The Warsaw Jewish Cemetery is one of the largest
Jewish cemeteries
A Jewish cemetery ( he, בית עלמין ''beit almin'' or ''beit kvarot'') is a cemetery where Jews are buried in keeping with Jewish tradition. Cemeteries are referred to in several different ways in Hebrew, including ''beit kevarot'' ...
in
Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...
and in the world. Located on
Warsaw's Okopowa Street and abutting the
Christian
Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words ''Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρι ...
Powązki Cemetery
Powązki Cemetery (; pl, Cmentarz Powązkowski), also known as Stare Powązki ( en, Old Powązki), is a historic necropolis located in Wola district, in the western part of Warsaw, Poland. It is the most famous cemetery in the city and one of t ...
, the Jewish necropolis was established in 1806 and occupies 33
hectare
The hectare (; SI symbol: ha) is a non-SI metric unit of area equal to a square with 100-metre sides (1 hm2), or 10,000 m2, and is primarily used in the measurement of land. There are 100 hectares in one square kilometre. An acre is a ...
s (83 acres) of land. The cemetery contains over 250,000 marked graves,
as well as mass graves of victims of the
Warsaw Ghetto
The Warsaw Ghetto (german: Warschauer Ghetto, officially , "Jewish Residential District in Warsaw"; pl, getto warszawskie) was the largest of the Nazi ghettos during World War II and the Holocaust. It was established in November 1940 by the G ...
. Although the cemetery was closed down during
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
, after the war it was reopened and a small portion of it remains active, serving Warsaw's existing Jewish population.
As the necropolis was established to replace many smaller cemeteries closer to the city centre, it was designed to serve all Jewish communities of Warsaw, regardless of their affiliation. Hence, it is subdivided into several districts dubbed quarters (''kwatery''), historically reserved for various groups. Among them are three
Orthodox
Orthodox, Orthodoxy, or Orthodoxism may refer to:
Religion
* Orthodoxy, adherence to accepted norms, more specifically adherence to creeds, especially within Christianity and Judaism, but also less commonly in non-Abrahamic religions like Neo-pa ...
(for men, women and one for holy scriptures),
Reform Judaism
Reform Judaism, also known as Liberal Judaism or Progressive Judaism, is a major Jewish denomination that emphasizes the evolving nature of Judaism, the superiority of its ethical aspects to its ceremonial ones, and belief in a continuous searc ...
, children, military and
Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising; pl, powstanie w getcie warszawskim; german: link=no, Aufstand im Warschauer Ghetto was the 1943 act of Jewish resistance in the Warsaw Ghetto in German-occupied Poland during World War II to oppose Nazi Germany's ...
victims.
The cemetery, which has become a dense forest in the post-war period, is filled with monuments dedicated to notable personas such as politicians, spiritual leaders, inventors, economists and others. Many of the markers are simple, others are elaborately carved and richly decorated. Large mausoleums appear in styles ranging from
Egyptian revival
Egyptian Revival is an architectural style that uses the motifs and imagery of ancient Egypt. It is attributed generally to the public awareness of ancient Egyptian monuments generated by Napoleon's conquest of Egypt and Admiral Nelson's defeat ...
to
Art Deco
Art Deco, short for the French ''Arts Décoratifs'', and sometimes just called Deco, is a style of visual arts, architecture, and product design, that first appeared in France in the 1910s (just before World War I), and flourished in the Unite ...
.
History
![Jewish grave007](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Jewish_grave007.jpg)
In 1806 Warsaw's
Jewish Commune petitioned the government to establish a new cemetery for Jewish inhabitants of Warsaw.
The
Bródno Jewish Cemetery Bródno Jewish Cemetery (also known as the Jewish Cemetery in Praga) is one of several Jewish cemeteries of Warsaw in Poland. The cemetery is located in the district of Targówek (near the better known district of Praga, and within Praga's unofficia ...
, in existence since 1769, was nearly at capacity and the
chevra kadisha
The term ''Chevra kadisha'' (Modern Hebrew: חֶבְרָה קַדִּישָׁא) gained its modern sense of "burial society" in the nineteenth century. It is an organization of Jewish men and women who see to it that the bodies of deceased Je ...
sought a new burial ground.
