Judaeo-Spanish or Judeo-Spanish (autonym , Hebrew script: ,

Cyrillic , bg, кирилица , mk, кирилица , russian: кириллица , sr, ћирилица, uk, кирилиця , fam1 = Egyptian hieroglyphs , fam2 = Proto-Sinaitic , fam3 = Phoenician , fam4 = G ...

: ), also known as Ladino, is a

Romance language The Romance languages, sometimes referred to as Latin languages or Neo-Latin languages, are the various modern languages that evolved from Vulgar Latin. They are the only extant subgroup of the Italic languages in the Indo-European languages, I ...

derived from

Old Spanish Old Spanish, also known as Old Castilian ( es, castellano antiguo; osp, romance castellano ), or Medieval Spanish ( es, español medieval), was originally a dialect of Vulgar Latin spoken in the former provinces of the Roman Empire that provided ...

. Originally spoken in Spain, and then after the Edict of Expulsion spreading through the Ottoman Empire (the Balkans, Turkey, Western Asia, and North Africa) as well as France, Italy, the Netherlands, Morocco, and England, it is today spoken mainly by

Sephardic Sephardic (or Sephardi) Jews (, ; lad, Djudíos Sefardíes), also ''Sepharadim'' , Modern Hebrew: ''Sfaradim'', Tiberian Hebrew, Tiberian: Səp̄āraddîm, also , ''Ye'hude Sepharad'', lit. "The Jews of Spain", es, Judíos sefardíes (or ), ...

minorities in more than 30 countries, with most speakers residing in Israel. Although it has no official status in any country, it has been acknowledged as a minority language in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Israel, France, and Turkey. In 2017, it was formally recognised by the

Royal Spanish Academy The Royal Spanish Academy ( es, Real Academia Española, generally abbreviated as RAE) is Spain's official royal institution with a mission to ensure the stability of the Spanish language. It is based in Madrid, Spain, and is affiliated with ...

. The core vocabulary of Judaeo-Spanish is

, and it has numerous elements from the other old Romance languages of the Iberian Peninsula: Old Aragonese,

Astur-Leonese Asturleonese ( ast, Asturlleonés; es, Asturleonés; pt, Asturo-leonês; mwl, Asturlhionés) is a Romance language spoken primarily in northwestern Spain, namely in the historical regions and Spain's modern-day autonomous communities of Asturi ...

, Old Catalan, Galician-Portuguese, and Mozarabic. The language has been further enriched by

Ottoman Turkish Ottoman Turkish ( ota, لِسانِ عُثمانى, Lisân-ı Osmânî, ; tr, Osmanlı Türkçesi) was the standardized register of the Turkish language used by the citizens of the Ottoman Empire (14th to 20th centuries CE). It borrowed extens ...

and

Semitic Semitic most commonly refers to the Semitic languages, a name used since the 1770s to refer to the language family currently present in West Asia, North and East Africa, and Malta. Semitic may also refer to: Religions * Abrahamic religions ** ...

vocabulary, such as Hebrew, Aramaic, and Arabic—especially in the domains of religion, law, and

spirituality The meaning of ''spirituality'' has developed and expanded over time, and various meanings can be found alongside each other. Traditionally, spirituality referred to a religious process of re-formation which "aims to recover the original shape o ...

—and most of the vocabulary for new and modern concepts has been adopted through

French French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents ** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...

and Italian. Furthermore, the language is influenced to a lesser degree by other local languages of the Balkans, such as Greek, Bulgarian, and Serbo-Croatian. Historically, the Rashi script and its cursive form Solitreo have been the main orthographies for writing Judaeo-Spanish. However, today it is mainly written with the Latin alphabet, though some other alphabets such as Hebrew and Cyrillic are still in use. Judaeo-Spanish has been known also by other names, such as: (), () or (), (), () or (in North Africa). In Turkey, and formerly in the Ottoman Empire, it has been traditionally called in

Turkish Turkish may refer to: *a Turkic language spoken by the Turks * of or about Turkey ** Turkish language *** Turkish alphabet ** Turkish people, a Turkic ethnic group and nation *** Turkish citizen, a citizen of Turkey *** Turkish communities and mi ...

, meaning the "Jewish language." In Israel, Hebrew speakers usually call the language , , and only in recent years . Judaeo-Spanish, once the Jewish trade language of the Adriatic Sea, the Balkans, and the Middle-East, and renowned for its rich literature, especially in Salonika, today is under serious threat of extinction. Most native speakers are elderly, and the language is not transmitted to their children or grandchildren for various reasons; consequently, all Judeo-Spanish-speaking communities are undergoing a language shift. In some expatriate communities in Spain, Latin America, and elsewhere, there is a threat of assimilation by modern Spanish. It is experiencing, however, a minor revival among Sephardic communities, especially in music.

Name

The scholar Joseph Nehama, author of the comprehensive Judeo-Spanish–French dictionary, referred to the language as . The 1903 Hebrew–Judeo-Spanish Haggadah entitled "" (), from the Sephardic community of Livorno, Italy, refers to the language used for explanation as the ''Sefaradi'' language. The rare Judeo-Spanish language textbook entitled , published in Salonica in 1929, referred to the language as and . The language is also called ''Judeo-Espanyol'', ''Judeoespañol'',Entry "judeoespañol, la"
in the '' Diccionario de la Real Academia Española'' (DRAE). Retrieved on 1 June 2019. ''Sefardí'', ''Judío'', and ''Espanyol'' or ''Español sefardita''; '' Haquetía'' (from the Arabic ''ħaka'' , "tell") refers to the dialect of North Africa, especially Morocco. Judeo-Spanish has also been referred to as ''Judesmo'' (also ''Judezmo, Djudesmo'' or ''Djudezmo''). However, in limited parts of Macedonia, its former use in the past as a low-register designation in informal speech by unschooled people has been documented. The dialect of the Oran area of Algeria was called ''

Tetuani Tetuani (or ; ar, تطوانى; or ''Haketia'') is a dialect of Judaeo-Spanish, a Jewish Romance language historically spoken by the North African Sephardim in the Algerian city of Oran.Tétouan since many Orani Jews came from there. In Hebrew, the language is called (). An entry in ''

Ethnologue ''Ethnologue: Languages of the World'' (stylized as ''Ethnoloɠue'') is an annual reference publication in print and online that provides statistics and other information on the living languages of the world. It is the world's most comprehensiv ...

