The following is a list of notable non-Muslim authors on Islam.
Chronological by date of birth
622 to 1500
*
Sebeos (fl. 651), Armenian historian, documented in his ''History'' the rise of Muhammad and the early Muslim conquests.
*
Joannis Damasceni (c. 676–749), official of the
Caliph
A caliphate or khilāfah ( ar, خِلَافَة, ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with the title of caliph (; ar, خَلِيفَة , ), a person considered a political-religious successor to th ...
at
Damascus, later a
Syrian
monk
A monk (, from el, μοναχός, ''monachos'', "single, solitary" via Latin ) is a person who practices religious asceticism by monastic living, either alone or with any number of other monks. A monk may be a person who decides to dedica ...
,
Doctor of the Church, his ''Peri Aireseon''
oncerning Heresies its chapter 100 being "
Heresy
Heresy is any belief or theory that is strongly at variance with established beliefs or customs, in particular the accepted beliefs of a church or religious organization. The term is usually used in reference to violations of important religi ...
of the
Ishmailites" (attribution questioned).
*
Du Huan Du Huan (, ) was a Chinese travel writer born in Chang'an during the Tang Dynasty.
According to his writings, he was one of a few Chinese captured in the Battle of Talas in 751, along with artisans Fan Shu and Liu Ci and fabric weavers Le Wei and L ...
, captured at 751
Battle of Talas, traveled in Muslim lands for ten years, his ''
Jingxingji''
ecord of Travels(c. 770) contains descriptions of Muslim life; book lost, but quoted by his uncle
Du You
Du You () (735 – December 23, 812), courtesy name Junqing (), formally Duke Anjian of Qi (), was a Chinese historian, military general, and politician. He served as chancellor of the Tang Dynasty. Du was born to an eminent aristocratic family in ...
in his
Tongdian
The ''Tongdian'' () is a Chinese institutional history and encyclopedia text. It covers a panoply of topics from high antiquity through the year 756, whereas a quarter of the book focuses on the Tang Dynasty. The book was written by Du You from 766 ...
(766-801), an encyclopedia of
China.
*
Sankara (c. 788–820) of
Kerala
Kerala ( ; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South ...
, pivotal
Hindu
Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...
reformer;
theologian
Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the ...
of
non-duality
Nondualism, also called nonduality and nondual awareness, is a fuzzy concept originating in Indian philosophy and religion for which many definitions can be found, including: nondual awareness, the nonduality of seer and seen or nondiffe ...
, the
Advaita Vedanta
''Advaita Vedanta'' (; sa, अद्वैत वेदान्त, ) is a Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience, and the oldest extant tradition of the orthodox Hindu school Vedānta. The term ''Advaita'' ( ...
: a unity of self (
atman) and the whole (
Brahman
In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' ( sa, ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality in the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part X ...
); unresolved is the claim that early notions of the
Sufi ''
wahdat al-wujud
In Islamic philosophy, Sufi metaphysics is centered on the concept of ar, وحدة, waḥdah, unity, label=none or ar, توحيد, tawhid, label=none. Two main Sufi philosophies prevail on this topic. literally means "the Unity of Existenc ...
''
neness of Beingwas synthesized by Sankara.
*
Abd al-Masih ibn Ishaq al-Kindi
''Apology of al-Kindi'' (also spelled al-Kindy) is a medieval theological polemic making a case for Christianity and drawing attention to alleged flaws in Islam. The word "apology" is a translation of the Arabic word ', and it is used in the se ...
, probably 8th/9th century
Abbasid
The Abbasid Caliphate ( or ; ar, الْخِلَافَةُ الْعَبَّاسِيَّة, ') was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttalib ...
, pseudonym
ervant_of_the_Messiah....html"_;"title="Messiah.html"_;"title="ervant_of_the_Messiah">ervant_of_the_Messiah...">Messiah.html"_;"title="ervant_of_the_Messiah">ervant_of_the_Messiah...of_an_Arab_Christian,_author_of_the_
ervant_of_the_Messiah....html"_;"title="Messiah.html"_;"title="ervant_of_the_Messiah">ervant_of_the_Messiah...">Messiah.html"_;"title="ervant_of_the_Messiah">ervant_of_the_Messiah...of_an_Arab_Christian,_author_of_the_Apology_of_al-Kindy_(book)">Risalah,_a_dialogue_with_a_Muslim;_later_translated_into_Latin_by_Peter_of_Toledo.html" ;"title="Apology_of_al-Kindy_(book).html" ;"title="essiah">ervant_of_the_Messiah....html" ;"title="Messiah.html" ;"title="ervant of the Messiah">ervant of the Messiah...">Messiah.html" ;"title="ervant of the Messiah">ervant of the Messiah...of an Arab Christian, author of the Apology of al-Kindy (book)">Risalah, a dialogue with a Muslim; later translated into Latin by Peter of Toledo">Pedro de Toledo, this work ''Apology'' became very influential in Europe.