[Gold, Rabbi Yoel. "Chesed Shel Emes". '' Ami Living'', January 25, 2017, p. 16.] The lot chosen was located right outside of the city limits in the borough of
Wola
Wola (, ) is a district in western Warsaw, Poland, formerly the village of Wielka Wola, incorporated into Warsaw in 1916. An industrial area with traditions reaching back to the early 19th century, it underwent a transformation into an office (co ...
, next to a new Catholic
Powązki Cemetery
Powązki Cemetery (; pl, Cmentarz Powązkowski), also known as Stare Powązki ( en, Old Powązki), is a historic necropolis located in Wola district, in the western part of Warsaw, Poland. It is the most famous cemetery in the city and one of t ...
established in 1790. The petition was accepted and in the following year the cemetery was established. The earliest
headstone
A headstone, tombstone, or gravestone is a stele or marker, usually stone, that is placed over a grave. It is traditional for burials in the Christian, Jewish, and Muslim religions, among others. In most cases, it has the deceased's name, da ...
was dated December 6, 1806 and belonged to certain Nachum son of Nachum of
Siemiatycze
Siemiatycze ( uk, Сім'ятичі ''Simiatychi'', be, Сямятычы ''Siamiatyčy'') is a town in eastern Poland, with 15,209 inhabitants (2004). It is situated in the Podlaskie Voivodeship (since 1999); previously it was in Białystok Vo ...
, but it did not survive to our times. The first woman interred there was certain Elka Junghoff, daughter of Jehuda Leib Mulrat of
Kalisz
(The oldest city of Poland)
, image_skyline =
, image_caption = ''Top:'' Town Hall, Former "Calisia" Piano Factory''Middle:'' Courthouse, "Gołębnik" tenement''Bottom:'' Aerial view of the Kalisz Old Town
, image_flag = POL Kalisz flag.svg ...
. Her tombstone is dated November 26, 1804, but the date is most likely wrong. Hence the oldest surviving headstone belongs to Sara, daughter of Eliezer (died September 8, 1807).
Unlike other cemeteries in Europe, all the graves in the Okopowa Street cemetery have their backs to the cemetery gate. The tradition of placing graves facing the cemetery gate stems from the belief that at the future
resurrection of the dead
General resurrection or universal resurrection is the belief in a resurrection of the dead, or resurrection from the dead ( Koine: , ''anastasis onnekron''; literally: "standing up again of the dead") by which most or all people who have died ...
, the dead will rise up and be able to leave the cemetery without having to turn around.
[ However, in 1819, when one community member was accidentally buried with his head, rather than his feet, facing the cemetery gate, Rabbi ]Szlomo Zalman Lipszyc
Szlomo Zalman Lipszyc (1765 Poznań - 1839 Warsaw), also known as Salomon Zalman Pozner as well as the Chemdas Shlomo from the title of the works he authored, was a prominent Orthodox rabbi, and first Chief Rabbi of Warsaw.
He studied Torah in ...
, the first Chief Rabbi of Warsaw, ruled that all future burials should be done the same way, to avoid causing embarrassment to the first one buried in this manner.[
]
During the first decades of its existence the new Okopowa Street cemetery was used mostly by the higher strata of Jewish society, with poorer Jews interred in the Bródno Jewish Cemetery in the easternmost borough of Bródno
Bródno is a neighborhood in the Warsaw borough of Targówek, located on the eastern side of the Vistula river. It is inhabited by approximately 100,000 people. Among the most notable landmarks are Bródno Park and the Bródno cemetery, the larges ...
, on the right bank of the Vistula
The Vistula (; pl, Wisła, ) is the longest river in Poland and the ninth-longest river in Europe, at in length. The drainage basin, reaching into three other nations, covers , of which is in Poland.
The Vistula rises at Barania Góra in ...
. Despite that the cemetery quickly became overcrowded and already in 1824 it had to be expanded. Around that time the Tsarist
Tsarist autocracy (russian: царское самодержавие, transcr. ''tsarskoye samoderzhaviye''), also called Tsarism, was a form of autocracy (later absolute monarchy) specific to the Grand Duchy of Moscow and its successor states ...
authorities took over the administration of the cemetery from the chevra kadisha and by 1850 established a separate funeral administration. The first on-site funeral home
A funeral home, funeral parlor or mortuary, is a business that provides burial and funeral services for the dead and their families. These services may include a prepared wake and funeral, and the provision of a chapel for the funeral.