'' claims, "The name 'Judesmo' is used by Jewish linguists and Turkish Jews and American Jews; 'Judeo-Spanish' by Romance philologists; 'Ladino' by laymen, initially in Israel; 'Haketia' by Moroccan Jews; 'Spanyol' by some others." That does not reflect the historical usage. In the Judaeo-Spanish press of the 19th and 20th centuries the native authors referred to the language almost exclusively as -, which was also the name that its native speakers spontaneously gave to it for as long as it was their primary spoken language. More rarely, the bookish ''Judeo-Espanyol'' has also been used since the late 19th century. In recent decades in Israel, followed by the United States and Spain, the language has come to be referred to as ''Ladino'' (), literally meaning "Latin". This name for the language was promoted by a body called the , although speakers of the language in Israel referred to their mother tongue as or . Native speakers of the language consider the name ''Ladino'' to be incorrect, reserving the term for the "semi-sacred" language used in word-by-word translations from the Bible, which is distinct from the spoken vernacular.Haim-Vidal Sephiha
''Judeo-Spanish''
on the former website of the Jewish Museum of Thessaloniki ( Salonika). . Retrieved on 19 October 2011. According to the website of the Jewish Museum of Thessaloniki, the cultural center of Sephardic Judaism after the expulsion from Spain,

"Ladino is not spoken, rather, it is the product of a word-for-word translation of Hebrew or Aramaic biblical or liturgical texts made by rabbis in the Jewish schools of Spain. In these translations, a specific Hebrew or Aramaic word always corresponded to the same Spanish word, as long as no exegetical considerations prevented this. In short, Ladino is only Hebrew clothed in Spanish, or Spanish with Hebrew syntax. The famous Ladino translation of the Bible, the Biblia de Ferrara (1553), provided inspiration for the translation of numerous Spanish Christian Bibles."

The derivation of the name ''Ladino'' is complicated. Before the expulsion of Jews from Spain, the word meant literary Spanish, as opposed to other dialects or Romance in general, as distinct from Arabic. (The first European language grammar and dictionary, of Spanish, referred to it as ''ladino'' or ''ladina''. In the Middle Ages, the word ''Latin'' was frequently used to mean simply "language", particularly one understood: a ''latiner'' or ''latimer'' meant a translator.) Following the Expulsion, Jews spoke of "the Ladino" to mean the word-for-word translation of the Bible into Old Spanish. By extension, it came to mean that style of Spanish generally in the same way that (among Kurdish Jews) '' Targum'' has come to mean

Judeo-Aramaic Judaeo-Aramaic languages represent a group of Hebrew-influenced Aramaic and Neo-Aramaic languages. Early use Aramaic, like Hebrew, is a Northwest Semitic language, and the two share many features. From the 7th century BCE, Aramaic became the ...

and (among Jews of Arabic-speaking background) ''sharħ'' has come to mean Judeo-Arabic. That Judaeo-Spanish ''ladino'' should not be confused with the ''ladino or

Ladin language Ladin (, also ; autonym: , it, ladino; german: Ladinisch) is a Romance language of the Rhaeto-Romance subgroup, mainly spoken in the Dolomite Mountains in Northern Italy in the provinces of South Tyrol, Trentino, and Belluno, by the Lad ...

'', spoken in part of Northeastern Italy and which has nothing to do with Jews or with Spanish beyond being a

, a property that they share with French, Italian, Portuguese and Romanian.

Origins

At the time of the expulsion from Spain, the day-to-day language of the Jews of different regions of the peninsula was hardly, if at all, different from that of their Christian neighbours, but there may have been some dialect mixing to form a sort of Jewish lingua franca. There was, however, a special style of Spanish used for purposes of study or translation, featuring a more archaic dialect, a large number of Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords and a tendency to render Hebrew word order literally (''ha-laylah ha-zeh'', meaning "this night", was rendered ''la noche la esta'' instead of the normal Spanish ''esta noche''). As mentioned above, authorities confine the term "Ladino" to that style. Following the Expulsion, the process of dialect mixing continued, but Castilian Spanish remained by far the largest contributor. The daily language was increasingly influenced both by the language of study and by the local non-Jewish vernaculars, such as Greek and Turkish. It came to be known as ''Judesmo'' and, in that respect, the development is parallel to that of

Yiddish Yiddish (, or , ''yidish'' or ''idish'', , ; , ''Yidish-Taytsh'', ) is a West Germanic language historically spoken by Ashkenazi Jews. It originated during the 9th century in Central Europe, providing the nascent Ashkenazi community with a ver ...

. However, many speakers, especially among the community leaders, also had command of a more formal style, ''castellano'', which was nearer to the Spanish at the time of the Expulsion.

Source languages

Spanish

The grammar, the phonology, and about 60% of the vocabulary of Judaeo-Spanish is essentially Spanish but, in some respects, it resembles the dialects in southern Spain and South America, rather than the dialects of Central Spain. For example, it has yeísmo ("she" is '/' (Judaeo-Spanish), instead of ') as well as seseo. In many respects, it reproduces the Spanish of the time of the Expulsion, rather than the modern variety, as it retains some archaic features such as the following: * Modern Spanish ''j'', pronounced , corresponds to two different phonemes in Old Spanish: ''x'', pronounced , and ''j'', pronounced . Judaeo-Spanish retains the original sounds. Similarly, ''g'' before ''e'' or ''i'' remains or , not . ** Contrast ''baxo''/''baṣo'' ("low" or "down," with , modern Spanish ''bajo'') and ''mujer'' ("woman" or "wife," spelled the same, with ). * Modern Spanish ''z'' (''c'' before ''e'' or ''i''), pronounced or , like the "th" in English "think," corresponds to two different phonemes in Old Spanish: ''ç'' (''c'' before ''e'' or ''i''), pronounced ; and ''z'' (in all positions), pronounced . In Judaeo-Spanish, they are pronounced and , respectively. **Contrast ''coraçón''/''korasón'' ("heart," with , modern Spanish ''corazón'') and ''dezir'' ("to say," with , modern Spanish ''decir''). * In modern Spanish, the use of the letters ''b'' and ''v'' is determined partly on the basis of earlier forms of the language and partly on the basis of Latin etymology: both letters represent one phoneme (), realised as or as , according to its position. In Judaeo-Spanish, and are different phonemes: ''boz'' ''voice'' vs. ''vos'' ''you''. ''v'' is a labiodental "v," like in English, rather than a bilabial.

Portuguese and other Iberian languages

However, the phonology of both the consonants and part of the lexicon is, in some respects, closer to Galician-Portuguese and Catalan than to modern Spanish. That is explained by direct influence but also because all three languages retained some of the characteristics of medieval Ibero-Romance languages that Spanish later lost. There was a mutual influence with the Judaeo-Portuguese of the Portuguese Jews. Contrast Judaeo-Spanish ' ("still") with Portuguese ' (Galician ', Asturian ' or ') and Spanish ' or the initial consonants in Judaeo-Spanish ', ' ("daughter," "speech"), Portuguese ', ' (Galician ', ', Asturian ', ', Aragonese ', ', Catalan '), Spanish ', '. It sometimes varied with dialect, as in Judaeo-Spanish popular songs, both ' and ' ("son") are found. The Judaeo-Spanish pronunciation of ''s'' as "" before a "k" sound or at the end of certain words (such as ', pronounced , for six) is shared with Portuguese (as spoken in Portugal, most of Lusophone Asia and Africa, and in a plurality of Brazilian dialects and registers with either partial or total forms of coda , S, palatalization) but not with Spanish.

