The Japanese missions to Imperial China were
diplomatic embassies
A diplomatic mission or foreign mission is a group of people from a state or organization present in another state to represent the sending state or organization officially in the receiving or host state. In practice, the phrase usually deno ...
which were intermittently sent to the Chinese imperial court. Any distinction amongst diplomatic envoys sent from the Japanese court or from any of the Japanese shogunates was lost or rendered moot when the ambassador was received in the Chinese capital.
Extant records document missions to China between the years of 607 and 839 (a mission planned for 894 was cancelled). The composition of these imperial missions included members of the
aristocratic
Aristocracy (, ) is a form of government that places strength in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class, the aristocrats. The term derives from the el, αριστοκρατία (), meaning 'rule of the best'.
At the time of the word's ...
''
kuge
The was a Japanese aristocratic class that dominated the Japanese Imperial Court in Kyoto. The ''kuge'' were important from the establishment of Kyoto as the capital during the Heian period in the late 8th century until the rise of the Kamakur ...
'' and
Buddhist monks
A ''bhikkhu'' (Pali: भिक्खु, Sanskrit: भिक्षु, ''bhikṣu'') is an ordained male in Buddhist monasticism. Male and female monastics ("nun", ''bhikkhunī'', Sanskrit ''bhikṣuṇī'') are members of the Sangha (Buddhist c ...
. These missions led to the importation of
Chinese culture
Chinese culture () is one of the world's oldest cultures, originating thousands of years ago. The culture prevails across a large geographical region in East Asia and is extremely diverse and varying, with customs and traditions varying grea ...
, including advances in the sciences and technology. These diplomatic encounters produced the beginnings of a range of
schools of Buddhism in Japan, including
Zen
Zen ( zh, t=禪, p=Chán; ja, text= 禅, translit=zen; ko, text=선, translit=Seon; vi, text=Thiền) is a school of Mahayana Buddhism that originated in China during the Tang dynasty, known as the Chan School (''Chánzong'' 禪宗), and ...
.
From the
Sinocentric perspective of the Chinese court in
Chang'an
Chang'an (; ) is the traditional name of Xi'an. The site had been settled since Neolithic times, during which the Yangshao culture was established in Banpo, in the city's suburbs. Furthermore, in the northern vicinity of modern Xi'an, Qin Shi ...
, the several embassies sent from Kyoto were construed as
tributaries of Imperial China; but it is not clear that the Japanese shared this view.
China seems to have taken the initiative in opening relations with Japan. The
Emperor Yang of Sui
Emperor Yang of Sui (隋煬帝, 569 – 11 April 618), personal name Yang Guang (), alternative name Ying (), Xianbei name Amo (), also known as Emperor Ming of Sui () during the brief reign of his grandson Yang Tong, was the second emperor of ...
dispatched a message in 605 which read:
The sovereign of Sui respectfully inquires about the sovereign of Wa.
The court of
Empress Suiko
(554 – 15 April 628) was the 33rd monarch of Japan, Imperial Household Agency (''Kunaichō'') 推古天皇 (33)/ref> according to the traditional order of succession.
Suiko reigned from 593 until her death in 628.
In the history of Japan ...
responded by sponsoring a mission led by
Ono no Imoko
was a Japanese politician and diplomat in the late 6th and early 7th century, during the Asuka period.
Ono was appointed by Empress Suiko as an official envoy ( Kenzuishi) to the Sui court in 607 (Imperial embassies to China), and he delivere ...
in 607. A message carried by that mission, believed to have been written by
Prince Shōtoku
, also known as or , was a semi-legendary regent and a politician of the Asuka period in Japan who served under Empress Suiko. He was the son of Emperor Yōmei and his consort, Princess Anahobe no Hashihito, who was also Yōmei's younger half- ...
, contains the earliest known written instance in which the Japanese archipelago is referred to by a term meaning "land of the rising sun." The salutation read, in part:
From the sovereign of the land of the rising sun (''hi izuru tokoro'') to the sovereign of the land of the setting sun."
The included representatives sent to study government and technology.
The are the best known; 19 missions were completed. A 20th mission had been planned for 894 (''
Kanpyō 6, 8th month''), including the appointment of ambassadors. However, shortly before departure, the mission was halted by
Emperor Uda
was the 59th emperor of Japan, Imperial Household Agency (''Kunaichō'') 宇多天皇 (59)/ref> according to the traditional order of succession.
Uda's reign spanned the years from 887 through 897.
Traditional narrative
Name and legacy
Befo ...
because of reports of unsettled conditions in China. The emperor's decision-making was influenced by the persuasive counsel of
Sugawara no Michizane
was a scholar, poet, and politician of the Heian Period of Japan. He is regarded as an excellent poet, particularly in Kanshi poetry, and is today revered in Shinto as the god of learning, . In the poem anthology '' Hyakunin Isshu'', he is know ...
