Sir Jean de Carrouges IV (c. 1330s – 25 September 1396) was a French

knight A knight is a person granted an honorary title of knighthood by a head of state (including the Pope) or representative for service to the monarch, the Christian denomination, church or the country, especially in a military capacity. Knighthood ...

who governed estates in

Normandy Normandy (; french: link=no, Normandie ; nrf, Normaundie, Nouormandie ; from Old French , plural of ''Normant'', originally from the word for "northman" in several Scandinavian languages) is a geographical and cultural region in Northwestern ...

as a vassal of Count Pierre d'Alençon and who served under Admiral

Jean de Vienne Jean de Vienne (1341 – 25 September 1396) was a French knight, general and Admiral of France during the Hundred Years' War. Early life Jean de Vienne was born at Dole, in what is now Franche-Comté. As a nobleman, he started his military car ...

in several campaigns against the

Kingdom of England The Kingdom of England (, ) was a sovereign state on the island of Great Britain from 12 July 927, when it emerged from various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, until 1 May 1707, when it united with Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain. On ...

. He became famous in medieval France for fighting in one of the last

judicial duels Trial by combat (also wager of battle, trial by battle or judicial duel) was a method of Germanic law to settle accusations in the absence of witnesses or a confession in which two parties in dispute fought in single combat; the winner of the ...

permitted by the French king and the Parliament of Paris (the actual last duel occurred in 1547 opposing Guy Chabot de Jarnac against François de Vivonne). The combat was decreed in 1386 to contest charges of rape Carrouges had brought against his neighbour and erstwhile friend Jacques Le Gris on behalf of his wife Marguerite. It was attended by much of the highest French nobility of the time led by King Charles VI and his family, including a number of royal dukes. It was also attended by thousands of ordinary Parisians and in the ensuing decades was chronicled by such notable medieval historians as

Jean Froissart Jean Froissart (Old and Middle French: ''Jehan'', – ) (also John Froissart) was a French-speaking medieval author and court historian from the Low Countries who wrote several works, including ''Chronicles'' and ''Meliador'', a long Arthurian ...

Jean Juvénal des Ursins Jean (II) Juvénal des Ursins (1388–1473), the son of the royal jurist and provost of the merchants of Paris Jean Juvénal, was a French cleric and historian. He is the author of several legal treatises and clerical publications and the ''Histoi ...

, and

Jean de Waurin Jean de Waurin or Wavrin (c. 1400c. 1474) was a medieval French chronicler and compiler, also a soldier and politician. He belonged to a noble family of Artois, and witnessed the Battle of Agincourt from the French side, but later fought on the A ...

. Described in the chronicles as a rash and temperamental man, Carrouges was also a fierce and brave warrior whose death in battle came after a forty-year military career in which he served in Normandy, Scotland and Hungary with distinction and success. He was also heavily involved in court politics, initially at the seat of his overlord Count Pierre of Alençon at

Argentan Argentan () is a commune and the seat of two cantons and of an arrondissement in the Orne department in northwestern France. Argentan is located NE of Rennes, ENE of the Mont Saint-Michel, SE of Cherbourg, SSE of Caen, SW of Rouen and N ...

, but later in the politics of the royal household at Paris, to which he was attached as a ''chevalier d'honneur'' and royal bodyguard in the years following the judicial duel. During his life, he conducted a long trail of legal and financial dealings which infuriated his contemporaries and may have invited violence against himself and his family. The truth of the events which led him into public mortal combat in the Paris suburbs may never be known, but the legend is still debated and discussed 600 years later.

Early life

Carrouges was born in the late 1330s in the village of Saint-Marguerite-de-Carrouges as the eldest son of the knight and minor noble, Sir Jean de Carrouges III, and his wife, Nicole de Buchard. Jean was an influential man in

lower Normandy Lower Normandy (french: Basse-Normandie, ; nrf, Basse-Normaundie) is a former administrative region of France. On 1 January 2016, Lower and Upper Normandy merged becoming one region called Normandy. Geography The region included three departme ...

, being a vassal of the

Count of Perche The county of Perche was a medieval county lying between Normandy and Maine. It was held by an independent line of counts until 1226. One of these, Geoffroy V, would have been a leader of the Fourth Crusade had he not died before the assembled f ...

and a veteran soldier in his service.Jager, p. 11 He had been rewarded for his long military service in the

Hundred Years' War The Hundred Years' War (; 1337–1453) was a series of armed conflicts between the kingdoms of England and France during the Late Middle Ages. It originated from disputed claims to the French throne between the English House of Plantagen ...

with a knighthood and the title of Viscount of

Bellême Bellême () is a commune in the Orne department in northwestern France. The musicologist Guillaume André Villoteau (1759–1839) was born in Bellême, as was Aristide Boucicaut (1810-1877), owner of ''Le'' ''Bon Marché'', the world's first depar ...

, a rank that came with command of a vital hill castle overlooking the town as well as the role of

sheriff A sheriff is a government official, with varying duties, existing in some countries with historical ties to England where the office originated. There is an analogous, although independently developed, office in Iceland that is commonly transla ...

in the vicinity, a post carrying significant financial and social rewards.Jager, p. 16 Carrouges IV grew up within his father's domain, centred around the village of Carrouges where the family maintained their own hereditary castle.Jager, p. 14 He followed his father into the armed service of the Counts of Perche and served in several minor campaigns against the English and

routiers Routiers () were mercenary soldiers of the Middle Ages. Their particular distinction from other paid soldiers of the time was that they were organised into bands (''rutta'' or ''routes''). The term is first used in the 12th century but is parti ...

in Normandy. Following his majority at age 21, he was given a parcel of the family lands to administer and became interested in solidifying and expanding the family holdings. In 1367 the family castle and the village of Carrouges were destroyed by English soldiers and a new castle was built on a hilltop nearby, under instructions from

Charles V of France Charles V (21 January 1338 – 16 September 1380), called the Wise (french: le Sage; la, Sapiens), was King of France from 1364 to his death in 1380. His reign marked an early high point for France during the Hundred Years' War, with his armi ...