Hebrew and Aramaic

Like other Jewish vernaculars, Judaeo-Spanish incorporates many Hebrew and Aramaic words, mostly for religious concepts and institutions. Examples are ''haham/ḥaḥam'' (rabbi, from Hebrew ''ḥakham'') and ''kal, kahal''/''cal, cahal'' (synagogue, from Hebrew ''qahal'').

Other languages

Judaeo-Spanish has absorbed some words from the local languages but sometimes Hispanicised their form: ''bilbilico'' (nightingale), from Persian (via Turkish) ''bülbül''. It may be compared to the Slavic elements in Yiddish. Because of the large number of Arabic words in Spanish generally, it is not always clear whether some of these words were introduced before the Expulsion or adopted later; modern Spanish replaced some of these loans with

Latinism A Latinism (from lat-med, Latinismus) is a word, idiom, or structure in a language other than Latin that is derived from, or suggestive of, the Latin language. The Term ''Latinism'' refers to those loan words that are borrowed into another lang ...

s after the Reconquista, where Judaeo-Spanish speakers had no motivation to do so.

Phonology

Judaeo-Spanish phonology consists of 27 phonemes: 22 consonants and 5 vowels.

Consonants

Vowels

Phonological differences from Spanish

As exemplified in the Sources section above, much of the phonology of Judaeo-Spanish is similar to that of standard modern Spanish. Here are some exceptions: * It is claimed that, unlike all other non-creole varieties of Spanish, Judaeo-Spanish does not contrast the trill and the tap/flap . However, that claim is not universally accepted. * The Spanish is in some dialects of Judaeo-Spanish: ''nuevo, nuestro → muevo, muestro.'' * The Judaeo-Spanish phoneme inventory includes separate and : ''jurnal'' ''('newspaper')'' vs ''jugar/djugar'' ''('to play')''. Neither phoneme is used in modern Spanish, where they have been replaced by the ''jota'' ''jornal'' , ''jugar'' . * While Spanish pronounces both b and v as ( or ), Judeo-Spanish distinguishes between the two with b representing and v representing : ''bivir'' (''to live'') * Judaeo-Spanish has (at least in some varieties) little or no diphthongization of tonic vowels, e.g. in the following lullaby: ** (Judaeo-Spanish text) ''Durme, durme, kerido ijiko, ..Serra tus lindos ojikos, ..' ** (Equivalent Spanish) ''Duerme, duerme, querido hijito, ..Cierra tus lindos ojitos, ..' ** (Translation) ''Sleep, Sleep, beloved little son, ..close your beautiful little eyes, ..' * There is a tendency to drop at the end of a word or syllable, as in

Andalusian Spanish The Andalusian dialects of Spanish ( es, andaluz, , ) are spoken in Andalusia, Ceuta, Melilla, and Gibraltar. They include perhaps the most distinct of the southern variants of peninsular Spanish, differing in many respects from northern varietie ...

and many other Spanish dialects in Spain and the Americas: ''Dios'' -> ''Dio'' (God), ''amargasteis'' -> ''amargátex/amargatesh'' (you have embittered). The form ''Dió'', however, is usually explained as an example of

folk etymology Folk etymology (also known as popular etymology, analogical reformation, reanalysis, morphological reanalysis or etymological reinterpretation) is a change in a word or phrase resulting from the replacement of an unfamiliar form by a more famili ...

: taking the ''s'' as a plural ending (which it is not) and attributing it to Christian trinitarianism. Thus, removing the ''s'' produced a more clearly monotheistic word for God. This may, however, be itself a folk etymology, as the Hebrew word for God is itself easily mistaken for a plural form (

Elohim ''Elohim'' (: ), the plural of (), is a Hebrew word meaning "gods". Although the word is plural, in the Hebrew Bible it usually takes a singular verb and refers to a single deity, particularly (but not always) the God of Israel. At other times ...

), making it unlikely that religious Jews would see a problem with ''Dios''. Although the word ''dio'' does not exist in any other form of Spanish, except as two conjugations of the verb , ''Dios'' is often pronounced as ''Dio'' due to the aforementioned phonological phenomenon.

Morphology

Judaeo-Spanish is distinguished from other Spanish dialects by the presence of the following features: * Judaeo-Spanish maintains the second-person

pronouns In linguistics and grammar, a pronoun (list of glossing abbreviations, abbreviated ) is a word or a group of words that one may substitute for a noun or noun phrase. Pronouns have traditionally been regarded as one of the part of speech, parts o ...

''tú/tu'' (informal singular), ''vos'' (formal singular) and ''vosotros/vozotros'' (plural); the third-person ''él/ella/ellos/ellas / el/eya/eyos/eyas'' are also used in the formal register. The Spanish pronouns ''

usted Spanish personal pronouns have distinct forms according to whether they stand for the subject (nominative) or object, and third-person pronouns make an additional distinction for direct object (accusative) or indirect object (dative), and for r ...

'' and ''ustedes'' do not exist. * In verbs, the

preterite The preterite or preterit (; abbreviated or ) is a grammatical tense or verb form serving to denote events that took place or were completed in the past; in some languages, such as Spanish, French, and English, it is equivalent to the simple pas ...

indicates that an action taken once in the past was also completed at some point in the past. That is as opposed to the imperfect, which refers to any continuous, habitual, unfinished or repetitive past action. Thus, "I ate falafel yesterday" would use the first-person preterite form of eat, ''comí''/''komí'' but "When I lived in Izmir, I ran five miles every evening" would use the first-person imperfect form, ''corría''/''koria''. Though some of the morphology has changed, usage is just as in normative Spanish. * In general, Judaeo-Spanish uses the Spanish plural morpheme /-(e)s/. The Hebrew plural endings ''/-im/'' and ''/-ot/'' are used with Hebrew loanwords, as well as with a few words from Spanish: ''ladrón/ladron'' (thief): ''ladrones, ladronim''; ''hermano/ermano'' (brother): ''hermanos/hermanim / ermanos/ermanim.'' Similarly, some loaned feminine nouns ending in -á can take either the Spanish or Hebrew plural: ''quehilá/keilá'' (synagogue): ''quehilás/quehilot / keilas/keilot.'' * Judaeo-Spanish contains more gendering cases than standard Spanish, prominently in adjectives, (''grande/-a, inferior/-ra'') as well as in nouns (''vozas, fuentas'') and in the interrogative ''qualo/quala / kualo/kuala.''