*Nicetas Byzantius, his 9th century polemic ''Anatrope tes para tou Arabos...'' (Patrologia Graecae, P.G., v.105) picks at the
Qur'an
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: , s ...
chapter by chapter.
*Mardan-Farrukh of Iran, his late 9th century ''Sikand-Gumanik Vigar''
oubt-Dispelling Treatise (
S.B.E., v.24) favorably compares his
Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism is an Iranian religion and one of the world's oldest organized faiths, based on the teachings of the Iranian-speaking prophet Zoroaster. It has a dualistic cosmology of good and evil within the framework of a monotheisti ...
, especially its
theodicy
Theodicy () means vindication of God. It is to answer the question of why a good God permits the manifestation of evil, thus resolving the issue of the problem of evil. Some theodicies also address the problem of evil "to make the existence of ...
, with
Judaism
Judaism ( he, ''Yahăḏūṯ'') is an Abrahamic, monotheistic, and ethnic religion comprising the collective religious, cultural, and legal tradition and civilization of the Jewish people. It has its roots as an organized religion in t ...
,
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
, and
Islam, whose doctrines and beliefs are discussed.
*
Petrus Venerabilis (c. 1092–1156),
Abbot of Cluny
The Abbot of Cluny was the head of the powerful monastery of the Abbey of Cluny in medieval France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, o ...
(France), while in
Hispania
Hispania ( la, Hispānia , ; nearly identically pronounced in Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, and Italian) was the Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula and its provinces. Under the Roman Republic, Hispania was divided into two provinces: Hisp ...
circa 1240, inspired a group led by
Robert of Ketton
Robert of Ketton, known in Latin as Rodbertus Ketenensis ( 1141–1157), was an English astronomer, translator, priest and diplomat active in Spain. He translated several works of Arabic into Latin, including the first translation of the Quran int ...
(England), with
Herman von Carinthia (
Slovenia
Slovenia ( ; sl, Slovenija ), officially the Republic of Slovenia (Slovene: , abbr.: ''RS''), is a country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Italy to the west, Austria to the north, Hungary to the northeast, Croatia to the southeast, an ...
),
Pierre de Poitiers (France), and the
mozarab Pedro de Toledo to translate the Qur'an into
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
, hence the ''
Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete'' (1143); it circulated only in
manuscript
A manuscript (abbreviated MS for singular and MSS for plural) was, traditionally, any document written by hand – or, once practical typewriters became available, typewritten – as opposed to mechanically printed or reproduced in ...
copies until 1543. Often only a tinted
paraphrase
A paraphrase () is a restatement of the meaning of a text or passage using other words. The term itself is derived via Latin ', . The act of paraphrasing is also called ''paraphrasis''.
History
Although paraphrases likely abounded in oral tra ...
, later George Sales would say it "deserves not the name of translation" because of its inaccuracy.
*
Raimundo, Arzobispo de Toledo (r. 1125–1152) sponsored uncensored translations, at first by
Domingo Gundisalvo a
mozarab who rendered into
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
the
Spanish
Spanish might refer to:
* Items from or related to Spain:
**Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain
**Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries
**Spanish cuisine
Other places
* Spanish, Ontario, Can ...
translations from
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walter ...
by the
converso Juan Avendaut; later joined by European scholars, e.g.,
Gerardo da Cremona. From books found in
al-Andalus
Al-Andalus translit. ; an, al-Andalus; ast, al-Ándalus; eu, al-Andalus; ber, ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵍⵓⵙ, label= Berber, translit=Andalus; ca, al-Àndalus; gl, al-Andalus; oc, Al Andalús; pt, al-Ândalus; es, al-Ándalus () was the M ...
, e.g., the pagan
Aristotle
Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of ph ...
(centuries earlier translated from ancient
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Greece
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group.
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family.
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
into
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walter ...
by
Syrian Christians Syrian or Syriac Christians may refer to
* Adherents of Christianity in Syria
* Adherents of Syriac Christianity, various Christian bodies of Syriac traditions, especially:
** Syriac/Assyrian/Aramean people, Christian neo-Aramaic speakers through ...
), and the Muslims
Ibn Sina (Avicenna),
al-Ghazali
Al-Ghazali ( – 19 December 1111; ), full name (), and known in Persian-speaking countries as Imam Muhammad-i Ghazali (Persian: امام محمد غزالی) or in Medieval Europe by the Latinized as Algazelus or Algazel, was a Persian poly ...