Services
...
was established in 1828, but already in 1831 it was destroyed by Russian Army
The Russian Ground Forces (russian: Сухопутные войска В Sukhoputnyye voyska V, also known as the Russian Army (, ), are the Army, land forces of the Russian Armed Forces.
The primary responsibilities of the Russian Gro ...
in the course of the November Uprising
The November Uprising (1830–31), also known as the Polish–Russian War 1830–31 or the Cadet Revolution,
was an armed rebellion in the heartland of partitioned Poland against the Russian Empire. The uprising began on 29 November 1830 in W ...
. A new building was erected the following year and further expanded in 1854. In the meantime the necropolis was extended twice: in 1840 and 1848. Around that time it became the main Jewish cemetery of Warsaw, for rich and poor alike.
Historically the cemetery was separated from the city centre and the quarter inhabited by Jews by a deep ditch, the so-called Lubomirski Ramparts
Lubomirski Ramparts ( pl, Okopy Lubomirskiego) was a 12 kilometre-long earthwork surrounding the city of Warsaw in late 18th and 19th century. A line of earthworks with a dry moat separated the city of Warsaw from the countryside. Erected by Sta ...
, created in 1777 to stop the spread of plague and as a tax measure. It was not until 1873 that both Jewish and Catholic communities were allowed to build a bridge across the ditch to facilitate access to both cemeteries. In 1860 and 1863 the cemetery was extended again and in 1869 reached its present form. However, it began to overcrowd and in 1885 all burials financed by the Jewish community (i.e. of the poor) were directed to the Bródno Jewish Cemetery Bródno Jewish Cemetery (also known as the Jewish Cemetery in Praga) is one of several Jewish cemeteries of Warsaw in Poland. The cemetery is located in the district of Targówek (near the better known district of Praga, and within Praga's unofficia ...
. In 1877 several notable Jewish families of Warsaw financed a new late Neo-Classical building by Adolf Schimmelpfennig housing a synagogue
A synagogue, ', 'house of assembly', or ', "house of prayer"; Yiddish: ''shul'', Ladino: or ' (from synagogue); or ', "community". sometimes referred to as shul, and interchangeably used with the word temple, is a Jewish house of worshi ...
and two burial houses (one for men and one for women). The second floor was reserved for rabbi's flat.
As the cemetery was used by all groups of Warsaw's Jewry, conflicts arose over control of the cemetery and various burial-related issues. In 1913 it was agreed to split it onto four parts: one for Orthodox
Orthodox, Orthodoxy, or Orthodoxism may refer to:
Religion
* Orthodoxy, adherence to accepted norms, more specifically adherence to creeds, especially within Christianity and Judaism, but also less commonly in non-Abrahamic religions like Neo-pa ...
Jews, one for Reform
Reform ( lat, reformo) means the improvement or amendment of what is wrong, corrupt, unsatisfactory, etc. The use of the word in this way emerges in the late 18th century and is believed to originate from Christopher Wyvill#The Yorkshire Associati ...
Jews, one for children, and one for military and state burials. After World War I the cemetery again became overcrowded. Subsequently, a mound or earthwork terrace was erected over the quarter previously reserved for children to allow for more burials. Between 1918 and 1936 fourteen such mounds were created. In the 1930s the entire cemetery was surrounded with a high wall, and in 1939 construction started on a Mausoleum of Jews Fighting for Polish Independence. Works were stopped by the outbreak of World War II and the German occupation of Poland
German(s) may refer to:
* Germany (of or related to)
**Germania (historical use)
* Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language
** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law
**Ger ...
.
During World War II the cemetery was partly demolished. German forces used it for mass execution
Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, is the state-sanctioned practice of deliberately killing a person as a punishment for an actual or supposed crime, usually following an authorized, rule-governed process to conclude that t ...
s and the burial of victims of Warsaw Ghetto
The Warsaw Ghetto (german: Warschauer Ghetto, officially , "Jewish Residential District in Warsaw"; pl, getto warszawskie) was the largest of the Nazi ghettos during World War II and the Holocaust. It was established in November 1940 by the G ...