Verb conjugation

Regular conjugation for the present tense: Regular conjugation in the preterite: Regular conjugation in the imperfect:

Syntax

Judaeo-Spanish follows Spanish for most of its

syntax In linguistics, syntax () is the study of how words and morphemes combine to form larger units such as phrases and sentences. Central concerns of syntax include word order, grammatical relations, hierarchical sentence structure ( constituency) ...

. (That is not true of the written calque language involving word-for-word translations from Hebrew, which scholars refer to as "Ladino", as described above.) Like Spanish, it generally follows a subject–verb–object word order, has a nominative-accusative alignment, and is considered a fusional or inflected language.

Orthography

The following systems of writing Judaeo-Spanish have been used or proposed. * Traditionally, especially in religious texts, Judaeo-Spanish was printed in

Hebrew writing The Hebrew alphabet ( he, אָלֶף־בֵּית עִבְרִי, ), known variously by scholars as the Ktav Ashuri, Jewish script, square script and block script, is an abjad script used in the writing of the Hebrew language and other Jewis ...

(especially in Rashi script), a practice that was very common, possibly almost universal, until the 19th century. That was called '' aljamiado'', by analogy with the equivalent use of the

Arabic script The Arabic script is the writing system used for Arabic and several other languages of Asia and Africa. It is the second-most widely used writing system in the world by number of countries using it or a script directly derived from it, and the ...

. It occasionally persists, especially in religious use. Everyday written records of the language used Solitreo, a semi-cursive script similar to Rashi script that shifted to square letter for Hebrew/Aramaic words. Solitreo is clearly different from the Ashkenazi Cursive Hebrew used today in Israel, but it is also related to Rashi script. (A comparative table is provided in the article on

Cursive Hebrew Cursive Hebrew ( he, כתב עברי רהוט , "flowing Hebrew writing", or , "Hebrew handwriting", often called simply ', "writing") is a collective designation for several styles of handwriting the Hebrew alphabet. Modern Hebrew, especially i ...

.) Hebrew writing of the language freely uses

matres lectionis ''Matres lectionis'' (from Latin "mothers of reading", singular form: ''mater lectionis'', from he, אֵם קְרִיאָה ) are consonants that are used to indicate a vowel, primarily in the writing down of Semitic languages such as Arabic, ...

: final -a is written with (''heh'') and (''waw'') can represent or . Both s () and x () are generally written with , as is generally reserved for c before e or i and ç. However, borrowed Hebrew words retain their Hebrew spelling, without vowels. * The Greek alphabet and the Cyrillic script were used in the past, but this is rare or nonexistent nowadays. * In Turkey, Judaeo-Spanish is most commonly written in the Turkish variant of the Latin alphabet. That may be the most widespread system in use today, as following the decimation of Sephardic communities throughout much of Europe (particularly in Greece and the Balkans) during The Holocaust, the greatest proportion of speakers remaining were Turkish Jews. However, the Judaeo-Spanish page of the Turkish Jewish newspaper Şalom now uses the Israeli system. * The Israeli Autoridad Nasionala del Ladino promotes a phonetic transcription in the Latin alphabet, without making any concessions to Spanish orthography, and uses the transcription in its publication '' Aki Yerushalayim''. The songs ''Non komo muestro Dio'' and ''Por una ninya'',

below Below may refer to: *Earth *Ground (disambiguation) *Soil *Floor *Bottom (disambiguation) Bottom may refer to: Anatomy and sex * Bottom (BDSM), the partner in a BDSM who takes the passive, receiving, or obedient role, to that of the top or ...

, and the text in the sample paragraph, below, are written using the system. * The American Library of Congress has published the Romanization standard it uses. * Works published in Spain usually adopt the standard orthography of modern Spanish to make them easier for modern Spanish speakers to read. The editions often use diacritics to show where the Judaeo-Spanish pronunciation differs from modern Spanish. * Pablo Carvajal Valdés and others have suggested adopting the orthography that was used at the time of the Expulsion.

''Aki Yerushalayim'' orthography

'' Aki Yerushalayim'' magazine, owned by Autoridad Nasionala del Ladino, promotes the following orthography: *A dot is written between ''s'' and ''h'' (s·h) to represent to avoid confusion with : ''es·huenyo'' (dream). *Unlike mainstream Spanish, stressed diacritics are not represented. *Loanwords and foreign names retain their original spelling, and ''q'' or ''w'' would be used only for such words.

Hebrew orthography

Judaeo-Spanish is traditionally written in a Hebrew-based script, specially in Rashi script and its Solitreo cursive variant. The Hebrew orthography is not regulated, but sounds are generally represented by the following letters:

History

In the medieval Iberian peninsula, now Spain and Portugal, Jews spoke a variety of Romance dialects. Following the 1490s expulsion from Spain and Portugal, most of the Iberian Jews resettled in the Ottoman Empire. Jews in the Ottoman Balkans, Western Asia (especially Turkey), and North Africa (especially Morocco) developed their own Romance dialects, with some influence from Hebrew and other languages, which became what is now known as Judaeo-Spanish. Later on, many Portuguese Jews also escaped to France, Italy, the Netherlands and England, establishing small groups in those nations as well, but these spoke early modern Spanish or Portuguese rather than Judaeo-Spanish. Jews in the Middle Ages were instrumental in the development of Spanish into a prestige language. Erudite Jews translated Arabic and Hebrew works, often translated earlier from Greek, into Spanish. Christians translated them again into Latin for transmission to Europe. Until recent times, the language was widely spoken throughout the Balkans, Turkey/Western Asia and North Africa, as Judaeo-Spanish had been brought there by the Jewish refugees. The contact among Jews of different regions and languages, including Catalan, Leonese and Portuguese developed a unified dialect, differing in some aspects from the Spanish norm that was forming simultaneously in Spain, but some of the mixing may have already occurred in exile rather than in the Iberian Peninsula. The language was known as ''Yahudice'' (Jewish language) in the Ottoman Empire. In the late 18th century, Ottoman poet Enderunlu Fazıl ( Fazyl bin Tahir Enderuni) wrote in his '' Zenanname'': "Castilians speak the Jewish language but they are not Jews." The closeness and mutual comprehensibility between Judaeo-Spanish and Spanish favoured trade among Sephardim, often relatives, from the Ottoman Empire to the Netherlands and the ''

converso A ''converso'' (; ; feminine form ''conversa''), "convert", () was a Jew who converted to Catholicism in Spain or Portugal, particularly during the 14th and 15th centuries, or one of his or her descendants. To safeguard the Old Christian po ...