.
Envoys to the Sui court
Japanese envoys to the Sui court were received as ambassadors:
*607: The first diplomatic mission was led by Japan's first ambassador to China. This Japanese envoy,
Ono no Imoko
was a Japanese politician and diplomat in the late 6th and early 7th century, during the Asuka period.
Ono was appointed by Empress Suiko as an official envoy ( Kenzuishi) to the Sui court in 607 (Imperial embassies to China), and he delivere ...
, had the title ''kenzuishi''. The delegation was received in the Imperial Court.
[Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "''Ono no Imoko''" in ; n.b., Louis-Frédéric is pseudonym of Louis-Frédéric Nussbaum, ''see']
Deutsche Nationalbibliothek Authority File
.
*608: Ono no Imoko leads a returning embassy to China.
This mission included two others with the title ''kenzushi'':
Takamuko no Kuromaro
was a Japanese scholar and diplomat of the Asuka period. The Takamuko clan are descended from Cao Pi.
Karumauro traveled to China with Ono no Imoko as ''kenzuishi'' representing Empress Suiko in 608.Nussbaum, "Kentōshi" at He remained in China ...
(no Genri) and
Minabuchi no Shōan. Kuromaro and Shōan, along with the Buddhist monk Sōmin remained in China for 32 years before returning to Japan.
Envoys to the Tang court
Japanese envoys to the Tang court were received as ambassadors:
Three missions to the Tang court were dispatched during the reign of
Emperor Kōtoku
was the 36th emperor of Japan, Imperial Household Agency (''Kunaichō'') 孝徳天皇 (33)/ref> according to the traditional order of succession.
The years of his reign lasted from 645 through 654.
Traditional narrative
Before Kōtoku's ascen ...
.
Emperor Kanmu
, or Kammu, was the 50th emperor of Japan, Imperial Household Agency (''Kunaichō'') 桓武天皇 (50) retrieved 2013-8-22. according to the traditional order of succession. Kanmu reigned from 781 to 806, and it was during his reign that the sco ...
's planned mission to the Tang court in 804 (''
Enryaku
was a after ''Ten'ō'' and before '' Daidō''. This period spanned the years from August 782 through May 806. The reigning emperor was .
Change of era
* 12 November 782 : The new era name was created to mark an event or series of events. The pr ...
23'') included three ambassadors and several Buddhist priests, including and ; but the enterprise was delayed until the end of the year. The ambassadors returned in the middle of 805 (''Enryaku 24, 6th month''). They were accompanied by the monk Saichō, also known by his posthumous name , whose teachings would develop into the
Tendai
, also known as the Tendai Lotus School (天台法華宗 ''Tendai hokke shū,'' sometimes just "''hokke shū''") is a Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition (with significant esoteric elements) officially established in Japan in 806 by the Japanese m ...
school of Japanese Buddhism. In 806 (''
Daidō
was a after ''Enryaku'' and before '' Kōnin.'' This period spanned the years from May 806 through September 810. The reigning emperors were and .
Change of era
* November 16, 806 : The new era name was created to mark an event or series o ...
1, 8th month''), the return of the monk Kūkai, also known posthumously as , marks the beginning of what would develop into the
Shingon
file:Koyasan (Mount Koya) monks.jpg, Shingon monks at Mount Koya
is one of the major schools of Buddhism in Japan and one of the few surviving Vajrayana lineages in East Asia, originally spread from India to China through traveling monks suc ...
school of Japanese Buddhism.
New ambassadors to China were appointed by
Emperor Ninmyō
was the 54th emperor of Japan, Emperor Ninmyō, Fukakusa Imperial Mausoleum, Imperial Household Agency according to the traditional order of succession. Ninmyō's reign lasted from 833 to 850, during the Heian period.
Traditional narrative
Nin ...
in 834, but the mission was put off.
*836–839: The mission was postponed by a typhoon; but the ambassadors did eventually travel to the Tang court, returning in 839 with a letter from
Emperor Tang Wenzong.
In China, a steady and conservative Confucianist
Song dynasty
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...
emerged after the end of the Tang dynasty and subsequent period of disunity during the
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period
The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (), from 907 to 979, was an era of political upheaval and division in 10th-century Imperial China. Five dynastic states quickly succeeded one another in the Central Plain, and more than a dozen conc ...
. During this time, although travel to China was generally safe, Japanese rulers believed there was little to learn from the Song, and so there were no major embassy missions to China.