. In the early 1370s, Carrouges IV married Jeanne de Tilly, a daughter of the Lord of Chambois whose dowry included lands and rents vital to Carrouges' ambition of expanding his family estates. Shortly after their wedding, Jeanne gave birth to a son, whose godfather was a neighbour and close friend of de Carrouges, Squire Jacques Le Gris. In 1377, Pierre d'Alençon inherited his brother

Robert The name Robert is an ancient Germanic given name, from Proto-Germanic "fame" and "bright" (''Hrōþiberhtaz''). Compare Old Dutch ''Robrecht'' and Old High German ''Hrodebert'' (a compound of ''Hrōþ, Hruod'' ( non, Hróðr) "fame, glory ...

's county of Perche and with it the castle of Bellême. In addition, he gained the fealty of his brother's vassals, including the Carrouges father and son as well as Jacques Le Gris. The younger Carrouges and Le Gris soon joined the court circle of the Count, centered around the town of

. It was at Argentan that the friendship between Carrouges and Le Gris began to deteriorate, as Le Gris rapidly became a

favourite A favourite (British English) or favorite (American English) was the intimate companion of a ruler or other important person. In post-classical and early-modern Europe, among other times and places, the term was used of individuals delegated s ...

of Count Pierre. While Carrouges was overlooked, Le Gris was rewarded for service to the Count, inheriting his father's lordship of the castle at

Exmes Exmes is a former commune in the Orne department in north-western France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune Gouffern en Auge.Aunou-le-Faucon. Carrouges became jealous of his friend and the two men soon became rivals at the court.Jager, p. 20 A year after entering Count Pierre's service, tragedy struck Carrouges as both his wife and son died of unknown but natural causes. In response, Carrouges left home and joined the service of Jean de Vienne accompanied by a retinue of nine squires.Jager, p. 22 With this force, under the overall command of King Charles V, Carrouges distinguished himself in minor actions against the English in

Beuzeville Beuzeville () is a commune in the north-western part of the department of Eure in the Normandy region in northern France. Located on the Lieuvin plateau, it is adjacent to the communes of Pont-l'Évêque, Honfleur and Deauville. Beuzeville i ...

Carentan Carentan () is a small rural town near the north-eastern base of the French Cotentin Peninsula in Normandy in north-western France, with a population of about 6,000. It is a former commune in the Manche department. On 1 January 2016, it was m ...

, and

Coutances Coutances () is a commune in the Manche department in Normandy in north-western France. History Capital of the Unelli, a Gaulish tribe, the town was given the name of ''Constantia'' in 298 during the reign of Roman emperor Constantius Chloru ...

in a five-month campaign, during which over half his retinue were killed in battle or by disease.

Marguerite de Thibouville

Returning home in 1380 after a successful campaign, Carrouges married Marguerite de Thibouville, the only daughter of the highly controversial Robert de Thibouville. De Thibouville was a Norman lord who had twice sided against the French king in territorial conflicts, betrayals he was lucky to survive, albeit in reduced circumstances. By the union of Marguerite and Carrouges, de Thibouville hoped to restore his family's status while Carrouges was hoping for an heir from the young Marguerite, whom contemporaries described as "young, noble, wealthy, and also very beautiful".Jager, pp. 24–26, Shortly after his marriage, Carrouges revealed another motive for the union. The valuable estate of Aunou-le-Faucon, given to his rival Jacques Le Gris two years earlier, had been formerly owned by Carrouges' father-in-law, Robert de Thibouville, and had been bought by Count Pierre for 8,000

French livre The livre (abbreviation: £ or ₶., French for (pound)) was the currency of Kingdom of France and its predecessor state of West Francia from 781 to 1794. Several different livres existed, some concurrently. The livre was the name of coins a ...

s in 1377. Carrouges immediately began a lawsuit to recover the land, based on an assumed prior claim to it. The case dragged on for some months until ultimately Count Pierre was forced to visit his cousin King Charles VI to confirm his ownership of the land officially, as well as his right to give it to whomever of the followers he chose. The lawsuit reflected very poorly on Carrouges at the court in Argentan and resulted in his further estrangement from Count Pierre's circle.Jager, p. 31 Two years after the Aunou-le-Faucon lawsuit, Carrouges was once again in court facing Count Pierre, this time in a dispute over the lands administered by his recently deceased father. Carrouges III's death early in 1382 vacated the captaincy of the castle of Bellême, a post Carrouges IV believed would be his by right. However, due to the failed lawsuit two years earlier, Count Pierre passed Carrouges over for the captaincy and gave it to another of his followers. The infuriated Carrouges again brought legal action against his overlord and again he was defeated in court. The only lasting result of the action was the further separation of Carrouges and Count Pierre's court.Jager, p. 33 In March 1383, Carrouges made a third effort to expand his family holdings, with the purchase of the neighbouring fiefs of Cuigny and Plainville from his neighbour Sir Jean de Vauloger. The sale required approval from Count Pierre, who was overlord of both fiefs, but as a consequence of the previous legal difficulties Carrouges had caused him, he refused to permit the sale and insisted that Carrouges turn the properties over to him in exchange for a full refund of the original price paid. Carrouges had no choice but to comply and subsequently blamed Jacques le Gris' influence for this new misfortune.Jager, p. 35