s'' of the Iberian Peninsula. Over time, a corpus of literature, both liturgical and secular, developed. Early literature was limited to translations from Hebrew. At the end of the 17th century, Hebrew was disappearing as the vehicle for rabbinic instruction. Thus, a literature appeared in the 18th century, such as Me'am Lo'ez and poetry collections. By the end of the 19th century, the Sephardim in the Ottoman Empire studied in schools of the Alliance Israélite Universelle. French became the language for foreign relations, as it did for

Maronite The Maronites ( ar, الموارنة; syr, ܡܖ̈ܘܢܝܐ) are a Christian ethnoreligious group native to the Eastern Mediterranean and Levant region of the Middle East, whose members traditionally belong to the Maronite Church, with the larges ...

s, and Judaeo-Spanish drew from French for neologisms. New secular genres appeared, with more than 300 journals, history, theatre, and biographies. Given the relative isolation of many communities, a number of regional dialects of Judaeo-Spanish appeared, many with only limited mutual comprehensibility, largely because of the adoption of large numbers of loanwords from the surrounding populations, including, depending on the location of the community, from Greek, Turkish, Arabic and, in the Balkans, Slavic languages, especially Serbo-Croatian and Bulgarian. The borrowing in many Judaeo-Spanish dialects is so heavy that up to 30% of their vocabulary is of non-Spanish origin. Some words also passed from Judaeo-Spanish into neighbouring languages. For example, the word ''palavra'' "word" (

Vulgar Latin Vulgar Latin, also known as Popular or Colloquial Latin, is the range of non-formal Register (sociolinguistics), registers of Latin spoken from the Crisis of the Roman Republic, Late Roman Republic onward. Through time, Vulgar Latin would evolve ...

= "parabola"; Greek = "parabole"), passed into Turkish, Greek and Romanian
palavră
' in the ''Dicționarul etimologic român'', , Universidad de la Laguna, Tenerife, 1958–1966: ''Cuvînt introdus probabil prin. iud. sp'': "Word introduced probably through Judaeo-Spanish. with the meaning "bunk, hokum, humbug, bullshit" in Turkish and Romanian and "big talk, boastful talk" in Greek (compare the English word "palaver"). Nuevo Silibaryo Espanyol Ladino textbook Salonica 1929

Nuevo Silibaryo Espanyol Ladino textbook Salonica 1929

Judaeo-Spanish was the common language of Salonika during the Ottoman period. The city became part of Greece in 1912 and was subsequently renamed Thessaloniki. Despite the Great Fire of Thessaloniki and mass settlement of Christian refugees, the language remained widely spoken in Salonika until the deportation of 50,000 Salonikan Jews in the Holocaust during the Second World War. According to the 1928 census, the language had 62,999 native speakers in Greece. The figure drops down to 53,094 native speakers in 1940, but 21,094 citizens "usually" spoke the language. Judaeo-Spanish was also a language used in '' Donmeh'' rites (''Dönme'' being a Turkish word for "convert" to refer to adepts of

Sabbatai Tsevi Sabbatai Zevi (; August 1, 1626 – c. September 17, 1676), also spelled Shabbetai Ẓevi, Shabbeṯāy Ṣeḇī, Shabsai Tzvi, Sabbatai Zvi, and ''Sabetay Sevi'' in Turkish, was a Jewish mystic and ordained rabbi from Smyrna (now İzmir, Turke ...

converting to Islam in the Ottoman Empire). An example is ''Sabbatai Tsevi esperamos a ti''. Today, the religious practices and the ritual use of Judaeo-Spanish seems confined to elderly generations. The Castilian colonisation of Northern Africa favoured the role of polyglot Sephards, who bridged between Spanish -colonizers and Arab and Berber speakers. From the 17th to the 19th centuries, Judaeo-Spanish was the predominant Jewish language in the Holy Land, but its dialect was different in some respects from the one in Greece and Turkey. Some families have lived in Jerusalem for centuries and preserve Judaeo-Spanish for cultural and folklore purposes although they now use Hebrew in everyday life. An often-told Sephardic anecdote from

Bosnia-Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina ( sh, / , ), abbreviated BiH () or B&H, sometimes called Bosnia–Herzegovina and Pars pro toto#Geography, often known informally as Bosnia, is a country at the crossroads of Southern Europe, south and southeast Euro ...

has it that as a Spanish consulate was opened in Sarajevo in the

interwar period In the history of the 20th century, the interwar period lasted from 11 November 1918 to 1 September 1939 (20 years, 9 months, 21 days), the end of the World War I, First World War to the beginning of the World War II, Second World War. The in ...

, two Sephardic women passed by. Upon hearing a Catholic priest who was speaking Spanish, they thought that his language meant that he was Jewish. In the 20th century, the number of speakers declined sharply: entire communities were murdered in the Holocaust, and the remaining speakers, many of whom emigrated to Israel, adopted Hebrew. The governments of the new

nation-state A nation state is a political unit where the state and nation are congruent. It is a more precise concept than "country", since a country does not need to have a predominant ethnic group. A nation, in the sense of a common ethnicity, may inc ...

s encouraged instruction in the official languages. At the same time, Judaeo-Spanish aroused the interest of philologists, as it conserved language and literature from before the standardisation of Spanish. Judaeo-Spanish is in a serious danger of extinction because many native speakers today are elderly ''olim'' (immigrants to Israel), who have not transmitted the language to their children or grandchildren. Nevertheless, it is experiencing a minor revival among Sephardic communities, especially in music. In addition, Sephardic communities in several Latin American countries still use Judaeo-Spanish. There, the language is exposed to the different danger of assimilation to modern Spanish. Kol YisraelReka Network
Kol Israel International and Radio Nacional de España Radio Exterior de España
Emisión en sefardí
/ref> hold regular radio broadcasts in Judaeo-Spanish. '' Law & Order: Criminal Intent'' showed an episode, titled " A Murderer Among Us", with references to the language. Films partially or totally in Judaeo-Spanish include Mexican film ''Novia que te vea'' (directed by Guita Schyfter), The House on Chelouche Street, and ''Every Time We Say Goodbye''. Efforts have been made to gather and publish modern Judaeo-Spanish fables and folktales. In 2001, the

Jewish Publication Society The Jewish Publication Society (JPS), originally known as the Jewish Publication Society of America, is the oldest nonprofit, nondenominational publisher of Jewish works in English. Founded in Philadelphia in 1888, by reform Rabbi Joseph Krauskop ...

published the first English translation of Judaeo-Spanish folktales, collected by Matilda Koen-Sarano, ''Folktales of Joha, Jewish Trickster: The Misadventures of the Guileful Sephardic Prankster.'' A survivor of

Auschwitz Auschwitz concentration camp ( (); also or ) was a complex of over 40 concentration and extermination camps operated by Nazi Germany in occupied Poland (in a portion annexed into Germany in 1939) during World War II and the Holocaust. It con ...