, the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising; pl, powstanie w getcie warszawskim; german: link=no, Aufstand im Warschauer Ghetto was the 1943 act of Jewish resistance in the Warsaw Ghetto in German-occupied Poland during World War II to oppose Nazi Germany's ...
, the Warsaw Uprising
The Warsaw Uprising ( pl, powstanie warszawskie; german: Warschauer Aufstand) was a major World War II operation by the Polish resistance movement in World War II, Polish underground resistance to liberate Warsaw from German occupation. It occ ...
of 1944, and other mass murders. Those burials included both Jews and non-Jews. Following the Ghetto Uprising, on May 15, 1943 the Germans detonated all buildings in the area of the cemetery, including the synagogue and burial houses. Only a small well survives to this day. Further damage was done to the cemetery during the Warsaw Uprising of 1944, when the front line passed directly through the cemetery. After the war the cemetery was reopened. The Communist authorities of Poland planned a road directly through the middle of the cemetery. The plans were never carried out because of efforts of an American diplomat Alfred Brainard who responded to a call for help from Jewish organizations
In the 1990s the neglected cemetery started to be renovated for the first time since the 1930s, mostly by the re-created Warsaw Jewish Commune and the Nissenbaum Family Foundation, as well as the City of Warsaw municipal government. The cemetery is still open, with 20 to 30 new burials every year.
Notable interments
* Solomon Anski, writer (Solomon Zangwill Rappaport), author of "''The Dybbuk''"
*Szymon Askenazy
Szymon Askenazy (December 24, 1865, Zawichost – June 22, 1935, Warsaw) was a Jewish-Polish historian, educator, statesman and diplomat, founder of the Askenazy school.
He was the first Polish representative at the League of Nations. His work a ...
, archaeologist
* Meir Balaban
*Naftali Zvi Yehuda Berlin
Naftali Zvi Yehuda Berlin (20 November 1816 in Mir, Russia – 10 August 1893 in Warsaw, Poland), also known as Reb Hirsch Leib Berlin, and commonly known by the acronym Netziv, was an Orthodox rabbi, ''Rosh yeshiva'' (dean) of the Volozhin Ye ...
, Rosh yeshiva of the Volozhin Yeshiva and author of several major Jewish works
* Mathias Bersohn, philanthropist
*Adam Czerniakow
Adam; el, Ἀδάμ, Adám; la, Adam is the name given in Genesis 1-5 to the first human. Beyond its use as the name of the first man, ''adam'' is also used in the Bible as a pronoun, individually as "a human" and in a collective sense as " ...
(1880–1942), head of the Judenrat in the Warsaw Ghetto
*Szymon Datner
Szymon Datner (Kraków, 2 February 1902 – 8 December 1989, Warsaw) was a Polish historian, Holocaust survivor and underground operative from Białystok, best known for his studies of the Nazi war crimes and events of The Holocaust in the Biał ...
, historian
*Jacob Dinezon
Jacob Dinezon, also known as Yankev Dinezon (-1919), was a Yiddish language, Yiddish author and editor from Lithuania (then part of the Russian Empire). There are various spellings of Dinezon's name in both Yiddish and English transliteration. Ea ...
(1852–1919), writer
*Marek Edelman
Marek Edelman ( yi, מאַרעק עדעלמאַן, born either 1919 in Homel or 1922 in Warsaw – October 2, 2009 in Warsaw, Poland) was a Polish political and social activist and cardiologist. Edelman was the last surviving leader of the ...
*Maksymilian Fajans
Maksymilian Fajans (May 5, 1827 in Sieradz – July 28, 1890 in Warsaw) was a Polish artist, lithographer and photographer. Fajans won several prizes at the International Photographic Exhibition organized in 1865 in Berlin and, in 1873, at the ...
, artist, lithographer and photographer
* Maurycy Fajans, founder of the first steamboat line on the Vistula
*Alexander Flamberg
Alexander Flamberg (1880, Warsaw – 24 January 1926, Warsaw) was a Polish chess master.