Campaigning in Scotland

Late in 1384, Carrouges entered society for the first time since his marriage four years earlier, attending a party to celebrate the birth of a neighbour's son. Carrouges and Le Gris met at the celebration and agreed to end their quarrel, Carrouges introducing Le Gris to his wife Marguerite for the first time.Jager, p. 37 A few months after this meeting, in March 1385, Carrouges attempted to increase his family wealth through military means, by joining the army of Jean de Vienne for an expedition sailing to

Edinburgh Edinburgh ( ; gd, Dùn Èideann ) is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 Council areas of Scotland, council areas. Historically part of the county of Midlothian (interchangeably Edinburghshire before 1921), it is located in Lothian ...

. This force of about 3,000 soldiers was intended to unite with the Scottish army and raid Northern England, distracting English forces from operations in France. Travelling with men-at-arms, horses, gold, and equipment, Carrouges and his entourage rode to

Sluys Sluis (; zea, label= Zeelandic, Sluus ; french: Écluse) is a town and municipality located in the west of Zeelandic Flanders, in the south-western Dutch province of Zeeland. The current incarnation of the municipality has existed since 1 Janu ...

and took ship to

Leith Leith (; gd, Lìte) is a port area in the north of the city of Edinburgh, Scotland, founded at the mouth of the Water of Leith. In 2021, it was ranked by ''Time Out'' as one of the top five neighbourhoods to live in the world. The earliest ...

during the spring of 1385. On arrival in Scotland, much time was spent gathering Scottish troops together for the campaign on England, and the French were delayed for some months collecting supplies.The French receive bad treatment from their allies, the Scots
Froissart's ''

Chronicles Chronicles may refer to: * ''Books of Chronicles'', in the Bible * Chronicle, chronological histories * ''The Chronicles of Narnia'', a novel series by C. S. Lewis * ''Holinshed's Chronicles'', the collected works of Raphael Holinshed * '' The Idh ...

''; Book II, Chapter 160 The army thus did not move south until July, ravaging villages and farms in the region of the

River Tweed The River Tweed, or Tweed Water ( gd, Abhainn Thuaidh, sco, Watter o Tweid, cy, Tuedd), is a river long that flows east across the Border region in Scotland and northern England. Tweed cloth derives its name from its association with the R ...

before besieging Wark Castle and burning it to the ground. The allied army then continued south through

Northumberland Northumberland () is a county in Northern England, one of two counties in England which border with Scotland. Notable landmarks in the county include Alnwick Castle, Bamburgh Castle, Hadrian's Wall and Hexham Abbey. It is bordered by land ...

and there burned villages, towns, farms, and castles across their line of advance in a large

chevauchée A ''chevauchée'' (, "promenade" or "horse charge", depending on context) was a raiding method of medieval warfare for weakening the enemy, primarily by burning and pillaging enemy territory in order to reduce the productivity of a region, in a ...

.The Scots and English each invade the other country
Froissart's ''

''; Book II, Chapters 171–173 The English responded with an army led by King

Richard II Richard II (6 January 1367 – ), also known as Richard of Bordeaux, was King of England from 1377 until he was deposed in 1399. He was the son of Edward the Black Prince, Prince of Wales, and Joan, Countess of Kent. Richard's father ...

which advanced against the allied force and offered battle. The French prepared to fight but their Scots allies retreated, leaving the French exposed, and they were consequently forced to retreat as well.Jager, p. 47 Outside Edinburgh, the Scottish army dispersed and the inhabitants of the city fled north, leaving the French alone. Realising that his force was outnumbered and without food or help, Vienne took the army south, rounding the English on the night of 10 August and reentering Northumberland for further looting, attacking

Carlisle Carlisle ( , ; from xcb, Caer Luel) is a city that lies within the Northern English county of Cumbria, south of the Scottish border at the confluence of the rivers Eden, Caldew and Petteril. It is the administrative centre of the City ...

but being unable to break through its walls.Jager, p. 48 As the Franco–Scottish forces returned northwards it was attacked by an army under Henry Percy which destroyed their wagon train and took many prisoners. When the defeated French returned to Edinburgh the Scots refused to provide for the French army and many men died of disease or starvation. Late in the year, the French army boarded ships and returned to

Flanders Flanders (, ; Dutch: ''Vlaanderen'' ) is the Flemish-speaking northern portion of Belgium and one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium. However, there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to cultu ...

, bankrupt and defeated. Despite the expedition's failure, Carrouges had distinguished himself in the campaign. Although he had lost five of his nine men-at-arms and a substantial amount of money, he had also been awarded a knighthood on the battlefield, substantially raising his social status and the amount of money he received from military service.Jager, p. 50 Despite being in poor health on his return from Scotland, Carrouges had business in Paris and in January 1386 he travelled there to collect his wages for the previous year's campaign, leaving his wife with his mother at the village of Capomesnil.