, Moshe Ha-Elion, issued his translation into Judeo-Spanish of the ancient Greek epic The Odyssey in 2012, in his 87th year, and he is now translating the sister epic, the Iliad, into his mother tongue. The language was initially spoken by the Sephardic Jewish community in India, but was later replaced with Judeo-Malayalam.

Literature

The first printed Ladino book was '' Me-'am lo'ez'' in 1730. It was a commentary on the Bible in the Ladino language. Most Jews in the Ottoman Empire knew the Hebrew alphabet but did not speak Hebrew. The printing of ''Me-'am lo'ez'' marked the emergence of large scale printing activity in Ladino in the western Ottoman Empire and in Istanbul in particular. The earliest Judaeo-Spanish books were religious in nature, mostly created to maintain religious knowledge for exiles who could not read Hebrew; the first of the known texts is ''Dinim de shehitah i bedikah (The Rules of Ritual Slaughter and Inspection of Animals;'' Istanbul, 1510). Texts continued to be focussed on philosophical and religious themes, including a large body of rabbinic writings, until the first half of the 19th century. The largest output of secular Judaeo-Spanish literature occurred during the latter half of the 19th and the early 20th centuries in the Ottoman Empire. The earliest and most abundant form of secular text was the periodical press: between 1845 and 1939, Ottoman Sephardim published around 300 individual periodical titles. The proliferation of periodicals gave rise to serialised novels: many of them were rewrites of existing foreign novels into Judaeo-Spanish. Unlike the previous scholarly literature, they were intended for a broader audience of educated men and less-educated women alike. They covered a wider range of less weighty content, at times censored to be appropriate for family readings. Popular literature expanded to include love stories and adventure stories, both of which had been absent from Judaeo-Spanish literary canon. The literary corpus meanwhile also expanded to include theatrical plays, poems and other minor genres. Multiple documents made by the Ottoman government were translated into Judaeo-Spanish; usually translators used terms from Ottoman Turkish.
info page on book
at Martin Luther University) // CITED: p. 36 (PDF p. 38/338). "This seems surprising insofar as Judaeo-Spanish translators do not generally shun Turkish terms."

Religious use

The Jewish communities of Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and

Belgrade Belgrade ( , ;, ; Names of European cities in different languages: B, names in other languages) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities in Serbia, largest city in Serbia. It is located at the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers a ...

, Serbia, still chant part of the Sabbath Prayers (''Mizmor David'') in Judaeo-Spanish. The Sephardic Synagogue Ezra Bessaroth in Seattle, Washington, United States, was formed by Jews from Turkey and the Greek island of Rhodes, and it uses the language in some portions of its

Shabbat Shabbat (, , or ; he, שַׁבָּת, Šabbāṯ, , ) or the Sabbath (), also called Shabbos (, ) by Ashkenazim, is Judaism's day of rest on the seventh day of the week—i.e., Saturday. On this day, religious Jews remember the biblical storie ...

services. The Siddur is called Zehut Yosef and was written by Hazzan Isaac Azose. At Congregation Etz Ahaim of Highland Park, New Jersey, a congregation founded by Sephardic Jews from Salonika, a reader chants the Aramaic prayer ''B'rikh Shemay'' in Judaeo-Spanish before he takes out the Torah on

. That is known as ''Bendichu su Nombre'' in Judaeo-Spanish. Additionally, at the end of Shabbat services, the entire congregation sings the well-known Hebrew hymn '' Ein Keloheinu,'' which is ''Non Como Muestro Dio'' in Judaeo-Spanish. ''Non Como Muestro Dio'' is also included, alongside ''Ein Keloheinu'', in '' Mishkan T'filah'', the 2007 Reform prayerbook. ''El Dio Alto (El Dyo Alto)'' is a Sephardic hymn often sung during the Havdalah service, its currently popular tune arranged by

Judy Frankel Judy is a short form of the name Judith. Judy may refer to: Places * Judy, Kentucky, village in Montgomery County, United States * Judy Woods, woodlands in Bradford, West Yorkshire, England, United Kingdom Animals * Judy (dog) (1936–1950) ...

. Hazzan Isaac Azose, cantor emeritus of Synagogue Ezra Bessaroth and second-generation Turkish immigrant, has performed an alternative Ottoman tune. Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan translated some scholarly religious texts, including '' Me'am Loez'' into Hebrew, English or both. Izmir's grand rabbis Haim Palachi, Abraham Palacci, and Rahamim Nissim Palacci all wrote in the language and in Hebrew. Dedicated Yad Vashem

Modern education and use

As with Yiddish, Judaeo-Spanish is seeing a minor resurgence in educational interest in colleges across the United States and in Israel. Almost all

American Jews American Jews or Jewish Americans are American citizens who are Jewish, whether by religion, ethnicity, culture, or nationality. Today the Jewish community in the United States consists primarily of Ashkenazi Jews, who descend from diaspora J ...

are

Ashkenazi Ashkenazi Jews ( ; he, יְהוּדֵי אַשְׁכְּנַז, translit=Yehudei Ashkenaz, ; yi, אַשכּנזישע ייִדן, Ashkenazishe Yidn), also known as Ashkenazic Jews or ''Ashkenazim'',, Ashkenazi Hebrew pronunciation: , singu ...

, with a tradition based on Yiddish, rather than Judaeo-Spanish, and so institutions that offer Yiddish are more common. the University of Pennsylvania and Tufts University offered Judaeo-Spanish courses among colleges in the United States. In Israel, Moshe David Gaon Center for Ladino Culture at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev is leading the way in education (language and literature courses, Community oriented activities) and research (a yearly scientific journal, international congresses and conferences etc.). Hebrew University also offers courses. The Complutense University of Madrid also used to have courses. Prof. David Bunis taught Judaeo-Spanish at the University of Washington, in Seattle during the 2013–14 academic year. Bunis returned to the University of Washington for the Summer 2020 quarter. In Spain, the Spanish Royal Academy (RAE) in 2017 announced plans to create a Judaeo-Spanish branch in Israel in addition to 23 existing academies, in various Spanish-speaking countries, that are associated in the Association of Spanish Language Academies. Its stated purpose is to preserve Judaeo-Spanish. The move was seen as another step to make up for the Expulsion, following the offer of Spanish citizenship to Sephardim who had some connection with Spain.

Melis Alphan Melis Alphan (Melis Çelebi: 1978, İzmir), is a Turkish journalist and author known for her Women in Turkey, women's rights activism and her fashion journalism. Education Following her graduation from the American Collegiate Institute, America ...

wrote in '' Hürriyet'' in 2017 that the Judaeo-Spanish language in Turkey was heading to extinction.