Biography
Alexander Davidovich Flamberg born in Warsaw (then Russian Empire), spent his early years in England, where he learned to play chess. After retu ...
, chess master
*Edward Flatau
Edward Flatau (27 December 1868, Płock – 7 June 1932, Warsaw) was a Polish neurologist and psychiatrist. He was a co-founder of the modern Polish neurology, an authority on the physiology and pathology of meningitis, co-founder of medical jou ...
, neurologist
*Uri Nissan Gnessin
Uri Nissan Gnessin (1879–1913) was a Russian-Jewish writer and a pioneer in modern Hebrew literature.
Early life
He was born in Starodub, and grew up in the small town of Pochep, Orel province. His father was a rabbi and the head of a yeshiva ...
, writer
*Samuel Goldflam
Samuel Wulfowicz Goldflam (15 February 1852 – 26 August 1932) was a Polish-JewishIsaac Lewin & Nathan Michael Gelber, ''A History of Polish Jewry during the revival of Poland'', Shengold Publishers (1990), p. 86 neurologist best known for his br ...
, neurologist
* Ester Rachel Kamińska (1870–1925), the "mother of Yiddish Theater", mother of Ida Kamińska
Ida Kamińska (September 18, 1899 – May 21, 1980) was a Polish actress and director. Known mainly for her work in the theatre, she was the daughter of Avrom Yitshok Kaminski (Abraham Isaac Kaminski) and Ester Rachel Kamińska ( Halpern), k ...
* Michał Klepfisz
*Janusz Korczak
Janusz Korczak, the pen name of Henryk Goldszmit (22 July 1878 or 1879 – 7 August 1942), was a Polish Jewish educator, children's author and pedagogue known as ''Pan Doktor'' ("Mr. Doctor") or ''Stary Doktor'' ("Old Doctor"). After spending ma ...
, famous author and physician
* Izaak Kramsztyk, rabbi and lawyer
*Aleksander Lesser
Aleksander Lesser (13 May 1814 – 13 March 1884) was a Polish painter, illustrator, sketch artist, art critic, and amateur researcher of antiquities who was of Jewish descent. Lesser holds a place in Polish art history "as an outstanding repr ...
, painter and art critic
*Szlomo Zalman Lipszyc
Szlomo Zalman Lipszyc (1765 Poznań - 1839 Warsaw), also known as Salomon Zalman Pozner as well as the Chemdas Shlomo from the title of the works he authored, was a prominent Orthodox rabbi, and first Chief Rabbi of Warsaw.
He studied Torah in ...
, first Chief Rabbi of Warsaw
* Dow Ber Meisels, rabbi of Kraków and Warsaw
* Eliyahu Shlomo HaLevi of Lida, Hasidic rabbi
*Samuel Orgelbrand
Samuel Orgelbrand (1810 – 16 November 1868) was one of the most prominent Polish-Jewish printers, booksellers, and publishers of the 19th century. He is best known as the initiator, organizer, and publisher of the ''Encyklopedia Powszechna'' ...
, publisher of the Universal Encyclopaedia
* Isaac Loeb Peretz (1852–1915) one of the most important Yiddish language writers of the 19th-20th centuries
*Samuel Abraham Poznański
Samuel Abraham Poznański or Shemuel Avraham Poznanski ( he, שמואל אברהם פוזננסקי, Lubraniec, 3 September 1864–1921) was a Polish-Jewish scholar, known for his studies of Karaism and the Hebrew calendar. Arabist, Hebrew bibli ...
*Józef Różański
Józef Różański (; born Josef Goldberg; 13 July 1907, in Warsaw – 21 August 1981, in Warsaw) was an officer in the Soviet Union, Soviet NKVD Secret Police and later, a Colonel in the Polish Ministry of Public Security (Poland), Ministry of Pu ...
, communist activist
*Józef Sandel
Józef Sandel (Yiddish: יוסף סאנדעל; German: Josef Sandel; 29 September 1894, Kolomea – 1 December 1962, Warsaw)Elis, Binyamin (1965). "Sandel, Yosef." ''Leksikon fun der nayer yiddisher literatur''. New York: Congress for Jewish C ...