Adopting Tang models
Ancient Japan was called
Wa, which had a primitive culture when compared to
Tang
Tang or TANG most often refers to:
* Tang dynasty
* Tang (drink mix)
Tang or TANG may also refer to:
Chinese states and dynasties
* Jin (Chinese state) (11th century – 376 BC), a state during the Spring and Autumn period, called Tang (唐) b ...
culture. The Tang folks referred to
Wa as 東夷 (Eastern barbarians).
From 630 onward,
Wa sent large groups of monks, students and government officials, up to 600 each time, to the Tang capital of Chang'an to learn the then advanced production technology, social system, history, philosophy, arts and architecture.
Among many items adopted by
Wa:
*Tang political system
*
Heian-kyō
Heian-kyō was one of several former names for the city now known as Kyoto. It was the official capital of Japan for over one thousand years, from 794 to 1868 with an interruption in 1180.
Emperor Kanmu established it as the capital in 794, mov ...
, the new Japanese capital established in 794, and was a laid out in a grid similar to that of Chang'an, the Tang capital.
*
Culture
Culture () is an umbrella term which encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits of the individuals in these groups.Tyl ...
, many Han Chinese characters (漢字) were borrowed from Tang civilization to build the Japanese culture.
*Tang dress codes (known today as Wafuku 和服), eating habits were the fashion which was imitated and popularized.
Envoys to the Ming court
Japanese envoys to the Ming court were received as ambassadors.
[Mizuno, Norihito. (2003)]
''China in Tokugawa Foreign Relations: The Tokugawa Bakufu’s Perception of and Attitudes toward Ming-Qing China,'' pp. 109-112.
/ref>
*1373-1406 (''Ōan
, also romanized as Ō-an, was a Japanese era name (年号, ''nengō'', lit. year name) of the Northern Court during the Era of Northern and Southern Courts after ''Jōji'' and before ''Eiwa.'' This period spanned the years from February 1368 th ...
6'' – ''Ōei
was a after ''Meitoku'' and before ''Shōchō''. This period spanned the years from July 1394 through April 1428. Reigning emperors were and .
Change of era
* 1394 : The new era name was created because of plague. The previous era ended and a ...
13''): Embassies between China and Japan.
*1397 (''Ōei 4, 8th month''): an Imperial ambassador is dispatched from Emperor Go-Komatsu
was the 100th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession, Imperial Household Agency (''Kunaichō'')後小松天皇 (100) retrieved 2013-8-28. and the sixth and final Emperor of the Northern Court.
He is officially cons ...
to the Ming Court.
*1401 (''Ōei 8''): Ashikaga Yoshimitsu
was the third '' shōgun'' of the Ashikaga shogunate, ruling from 1368 to 1394 during the Muromachi period of Japan. Yoshimitsu was Ashikaga Yoshiakira's third son but the oldest son to survive, his childhood name being Haruō (). Yoshimitsu ...
sends a diplomatic mission to China as a tentative first step in re-initiating trade between Japan
Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
and Ming
The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
. The formal diplomatic letter conveyed to the Emperor of China was accompanied by a gift of 1000 ounces of gold and diverse objects.
*1402 (''Ōei 9''): A letter from the Jianwen Emperor
The Jianwen Emperor (5 December 1377 – ?), personal name Zhu Yunwen (), was the second Emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigned from 1398 to 1402. The era name of his reign, Jianwen, means "establishing civility" and represented a sharp chan ...
of China was received by Yoshimitsu; and this formal communication mistakenly accords the title "king of Japan" to the Japanese shōgun.[Titsingh]
p. 324.
/ref>
Envoys to the Qing court
During Japan's self-imposed isolation in the Edo period
The or is the period between 1603 and 1867 in the history of Japan, when Japan was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and the country's 300 regional '' daimyo''. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengoku period, the Edo period was characteriz ...
(1603–1868), Japan's vicarious relationships with China evolved through the intermediary of the Kingdom of Ryukyu
The Ryukyu Kingdom, Middle Chinese: , , Classical Chinese: (), Historical English names: ''Lew Chew'', ''Lewchew'', ''Luchu'', and ''Loochoo'', Historical French name: ''Liou-tchou'', Historical Dutch name: ''Lioe-kioe'' was a kingdom in the ...
. Japan's view of external relations was ambivalent.
*1853 (''Kaei
was a after '' Kōka'' and before ''Ansei''. This period spanned the years from February 1848 through November 1854. The reigning emperor was .
Change of era
* February 28, 1848 : The era name of ''Kaei'' (meaning "eternal felicity")Satow, Ern ...
6''): Hayashi Akira
(also known as ''Hayashi Fukusai'') was an Edo period scholar-diplomat serving the Tokugawa shogunate in a variety of roles similar to those performed by serial Hayashi clan neo-Confucianists since the time of Tokugawa Ieyasu. He was the here ...
completed '' Tsūkō ichiran''. The work was created under orders from the bakufu to compile and edit documents pertaining to East Asian trade and diplomacy; and, for example, it includes a detailed description of a Ryukyuan tribute embassy to the Qing
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speaki ...