Samples

Comparison with other languages

:''Note: Judaeo-Spanish samples in this section are generally written in the ''Aki Yerushalayim'' orthography unless otherwise specified.''

Songs

Folklorists have been collecting ''romances'' and other folk songs, some dating from before the expulsion. Many religious songs in Judeo-Spanish are translations of Hebrew, usually with a different tune. For example, here is '' Ein Keloheinu'' in Judeo-Spanish: Other songs relate to secular themes such as love: Anachronistically, Abraham—who in the Bible is an Aramean and the very first Hebrew and the ancestor of all who followed, hence his appellation "Avinu" (Our Father)—is in the Judeo-Spanish song born already in the "djudería" (modern Spanish: ), the Jewish quarter. This makes Terach and his wife into Hebrews, as are the parents of other babies killed by Nimrod. In essence, unlike its Biblical model, the song is about a Hebrew community persecuted by a cruel king and witnessing the birth of a miraculous saviour—a subject of obvious interest and attraction to the Jewish people who composed and sang it in

Medieval Spain Spain in the Middle Ages is a period in the History of Spain that began in the 5th Century following the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and ended with the beginning of the Early modern period in 1492. The history of Spain is marked by waves ...

. The song attributes to Abraham elements that are from the story of

Moses Moses hbo, מֹשֶׁה, Mōše; also known as Moshe or Moshe Rabbeinu (Mishnaic Hebrew: מֹשֶׁה רַבֵּינוּ, ); syr, ܡܘܫܐ, Mūše; ar, موسى, Mūsā; grc, Mωϋσῆς, Mōÿsēs () is considered the most important pro ...

's birth, the cruel king killing innocent babies, with the midwives ordered to kill them, the 'holy light' in the Jewish area, as well as from the careers of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego who emerged unscathed from the fiery furnace, and

Jesus of Nazareth Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label=Hebrew/Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other names and titles), was a first-century Jewish preacher and religious ...

. Nimrod is thus made to conflate the role and attributes of three archetypal cruel and persecuting kings:

Nebuchadnezzar Nebuchadnezzar II (Babylonian cuneiform: ''Nabû-kudurri-uṣur'', meaning "Nabu, watch over my heir"; Biblical Hebrew: ''Nəḇūḵaḏneʾṣṣar''), also spelled Nebuchadrezzar II, was the second king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, ruling ...

and Pharaoh and Herod Another example is the

Coplas de Purim Purim (; , ; see Name below) is a Jewish holiday which commemorates the saving of the Jews, Jewish people from Haman, an official of the Achaemenid Empire who was planning to have all of Persia's Jewish subjects killed, as recounted in the Boo ...

, a folk song about Purim

Selected words by origin

''Words derived from Arabic'': * Alforría – "liberty", "freedom" * Alhát – "Sunday" * Atemar – to terminate * Saraf – "money changer" * Shara – "wood" * Ziara – "cemetery visit" ''Words derived from Hebrew'': * Alefbet – "alphabet" (from the Hebrew names of the first two letters of the alphabet) * Anav – "humble", "obedient" * Arón – "grave" * Atakanear – to arrange * Badkar – to reconsider * Beraxa – "blessing" * Din – "religious law" * Kal – "community", "synagogue" * Kamma – "how much?", "how many?" * Maaráv – "west" * Maasé – "story", "event" * Maabe – "deluge", "downpour", "torrent" * Mazal – "star", "destiny" * Met – "dead" * Niftar – "dead" * Purimlik – "Purim present" (Derived from the Hebrew "Purim" + Turkic ending "-lik") * Sedaka – "charity" * Tefilá – "prayer" * Zahut – "blessing" ''Words derived from Persian'': * Chay – "tea" * Chini – "plate" * Paras – "money" * Shasheo – "dizziness" ''Words derived from Portuguese'': * Abastádo – "almighty", "omnipotent" (referring to God) * Aínda – "yet" * Chapeo – "hat" * Preto – "black" (in color) * Trocar – to change ''Words derived from Turkish'': * Balta – "axe" * Biterear – to terminate * Boyadear – to paint, color * Innat – "whim" * Kolay – "easy" * Kushak – "belt", "girdle" * Maalé – "street", "quarters", "neighbourhood"; Maalé yahudí – Jewish quarters

Modern singers

Jennifer Charles and Oren Bloedow from the New York-based band Elysian Fields released a CD in 2001 called ''La Mar Enfortuna,'' which featured modern versions of traditional Sephardic songs, many sung by Charles in Judeo-Spanish. The American singer Tanja Solnik has released several award-winning albums that feature songs in the languages: ''From Generation to Generation: A Legacy of Lullabies'' and ''Lullabies and Love Songs''. There are a number of groups in Turkey that sing in Judeo-Spanish, notably ''Janet – Jak Esim Ensemble'', ''Sefarad'', ''Los Pasharos Sefaradis'' and the children's chorus ''Las Estreyikas d'Estambol''. There is a Brazilian-born singer of Sephardic origins, Fortuna, who researches and plays Judeo-Spanish music. Israeli folk-duo

Esther & Abi Ofarim Esther & Abi Ofarim were an Israeli musical duo active during the 1960s, consisting of husband and wife Abi Ofarim and Esther Ofarim. They enjoyed particular success in Germany. They had hits in Europe with their songs " One More Dance," " Mornin ...

recorded the song 'Yo M'enamori d'un Aire' for their 1968 album ''Up To Date''. Esther Ofarim recorded several Judaeo-Spanish songs as a solo artist. These included 'Povereta Muchachica', 'Noches Noches', El Rey Nimrod', 'Adio Querida' & 'Pampaparapam'. The Jewish Bosnian-American musician Flory Jagoda recorded two CDs of music taught to her by her grandmother, a Sephardic folk singer, among a larger discography. The canto
Dr. Ramón Tasat
who learned Judeo-Spanish at his grandmother's knee in Buenos Aires, has recorded many songs in the language, with three of his CDs focusing primarily on that music. The Israeli singer Yasmin Levy has also brought a new interpretation to the traditional songs by incorporating more "modern" sounds of Andalusian Flamenco. Her work revitalising Sephardic music has earned Levy the Anna Lindh Euro-Mediterranean Foundation Award for promoting cross-cultural dialogue between musicians from three cultures: In Yasmin Levy's own words:

''I am proud to combine the two cultures of Ladino and flamenco, while mixing in Middle Eastern influences. I am embarking on a 500 years old musical journey, taking Ladino to Andalusia and mixing it with flamenco, the style that still bears the musical memories of the old Moorish and Jewish-Spanish world with the sound of the Arab world. In a way it is a 'musical reconciliation' of history.''