Rape of Marguerite

Before setting off for Paris, Carrouges first visited Argentan to meet with Count Pierre and there announced his intention of continuing to the capital. What followed was a sequence of events that remain unclear, but which would have a dramatic effect on the lives of all concerned. What is certain is that Carrouges encountered his rival Jacques Le Gris at the court of Count Pierre and words were exchanged, although what was said is unknown.Jager, p. 60 In contrast to his bankrupt rival, Le Gris had not been on the Scottish expedition and had grown wealthier in Carrouges' absence. Le Gris also had a reputation as a fierce and strong soldier in addition to that of a notorious womaniser, a reputation that may have played a part in the allegations that followed. On the morning of 18 January 1386, Dame Nicole de Carrouges departed her chateau at Capomesnil for the neighbouring town of

Saint-Pierre-sur-Dives Saint-Pierre-sur-Dives (, literally ''Saint-Pierre on Dives'') is a former commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the new commune Saint-Pierre-en-Auge.

where she had legal business to attend to. Although the journey was only a short one, she apparently took some or all of the household servants with her, leaving her daughter-in-law unattended during the day.Jager, p. 62 Marguerite's testimony then alleged that a

man-at-arms A man-at-arms was a soldier of the High Medieval to Renaissance periods who was typically well-versed in the use of arms and served as a fully-armoured heavy cavalryman. A man-at-arms could be a knight, or other nobleman, a member of a ...

named Adam Louvel knocked on the chateau door, which Marguerite opened herself in the absence of servants. According to Marguerite, Louvel then made inquiries about a loan he owed Jean de Carrouges before suddenly announcing that Jacques Le Gris was outside the door and insisted on seeing her. At her refusal, Louvel exclaimed that "he loves you passionately, he will do anything for you and he greatly desires to see you".Jager, p. 63 Although Marguerite protested, Le Gris then forced his way into the house and propositioned her, offering money if she would remain silent if they had an affair. When Marguerite refused, Le Gris then violently raped her with the aid of Louvel and threatened her not to tell anyone what had occurred on pain of death.Jager, p. 69 Marguerite remained silent of her ordeal for several days, until her husband's return on the 21 or 22 January. Upon hearing of the encounter, the outraged Carrouges summoned his circle of courtiers and friends, including his mother and most of Marguerite's family, and a council was convened where Marguerite repeated her account of the rape.Jager, p. 75 Carrouges decided immediately to begin legal proceedings against Le Gris but faced great difficulties in prosecuting them as Le Gris was a favourite of Count Pierre, who would act as judge in the case. In addition, the case was viewed as weak in this time period because the only witness was Marguerite. Indeed, the trial at Argentan was so one-sided an affair that Carrouges and his wife did not even bother to attend. Pierre acquitted Le Gris of all charges and furthermore accused Marguerite of inventing or even "dreaming" the attack.Jager, p. 79

Legal proceedings

In search of a fair trial, Carrouges travelled to Paris to appeal to the King himself. Knowing that his case depended solely on his wife's testimony and was, therefore, her word against Le Gris, Carrouges developed a plan. Instead of proceeding with a normal criminal trial, Carrouges would challenge Le Gris to a

judicial duel Trial by combat (also wager of battle, trial by battle or judicial duel) was a method of Germanic law to settle accusations in the absence of witnesses or a confession in which two parties in dispute fought in single combat; the winner of the ...

, the survivor of which would thus have been deemed by God to have been the rightful claimant.The Last Duel
''

Eric Jager Eric Jager (born 27 April 1957) is an American literary critic and a specialist in medieval literature. He is a professor in the department of English at University of California, Los Angeles, received his B.A. from Calvin College in 1979, and ...

'', Retrieved on 26 July 2007 Such trials-by-combat, once common in France, were rare by 1386 and the chance of one being permitted by the King unlikely. Nevertheless, Carrouges saw this scheme as his best option of procuring justice and redeeming his wife's reputation.Jager, p. 83 A few days after his arrival in Paris, Carrouges was presented to the King at the

Château de Vincennes The Château de Vincennes () is a former fortress and royal residence next to the town of Vincennes, on the eastern edge of Paris, alongside the Bois de Vincennes. It was largely built between 1361 and 1369, and was a preferred residence, afte ...

in order to make the first official appeal in the lengthy trial process. In doing so, he captured the imagination of the French court, which later became so fascinated with the Carrouges-Le Gris trial that it would shape its schedule around watching the culminating combat. On 9 July 1386, the second stage in the legal process began when both Carrouges and Le Gris, with their followers, presented themselves before the Parlement of Paris at the Palais de Justice to issue the formal challenge. This involved reciting their accusations and throwing down a gauntlet signifying their intention to fight. The declarations were pronounced in front of the King, his brother

Louis of Valois Louis of France (3 February 154924 October 1550), also known as Louis, Duke of Orléans was the second son and fourth child of Henry II (31 March 151910 July 1559), King of France and his wife, Catherine de' Medici, daughter of Lorenzo II de' ...

and the entire Parlement, who decided to initially hear the case as an ordinary criminal one and defer their decision on whether to permit the judicial duel until both sides had given testimony.Jager, p. 103 Attempts had been made to persuade Le Gris to insist on a church trial, but these proved unsuccessful as Le Gris wished to counter the accusation with a lawsuit against his opponent claiming 40,000 livres for defamation. Following the declarations a number of high-ranking noblemen stepped forward to act as seconds in the duel for both men, including Waleran of Saint-Pol for Carrouges and

Philip of Artois, Count of Eu Philip of Artois (1358 – 16 June 1397, Micalizo), son of John of Artois, Count of Eu, and Isabeau of Melun, was Count of Eu from 1387 until his death, succeeding his brother Robert. Philip was a gallant and energetic soldier. In 1383, he ...