Chinese court in Beijing
}
Beijing ( ; ; ), alternatively romanized as Peking ( ), is the capital of the People's Republic of China. It is the center of power and development of the country. Beijing is the world's most populous national capital city, with over 21 ...
.[Smits, Gregory. (1999). ''Visions of Ryukyu: Identity and Ideology in Early-Modern Thought and Politics,'' p. 37.]
See also
*History of China
The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC), during the reign of king Wu Ding. Ancient historical texts such as the '' Book of Documents'' (early chapte ...
*History of Japan
The first human inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago have been traced to prehistoric times around 30,000 BC. The Jōmon period, named after its cord-marked pottery, was followed by the Yayoi period in the first millennium BC when new inven ...
*'' Iki no Hakatoko no Sho'', 7th-century text
* Little China (ideology)
*Chinese influence on Japanese culture
Chinese influence on Japanese culture refers to the impact of Chinese influences transmitted through or originating in China on Japanese institutions, culture, language and society. Many aspects of traditional Japanese culture such as Taoism, Budd ...
* Japanese missions to Joseon
Notes
References
* Ackroyd Ackroyd is an English surname. Notable people with the surname include:
* Alan Ackroyd (born 1948), English rugby league footballer
* Albert Akroyd, English rugby league player
* Alfred Ackroyd (1858–1927), English cricketer
* Anthony Ackroyd ...
, Joyce. (1982) ''Lessons from History: The Tokushi Yoron
The is an Edo period historical analysis of Japanese history written in 1712 by Arai Hakuseki (1657–1725).
Hakuseki's innovative effort to understand and explain the history of Japan differs significantly from previous chronologies which were c ...
.'' Brisbane: University of Queensland Press
Established in 1948, University of Queensland Press (UQP) is an Australian publishing house.
Founded as a traditional university press, UQP has since branched into publishing books for general readers in the areas of fiction, non-fiction, poetr ...
.
* Goodrich, Luther Carrington and Zhaoying Fang. (1976)
''Dictionary of Ming biography, 1368-1644'' (明代名人傳), Vol. I
''Dictionary of Ming biography, 1368-1644'' (明代名人傳), Vol. II.
New York: Columbia University Press
Columbia University Press is a university press based in New York City, and affiliated with Columbia University. It is currently directed by Jennifer Crewe (2014–present) and publishes titles in the humanities and sciences, including the fiel ...
. ;
OCLC 1622199
* Kitagawa, Hiroshi and Bruce T. Tsuchida. (1977)
''The Tale of the Heike.''
Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press
The is a university press affiliated with the University of Tokyo in Japan. It was founded in 1951, following the post-World War II reorganization of the university.
Honors
* Japan Foundation: Special Prize, 1990.
Location
The headquarters of t ...
. ;
*Mizuno, Norihito. (2003)
''China in Tokugawa Foreign Relations: The Tokugawa Bakufu’s Perception of and Attitudes toward Ming-Qing China,'' p. 109.
excerpt from ''Japan and Its East Asian Neighbors: Japan's Perceptionf of China and Korea and the Making of Foreign Policy from the Seventeenth to the Nineteenth Century,'' Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 2004, as cited in Tsutsui, William M. (2009)
''A Companion to Japanese History,'' p. 83.
* Nussbaum, Louis Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). ''Japan Encyclopedia.'' Cambridge: Harvard University Press
Harvard University Press (HUP) is a publishing house established on January 13, 1913, as a division of Harvard University, and focused on academic publishing. It is a member of the Association of American University Presses. After the retirem ...
.
OCLC 48943301
* Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959)
''The Imperial House of Japan.''
Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society
OCLC 194887
* Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). ''Nihon Odai Ichiran
Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
''; ou
''Annales des empereurs du Japon.''
Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland
OCLC 5850691
* Varley, H. Paul. (1973)
''Japanese Culture: A Short History.''
New York: Praeger Publishers
Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. (GPG), also known as ABC-Clio/Greenwood (stylized ABC-CLIO/Greenwood), is an educational and academic publisher (middle school through university level) which is today part of ABC-Clio. Established in 1967 as Gr ...
OCLC 590531
* Varley, H. Paul. (1980)
''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns.''
New York: Columbia University Press.
OCLC 59145842
* Yoda, Yoshiie. (1996). ''The Foundations of Japan's Modernization: a comparison with China's Path towards Modernization.'' Leiden: Brill.
OCLC 246732011
External links
{{DEFAULTSORT:Japanese Missions To Imperial China
Ancient international relations
China–Japan relations
Diplomacy
Foreign relations of Imperial China
History of the foreign relations of Japan