Notable music groups performing in Judeo-Spanish include Voice of the Turtle, Oren Bloedow and Jennifer Charles' '' La Mar Enfortuna'' and

Vanya Green Ваня (''Vanya''), a male diminutive of the Russian, Croatian, Serbian, Bulgarian and other Slavic given names Ivan (name), Ivan. It is the Russian, Serbian, Bulgarian and other Slavic form of John (given name), John itself derived from a Hebrew ...

, who was awarded a Fulbright Fellowship for her research and performance of this music. She was recently selected as one of the top ten world music artists by the We are Listening International World of Music Awards for her interpretations of the music. Robin Greenstein, a New York-based musician, received a federal CETA grant in the 1980s to collect and perform Sephardic Music under the guidance of the American Jewish Congress. Her mentor was Joe Elias, noted Sephardic singer from Brooklyn. She recorded residents of the

Sephardic Home for the Aged Sephardic Home for the Aged (also known as ''Sephardic Home for Nursing and Rehabilitation'' and ''Sephardic Nursing and Rehabilitation Center'') was a long-term nursing home and short-term medical rehabilitation facility. Its Brooklyn location ...

, a nursing home in Coney Island, New York, singing songs from their childhood. The voices recorded included Victoria Hazan, a well known Sephardic singer who recorded many 78's in Judaeo-Spanish and Turkish from the 1930s and 1940s. Two Judaeo-Spanish songs can be found on her ''Songs of the Season'' holiday CD, released in 2010 on Windy Records. German band In Extremo also recorded a version of the above-mentioned song ''Avram Avinu.'' The Israeli Mediterranean folk ban
Baladino
has released two albums that have songs with lyrics in Judaeo-Spanish.

References

Notes Citations Bibliography * Barton, Thomas Immanuel (Toivi Cook) (2010) ''Judezmo Expressions''. USA * Barton, Thomas Immanuel (Toivi Cook) (2008) ''Judezmo (Judeo-Castilian) Dictionary''. USA * Bunis, David M. (1999) ''Judezmo: an introduction to the language of the Sephardic Jews of the Ottoman Empire''. Jerusalem * Bunis, David M. (2015) ''Judezmo (Ladino)''. In Lily Kahn and Aaron D. Rubin (eds.), Handbook of Jewish languages, 366-451. Leiden: Brill. * Габинский, Марк А. (1992) ''Сефардский (еврейской-испанский) язык'' (M. A. Gabinsky. ''Sephardic (Judeo-Spanish) language'', in Russian). Chişinău: Ştiinţa * Harris, Tracy. 1994. Death of a language: The history of Judeo-Spanish. Newark, DE: University of Delaware Press. * Hemsi, Alberto (1995) ''Cancionero Sefardí''; edited and with an introduction by Edwin Seroussi (Yuval Music Series; 4.) Jerusaelem: The Jewish Music Research Centre, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem * Hualde, José Ignacio (2013) "Intervocalic lenition and word-boundary effects: Evidence from Judeo-Spanish". ''Diachronica'' 30.2: 232–26. * Kohen, Elli; Kohen-Gordon, Dahlia (2000) ''Ladino-English, English-Ladino: concise encyclopedic dictionary''. New York: Hippocrene Books * Markova, Alla (2008) ''Beginner's Ladino with 2 Audio CDs''. New York: Hippocrene Books * Markus, Shimon (1965) ''Ha-safa ha-sefaradit-yehudit'' (''The Judeo-Spanish language'', in Hebrew). Jerusalem * Minervini, Laura (1999) "The Formation of the Judeo-Spanish koiné: Dialect Convergence in the Sixteenth Century". In ''Proceedings of the Tenth British Conference on Judeo-Spanish Studies''. Edited by Annete Benaim, 41–52. London: Queen Mary and Westfield College. * Minervini, Laura (2006) "El desarollo histórico del judeoespañol", ''Revista Internacional de Lingüística Iberoamericana'' 4.2: 13–34. * Molho, Michael (1950) ''Usos y costumbres de los judíos de Salónica'' * Quintana Rodriguez, Aldina. 2001. Concomitancias lingüisticas entre el aragones y el ladino (judeoespañol). Archivo de Filología Aragonesa 57–58, 163–192. *Quintana Rodriguez, Aldina. 2006. Geografía lingüistica del judeoespañol: Estudio sincrónico y diacrónico. Bern: Peter Lang. *Sephiha, Haïm-Vidal. 1997. "Judeo-Spanish", in Weinstock, Nathan, Sephiha, Haïm-Vidal (with Anita Barrera-Schoonheere) ''Yiddish and Judeo-Spanish: a European Heritage. European Languages 6''. Brussels: European Bureau for Lesser-Used Languages, 23–39. * Varol, Marie-Christine (2004) ''Manuel de Judéo-Espagnol, langue et culture'' (book & CD, in French), Paris: L'Asiathèque

Margalit Matitiahu Margalit Matitiahu (Hebrew: מרגלית מתתיהו, born 1935, in Tel Aviv) is a poet in Ladino language, Ladino and Hebrew language, Hebrew from Israel. After the Holocaust, her parents moved to Israel from Thessaloniki, Greece where they were ...

Socolovsky, Jerome. "Lost Language of Ladino Revived in Spain"
''Morning Edition'', National Public Radio, 19 March 2007.

* ttp://www.tapuz.co.il/tapuzforum/main/anashim.asp?forum=420&pass=1 Israeli Ladino Language Forum (Hebrew)
LadinoType – A Ladino Transliteration System for Solitreo, Meruba, and Rashi

Friday 9 January 1998

* ttp://www.antoniodenebrija.org/indice.html Etext of Nebrija's ''Gramática de la lengua castellana'', showing orthography of Old Spanish
Sefarad
Revista de Estudios Hebraicos, Sefardíes y de Oriente Próximo
ILC
CSIC
Judæo-Spanish Language (Ladino) and Literature, Jewish Encyclopedia
* Dr Yitshak (Itzik) Lev
An authentic documentation of Ladino heritage and culture
* Sephardic Studies Digital Library & Museum
– UW Stroum Jewish Studies
**
"Ladino" or not "Ladino"?
',

David M. Bunis David Monson Bunis (Hebrew:, born June 3, 1952 to Jacob and Marsha Monsohn Bunis) is a professor in the Department of Hebrew and Jewish Languages, Mandel Institute of Jewish Studies, at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and heads its program in J ...

.
An inside look into the Portuguese corpus of words in Nehama's Dictionnaire du Judeo-Espagnol
Yossi Gur, 2003.
Ladino Romanization standard used by the Library of Congress
{{Authority control Judaeo-Spanish languages Endangered Romance languages Sephardi Jewish culture Languages of Turkey Languages of Greece Languages of Spain Diaspora languages Endangered diaspora languages Languages of Israel Languages attested from the 16th century