for Le Gris.Jager, p. 104 The criminal trial continued for most of the summer and Carrouges, Le Gris, and Marguerite were all called on to give evidence. Marguerite was by this time visibly pregnant, although medieval medical knowledge claimed that children could not be conceived as a result of rape and her condition, therefore, was determined to have no bearing on the case.Jager, p. 117 Adam Louvel and at least one of Marguerite's maidservants also gave evidence and, as was the custom of the day for people of low birth, they were tortured to test the veracity of their testimony.Jager, p. 119 During this process neither produced evidence incriminating Le Gris, although Louvel was subsequently challenged to a duel himself by Marguerite's cousin, Thomin du Bois. In his evidence, Carrouges' statement repeated and supported his wife's testimony, while Le Gris accused Carrouges of inventing the charges and beating his wife into making the accusations against the squire. In his statement, Le Gris painted a picture of a man driven wild with anger and jealousy who sought to restore his family fortune by concocting false accusations against his most significant rival. Le Gris also offered alibis for his whereabouts during the week the crime was supposed to have been committed and attempted to explain that it was not possible for him to have ridden the 40 kilometres (25 miles) that supposedly separated him from Marguerite on the morning in question.Jager, p. 110 A rebuttal from Carrouges emphasised the shame the trial had brought to his family as a reason against its invention and offered a counter-demonstration of horsemanship indicating that the suggested 80-kilometre (50-mile) round trip was possible even if Le Gris' alibi were true.Jager, p. 113 Le Gris' alibi was compromised some days later when the man providing it, a squire named Jean Beloteau, was arrested for committing rape in Paris during the trial. On 15 September, with the King in Flanders preparing for an invasion of England, the parliament handed down its verdict. As they had been unable to determine the guilt in the case, the two men would fight a duel to the death on 27 November 1386.

Trial by combat

The two months following the verdict were ones of great activity between the two parties and the citizens of Paris. As judicial duels were now so rare, no established battleground had been set aside, and a jousting arena at the Abbey of Saint-Martin-des-Champs north of the city agreed to host the combat.Jager, p. 132 Both Carrouges and Le Gris endured bouts of illness in the weeks following the verdict but recovered with the aid of their families and supporters, who had joined the hundreds of people flocking to the city from nearby regions to witness the fight.Jager, p. 149 Indeed, the event was so popular that when King Charles VI believed that his return to Paris in time for the combat would be held up in Flanders due to bad roads, he sent a fast messenger to Paris delaying the duel by a month in order that he would be present to witness it. This royal intervention set the date for the combat back to 29 December 1386.Jager, p. 121 In the months between trial and duel, Marguerite and the French queen

Isabeau of Bavaria Isabeau of Bavaria (or Isabelle; also Elisabeth of Bavaria-Ingolstadt; c. 1370 – September 1435) was Queen of France from 1385 to 1422. She was born into the House of Wittelsbach as the only daughter of Duke Stephen III of Bavaria-Ingols ...

had both given birth to sons. While Marguerite's son Robert was a strong, healthy boy, the Dauphin was a sickly child and died on 28 December. Rather than descend into mourning, the King ordered a frenzy of parties and celebrations, the pinnacle of which was intended to be the duel between Carrouges and Le Gris.Jager, p. 141 The morning of the combat saw thousands of Parisians arriving at the Abbey at dawn, long before the appointed hour. Among the spectators were the King and his entourage, including his uncles

John, Duke of Berry John of Berry or John the Magnificent (French: ''Jean de Berry'', ; 30 November 1340 – 15 June 1416) was Duke of Berry and Auvergne and Count of Poitiers and Montpensier. He was Regent of France during the minority of his nephew 1380-1388 ...

Philip the Bold Philip II the Bold (; ; 17 January 1342 – 27 April 1404) was Duke of Burgundy and ''jure uxoris'' Count of Flanders, Artois and Burgundy. He was the fourth and youngest son of King John II of France and Bonne of Luxembourg. Philip II w ...

and

Louis II, Duke of Bourbon Louis de Bourbon, called the Good (4 February 1337 – 10 August 1410), son of Peter de Bourbon and Isabella de Valois (the sister of French King Philip VI), was the third Duke of Bourbon. Louis inherited the duchy after his father Duke Pe ...

as well as his brother the Duke of Orléans. Also present, dressed in black and sitting in a carriage overlooking the field, was Marguerite. Should her husband have lost the battle, she would have been burned at the stake in Montfaucon immediately following the duel, having been thus "proven" guilty of

perjury Perjury (also known as foreswearing) is the intentional act of swearing a false oath or falsifying an affirmation to tell the truth, whether spoken or in writing, concerning matters material to an official proceeding."Perjury The act or an inst ...

by its outcome. The combatants took the field in the early afternoon, mounted and dressed in

plate armour Plate armour is a historical type of personal body armour made from bronze, iron, or steel plates, culminating in the iconic suit of armour entirely encasing the wearer. Full plate steel armour developed in Europe during the Late Middle Ages, ...

. Both carried a

lance A lance is a spear designed to be used by a mounted warrior or cavalry soldier (lancer). In ancient and medieval warfare, it evolved into the leading weapon in cavalry charges, and was unsuited for throwing or for repeated thrusting, unlike s ...

longsword A longsword (also spelled as long sword or long-sword) is a type of European sword characterized as having a cruciform hilt with a grip for primarily two-handed use (around ), a straight double-edged blade of around , and weighing approximatel ...