, art historian and critic
*Hayyim Selig Slonimski
Ḥayyim Selig ben Ya'akov Slonimski () (March 31, 1810 – May 15, 1904), also known by his acronym ḤaZaS (), was a Hebrew publisher, mathematician, astronomer, inventor, science writer, and rabbi. He was among the first to write books on scie ...
, Hebrew publisher, astronomer, inventor and science author
*Chaim Soloveitchik
Chaim (Halevi) Soloveitchik (Yiddish: חיים סאָלאָווייטשיק, pl, Chaim Sołowiejczyk), also known as Reb Chaim Brisker (1853 – 30 July 1918), was a rabbi and Talmudic scholar credited as the founder of the popular Brisker appr ...
, founder of the Brisk rabbinic dynasty & the "brisker method" of Talmudic study
*Yosef Dov Soloveitchik
Yosef Dov Soloveitchik (born 1820 in Nesvizh, Minsk Governorate, Russian Empire; died May 1, 1892 in Brest-Litovsk, Grodno Governorate, Russian Empire) was the author of Beis Halevi, by which name he is better known among Talmudic scholars. He w ...
, author of the Beis Halevi and father of Chaim Soloveitchik
*Julian Stryjkowski
Julian Stryjkowski (born Pesach Stark; April 27, 1905 – August 8, 1996) was a Polish journalist and writer, known for his social prose and radical leftist leanings. He was considered one of the best Polish-Jewish writers of the communist era.
S ...
, (born Pesach Stark) 1905–1996, writer, author of "Austeria" "Voices in Darkness"
* Hipolit Wawelberg, founder of Warsaw Technical College,
*Szymon Winawer
Szymon Abramowicz Winawer (March 6, 1838 – November 29, 1919) was a Polish-Jewish chess player who won the German Chess Championship in 1883.
Tournament and match results
At the Paris 1867 tournament held at the Café de la Régence, his first ...
, chess player
*Lucjan Wolanowski
Lucjan Wilhelm Wolanowski (Lucjan Kon; February 26, 1920 – February 20, 2006), pseudonyms: ''Wilk''; ''Waldemar Mruczkowski''; ''W. Lucjański''; (L.W.); lu; Lu; (lw); WOL., Polish journalist, writer and traveller.
Wolanowski was born into a ...
*Ludwik Zamenhof
L. L. Zamenhof (15 December 185914 April 1917) was an ophthalmologist who lived for most of his life in Warsaw. He is best known as the creator of Esperanto, the most widely used constructed language, constructed international auxiliary language ...
, doctor and inventor of Esperanto
Esperanto ( or ) is the world's most widely spoken constructed international auxiliary language. Created by the Warsaw-based ophthalmologist L. L. Zamenhof in 1887, it was intended to be a universal second language for international communi ...
.
See also
* Jewish cemeteries of Warsaw
Jewish cemeteries of Warsaw refers to a number of Jewish necropolises in the city.
Okopowa Street Jewish Cemetery
Okopowa Street Jewish Cemetery is one of the largest Jewish cemeteries in Europe. Located on Okopowa Street and abutting the Powąz ...
* Monument to the Memory of Children - Victims of the Holocaust
The Monument to the Memory of Children - Victims of the Holocaust is a monument located in the Jewish cemetery on Okopowa Street in Warsaw, Poland, commemorating the children murdered in the Holocaust.
Description
The monument was founded by ...
* History of the Jews in Warsaw
History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
References
{{reflist
External links
Okopowa Street Jewish Cemetery
at Museum of the History of Polish Jews, Virtual Shtetl
Website of an ongoing project of writing down all the names from the Okopowa Street Jewish Cemetery
* "Gesia" Jewish Cemetery Foundation - https://web.archive.org/web/20180131184103/http://www.jewishcem.waw.pl/english/start.htm
* http://history1900s.about.com/library/holocaust/aa100499.htm
Cemeteries in Warsaw
Jewish cemeteries in Poland
Wola
1806 establishments in Poland
Art Nouveau cemeteries
Art Nouveau architecture in Poland
Holocaust locations in Poland
Orthodox Judaism in Poland
Reform Judaism in Poland