything. In Hinduism, Sikhism and the Abrahamic religions, this is an God#General conceptions, attribute of God. In Jainism, omniscience is an attribute that any individual can eventually attain. In B ...
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
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External links
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Knowledge
Concepts in epistemology
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Mental content
Virtue
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