, a heavy

battle axe A battle axe (also battle-axe, battle ax, or battle-ax) is an axe specifically designed for combat. Battle axes were specialized versions of utility axes. Many were suitable for use in one hand, while others were larger and were deployed two-ha ...

known as the "Holy Trinity" and a long

dagger A dagger is a fighting knife with a very sharp point and usually two sharp edges, typically designed or capable of being used as a thrusting or stabbing weapon.State v. Martin, 633 S.W.2d 80 (Mo. 1982): This is the dictionary or popular-use def ...

called the "

misericordia Misericordia is the Latin for " mercy", derived from ''misericors'', "merciful", which is in turn derived from ''misereri'', "to pity", and ''cor'', "heart", and may refer to: Places and organisations * Misericórdia, a parish in the municipality ...

". Carrouges appeared first, reciting his charges against Le Gris to the King and crowd before Le Gris followed and did the same. Le Gris was then knighted in order that he and Carrouges be of equal standing during the fight. Both knights then dismounted and gave oaths to God, the

Virgin Mary Mary; arc, ܡܪܝܡ, translit=Mariam; ar, مريم, translit=Maryam; grc, Μαρία, translit=María; la, Maria; cop, Ⲙⲁⲣⲓⲁ, translit=Maria was a first-century Jewish woman of Nazareth, the wife of Joseph and the mother of ...

and

St George Saint George ( Greek: Γεώργιος (Geórgios), Latin: Georgius, Arabic: القديس جرجس; died 23 April 303), also George of Lydda, was a Christian who is venerated as a saint in Christianity. According to tradition he was a soldier ...

, thereby sanctifying God's judgment over the duel's outcome. Finally, Carrouges approached his wife and pledged his honour before her, kissing her and promising to return.Jager, p. 151 As the field was cleared, silence descended on the arena following the King's instructions that anybody who interfered in the duel would be executed and that anyone who shouted or verbally interrupted the combat would lose a hand.Jager, p. 157 Readying their steeds, the knights squared up and at the marshal's signal, charged towards one another. Their lances struck but failed to penetrate the thick hides covering their shields and the combatants wheeled and charged again, this time striking one another on their helms. Rounding once more, the knights charged a third time, again striking shields and this time both shattering their lances. Reeling from the impact, the warriors drew their axes and charged a fourth time. Slashing and kicking at one another in the centre of the field, they traded blows until Le Gris, the much stronger man, was able to drive his axe through the neck of Carrouges' horse. As the beast fell to the ground, Carrouges jumped clear and lashed out with his own weapon, disembowelling Le Gris' steed in turn.Jager, p. 173 Duel entre Jacques Le Gris et Jean de Carrouges

Duel entre Jacques Le Gris et Jean de Carrouges

Now on foot, the knights drew swords and returned to battle. Le Gris, again proving stronger than his opponent, slowly gained the upper hand. After several minutes of engagement, Carrouges slipped and Le Gris was able to stab his rival through the right thigh. As the crowd gasped and murmured, Le Gris stepped back. Carrouges used the opportunity to grab the top of Le Gris' helmet and topple him to the ground. Le Gris' heavy armour prevented him from regaining his feet and Carrouges repeatedly stabbed at his floored opponent, his blows denting but not puncturing the thick plate steel. Realising that his sword was inadequate, Carrouges straddled Le Gris and used the handle of his dagger to smash the lock holding Le Gris' faceplate. Even as his opponent struggled beneath him, Carrouges broke the pin holding the lock and tore his faceplate off, exposing Le Gris. Carrouges demanded that Le Gris admit his guilt. Le Gris refused and cried out "In the name of God and on the peril and damnation of my soul, I am innocent". Unable to obtain a confession (which would have condemned Le Gris anyway), Carrouges drove a dagger through Le Gris' neck, killing him nearly instantly. Standing over his vanquished opponent, Carrouges remained on the field as the crowd cheered him and pages rushed to bind his wound.Jager, p. 180 He then kneeled before the King, who presented him with a prize of a thousand francs in addition to a royal income of 200 francs a year. Only then did he greet his wife in an emotional scene before the thousands of spectators. With the crowd following in a great procession, Jean and Marguerite de Carrouges then rode from the abbey to the cathedral of

Notre-Dame de Paris Notre-Dame de Paris (; meaning "Our Lady of Paris"), referred to simply as Notre-Dame, is a Middle Ages#Art and architecture, medieval Catholic cathedral on the Île de la Cité (an island in the Seine River), in the 4th arrondissement of Paris ...

, to give thanks for the victory. A few weeks after the duel, Parlement awarded Carrouges a further six thousand livres in gold and a position within the Royal Household. Such rewards enabled Carrouges to begin further legal action, attempting to exert his earlier claim to Aunou-le-Faucon. However, the land which Carrouges so coveted remained beyond his reach. Count Pierre, who held the land, never forgave Carrouges for the death of his favourite advisor and held the estates from him in court.Jager, p. 187

Royal service

Over the next three years, Jean and Marguerite de Carrouges had two more children and settled in Paris and Normandy, profiting from their celebrity with gifts and investments.Jager, p. 186 In 1390, Carrouges was promoted to a ''chevalier d'honneur'' as a bodyguard of the King, a title which came with a substantial financial stipend and was a position of important social standing. The following year he was dispatched to Hungary on a mission to investigate the severity of the threat from the

Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University ...

, the boundaries of which had been steadily spreading under Sultan

Bayezid I Bayezid I ( ota, بايزيد اول, tr, I. Bayezid), also known as Bayezid the Thunderbolt ( ota, link=no, یلدیرم بايزيد, tr, Yıldırım Bayezid, link=no; – 8 March 1403) was the Ottoman Sultan from 1389 to 1402. He adopted ...

. In this mission he was second in command to Jean de Boucicaut, a

Marshal of France Marshal of France (french: Maréchal de France, plural ') is a French military distinction, rather than a military rank, that is awarded to generals for exceptional achievements. The title has been awarded since 1185, though briefly abolished ( ...

and famous soldier, indicating the elevated social position Carrouges enjoyed following the duel.Jager, p. 188 In 1392, Carrouges was present for one of the more notorious occurrences in fourteenth-century France: the descent into madness of King Charles VI. As a ''chevalier d'honneur'', Carrouges accompanied the King on the campaign and was present when the Royal Army entered

Brittany Brittany (; french: link=no, Bretagne ; br, Breizh, or ; Gallo: ''Bertaèyn'' ) is a peninsula, historical country and cultural area in the west of modern France, covering the western part of what was known as Armorica during the period ...

to hunt for Pierre de Craon, a noble who had fled Paris after a failed attempt to murder Olivier V de Clisson,

Constable of France The Constable of France (french: Connétable de France, from Latin for 'count of the stables') was lieutenant to the King of France, the first of the original five Great Officers of the Crown (along with seneschal, chamberlain, butler, and ...

. As the army passed

Le Mans Le Mans (, ) is a city in northwestern France on the Sarthe River where it meets the Huisne. Traditionally the capital of the province of Maine, it is now the capital of the Sarthe department and the seat of the Roman Catholic diocese of Le ...

on 8 August 1392, a loud noise startled the French King who, believing himself to be under attack, lashed out at the nearest person to him. The man was his brother Louis of Valois, who turned and fled. Killing several pages who attempted to calm his temper, the King set off on the full pursuit of Louis, leaving the army strung out across the countryside behind him. The pursuit continued for hours until the exhausted King was eventually subdued by his bodyguards, including Carrouges.Jager, p. 189

Crusade of Nicopolis

In early 1396, following the peace treaty with England, the French army mobilised against another pressing threat; that of the Turks to the East, as part of a new

crusade The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Latin Church in the medieval period. The best known of these Crusades are those to the Holy Land in the period between 1095 and 1291 that were ...

. As a leader of the original party to investigate events in Hungary, it was natural that Jean de Carrouges would return with his followers in the service of his old commander, Admiral

.Jager, p. 193 The army crossed Central Europe, united with the Hungarians and marched south, burning the city of

Vidin Vidin ( bg, Видин, ; Old Romanian: Diiu) is a port city on the southern bank of the Danube in north-western Bulgaria. It is close to the borders with Romania and Serbia, and is also the administrative centre of Vidin Province, as well as ...

, and massacring the inhabitants before following the course of the

Danube The Danube ( ; ) is a river that was once a long-standing frontier of the Roman Empire and today connects 10 European countries, running through their territories or being a border. Originating in Germany, the Danube flows southeast for , pa ...

southeast, cutting a swathe of destruction through the Ottoman territory. On 12 September, the army arrived at the city of

Nicopolis Nicopolis ( grc-gre, Νικόπολις, Nikópolis, City of Victory) or Actia Nicopolis was the capital city of the Roman province of Epirus Vetus. It was located in the western part of the modern state of Greece. The city was founded in 29 ...

, but was repulsed from its walls, and settled into a siege. Two weeks later, Sultan

arrived with a large army to the south of the town, and took up a strong defensive position, challenging the crusaders to meet him. The crusader army moved to confront him on 24 September, but poor discipline and fractured leadership between the national factions resulted in a premature assault by the French force against the bluffs controlled by Ottoman troops. With the allied army strung out, Bayezid marshaled his reserves, and defeated the crusaders in a furious engagement which felled most of the allied army.Billings, p. 198 Thousands more were captured and executed after the battle by the victorious Turkish troops. The exact fate of Sir Jean de Carrouges is unknown, but it is probable that he fell close to his commander, Jean de Vienne, whose forces were trapped in a gully and decimated by Turkish cavalry.Jager, p. 196 After his death, his estates passed to his 10-year-old son, Robert de Carrouges, and a mural of Jean and Marguerite de Carrouges was painted in the Abbey of St. Étienne in

Caen Caen (, ; nrf, Kaem) is a commune in northwestern France. It is the prefecture of the department of Calvados. The city proper has 105,512 inhabitants (), while its functional urban area has 470,000,Jager, p. 13 His family was succeeded by that of Le Veneur de Tillières. The latter received the land and

Château de Carrouges The Château de Carrouges is a château, dating partly from the 14th century, located in the commune of Carrouges, in the Orne department, Normandy, northern France. It is unusual in its combination of an austere fortress with a comfortable resi ...

, which they remained the owner of until 1936, when the last representative of the family line ceded them to the State. In 1944, the castle was restored, as well as now managed by the

Centre des monuments nationaux The Centre des monuments nationaux (CMN) (French, 'National monuments centre') is a French government body (Établissement public à caractère administratif) which conserves, restores and manages historic buildings and sites that are the propert ...

, and open to the public. The commune of

Sainte-Marguerite-de-Carrouges Sainte-Marguerite-de-Carrouges (, literally ''Sainte-Marguerite of Carrouges'') is a commune in the Orne department in north-western France. As of 2019, the commune had a total population of 223 residents. The commune is named for Marguerite de ...

, close to the town of Carrouges, was also named for Marguerite de Carrouges.

Legacy

Due to the celebrity and controversy surrounding the case, the judicial duel between Carrouges and Le Gris was one of the last permitted by the French government. As a well-attended and infamous event, it soon became a well-known case.A Fatal Medieval Triangle
, ''UCLA College of Letters and Science'', Retrieved on 25 July 2007 In France, the memory of the duel far outlasted its participants, primarily a result of it being recorded soon after by the contemporary

chronicler A chronicle ( la, chronica, from Greek ''chroniká'', from , ''chrónos'' – "time") is a historical account of events arranged in chronological order, as in a timeline. Typically, equal weight is given for historically important events and lo ...

. Over the following century, vivid and imaginative accounts were carried in the chronicles of

and the ''

Grandes Chroniques de France The ''Grandes Chroniques de France'' is a vernacular royal compilation of the history of France, most manuscripts of which are luxury copies that are heavily illuminated. Copies were produced between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries, the ...

'', as well as by

Jehan de Waurin Jean de Waurin or Wavrin (c. 1400c. 1474) was a medieval French chronicler and compiler, also a soldier and politician. He belonged to a noble family of Artois, and witnessed the Battle of Agincourt from the French side, but later fought on the ...

and others, many embellishing the story with imaginative twists.Jager, p. 203 The factual details of the case are unusually well-recorded for a medieval trial, as the records of the Parlement de Paris have survived intact, and Jacques Le Gris' lawyer Jean Le Coq kept meticulous notes on the case, which still exist. In addition to a clear view of proceedings, these notes also contain Le Coq's own concerns about his client, whose innocence Le Coq deemed highly suspect, according ''The Last Duel'' author Eric Jager.Jager, p. 122 Despite the well-recorded details several chronicles, including the '' Chronique du Religieux de Saint-Denys'' and the chronicles of Jean Juvénal des Ursins, tell of a third man confessing to the rape at his death. This story, which ''The Last Duel'' author Eric Jager claims is "without basis", was subsequently repeated in many later sources, particularly as proof for the great miscarriage of justice of the event and the tradition of trial-by-combat. Jager also claims that the ''

Encyclopædia Britannica The (Latin for "British Encyclopædia") is a general knowledge English-language encyclopaedia. It is published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.; the company has existed since the 18th century, although it has changed ownership various t ...

'' still contained a version of that false tale, under the entry for "Duel", until the 1970s.Jager, p. 207 Other sources have discussed the story in varying degrees of detail, including a section in

Diderot Denis Diderot (; ; 5 October 171331 July 1784) was a French philosopher, art critic, and writer, best known for serving as co-founder, chief editor, and contributor to the '' Encyclopédie'' along with Jean le Rond d'Alembert. He was a promi ...

's ''

Encyclopédie ''Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers'' (English: ''Encyclopedia, or a Systematic Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Crafts''), better known as ''Encyclopédie'', was a general encyclopedia publis ...

'', in the ''Histoire du Parlement de Paris'' by

Voltaire François-Marie Arouet (; 21 November 169430 May 1778) was a French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher. Known by his '' nom de plume'' M. de Voltaire (; also ; ), he was famous for his wit, and his criticism of Christianity—e ...

, and in a number of books written in the 19th century, including a work in the 1880s by a descendant of Jacques Le Gris, in which the author attempted to prove his ancestor's innocence. In the 20th century, other authors have studied the case, the most recent being in the book '' The Last Duel: A True Story of Trial by Combat in Medieval France'' in 2004, by

, a professor of English Literature at

UCLA The University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) is a public land-grant research university in Los Angeles, California. UCLA's academic roots were established in 1881 as a teachers college then known as the southern branch of the California ...

. Jager's book, ''The Last Duel'', was adapted by

Ben Affleck Benjamin Géza Affleck (born August 15, 1972) is an American actor and filmmaker. His accolades include two Academy Awards, three Golden Globe Awards and a Volpi Cup. Affleck began his career as a child when he starred in the PBS education ...

Nicole Holofcener Nicole Holofcener (; born March 22, 1960) is an American film and television director and screenwriter. She has directed six feature films, including ''Walking and Talking'', '' Friends with Money'' and ''Enough Said'', as well as various televis ...

and

Matt Damon Matthew Paige Damon (; born October 8, 1970) is an American actor, film producer, and screenwriter. Ranked among ''Forbes'' most bankable stars, the films in which he has appeared have collectively earned over $3.88 billion at the North Ameri ...

into the screenplay for the 2021 film adaptation ''The Last Duel (2021 film), The Last Duel''. Damon and Affleck were also cast in the roles of Jean de Carrouges (Damon) and Pierre d'Alençon (Affleck), with Jodie Comer starring as Marguerite de Thibouville, and Adam Driver as Jacques le Gris, with Ridley Scott directing. De Carrouges's duel is sometimes presented as the last of the French authorised duels, which is incorrect. The last duel to be publicly authorised took place on 10 July 1547 at the castle of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. It opposed Guy Chabot de Jarnac against François de Vivonne, following a request from Jarnac to King Henry II of France, Henry II for regaining his honour. The duel was won by Jarnac after injuring Vivonne with his sword; Vivonne later died of his wounds.

Notes

References

Primary sources

* * * *

Secondary sources

* * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Carrouges, Jean de 1330s births 1396 deaths Year of birth uncertain 14th-century French people Medieval French knights Christians of the Battle of Nicopolis People of the Hundred Years' War French military personnel killed in action French duellists Trials by combat