,
Ibn Rushd
Ibn Rushd ( ar, ; full name in ; 14 April 112611 December 1198), often Latinized as Averroes ( ), was an
Andalusian polymath and jurist who wrote about many subjects, including philosophy, theology, medicine, astronomy, physics, psychology, ...
(Averroës); such translations led to controversy & the eventual "
baptism
Baptism (from grc-x-koine, βάπτισμα, váptisma) is a form of ritual purification—a characteristic of many religions throughout time and geography. In Christianity, it is a Christian sacrament of initiation and adoption, almost ...
" of Aristotle by
Tomas d'Aquino at the
University of Paris
, image_name = Coat of arms of the University of Paris.svg
, image_size = 150px
, caption = Coat of Arms
, latin_name = Universitas magistrorum et scholarium Parisiensis
, motto = ''Hic et ubique terrarum'' (Latin)
, mottoeng = Here and a ...
.
*
Mose ben Maimon (1135–1204), major
Jewish
Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...
theologian and talmudist who fled
Al-Andalus
Al-Andalus translit. ; an, al-Andalus; ast, al-Ándalus; eu, al-Andalus; ber, ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵍⵓⵙ, label= Berber, translit=Andalus; ca, al-Àndalus; gl, al-Andalus; oc, Al Andalús; pt, al-Ândalus; es, al-Ándalus () was the M ...
for
Morocco
Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria t ...
, then
Cairo
Cairo ( ; ar, القاهرة, al-Qāhirah, ) is the Capital city, capital of Egypt and its largest city, home to 10 million people. It is also part of the List of urban agglomerations in Africa, largest urban agglomeration in Africa, List of ...
, his ''Dalalat al-Ha'rin''
uide of the Perplexed(
Fostat 1190)
n Arabic reconciles the
Bible
The Bible (from Koine Greek , , 'the books') is a collection of religious texts or scriptures that are held to be sacred in Christianity, Judaism, Samaritanism, and many other religions. The Bible is an anthologya compilation of texts ...
and the
Talmud
The Talmud (; he, , Talmūḏ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law ('' halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the ce ...
with
Aristotle
Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of ph ...
, discusses
Al-Farabi
Abu Nasr Muhammad Al-Farabi ( fa, ابونصر محمد فارابی), ( ar, أبو نصر محمد الفارابي), known in the West as Alpharabius; (c. 872 – between 14 December, 950 and 12 January, 951)PDF version was a renowned early Isl ...
,
Ibn Sina (Avicenna), and the Muslim
Kalam
''ʿIlm al-Kalām'' ( ar, عِلْم الكَلام, literally "science of discourse"), usually foreshortened to ''Kalām'' and sometimes called "Islamic scholastic theology" or "speculative theology", is the philosophical study of Islamic doc ...
, especially the
Mutakallimun
''ʿIlm al-Kalām'' ( ar, عِلْم الكَلام, literally "science of discourse"), usually foreshortened to ''Kalām'' and sometimes called "Islamic scholastic theology" or "speculative theology", is the philosophical study of Schools of I ...
, as well as the
Mutazili; influenced by
Ibn Rushd
Ibn Rushd ( ar, ; full name in ; 14 April 112611 December 1198), often Latinized as Averroes ( ), was an
Andalusian polymath and jurist who wrote about many subjects, including philosophy, theology, medicine, astronomy, physics, psychology, ...
(Averroës).
*
Marco de Toledo (
fl. 1193–1216)
Castile, an improved Latin translation from
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walter ...
of the
Qur'an
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: , s ...
.
*
Francesco d'Assisi (1182–1226), Italian
saint, as peaceful
missionary
A missionary is a member of a religious group which is sent into an area in order to promote its faith or provide services to people, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development.Thomas Hale 'On Being a Mi ...
to Muslims, preached before
Al-Kamil
Al-Kamil ( ar, الكامل) (full name: al-Malik al-Kamil Naser ad-Din Abu al-Ma'ali Muhammad) (c. 1177 – 6 March 1238) was a Muslim ruler and the fourth Ayyubid sultan of Egypt. During his tenure as sultan, the Ayyubids defeated the Fifth Cr ...
,
Kurdish
Kurdish may refer to:
*Kurds or Kurdish people
*Kurdish languages
*Kurdish alphabets
*Kurdistan, the land of the Kurdish people which includes:
**Southern Kurdistan
**Eastern Kurdistan
**Northern Kurdistan
**Western Kurdistan
See also
* Kurd (dis ...
Sultan of
Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Medit ...
, in 1219 during the fifth
crusade; his ''Regula non bullata'' (1221)
chapter XVI "Those who are going among the
Saracens and other unbelievers" counsels not to enter disputes, but rather humility, proclaiming what will please God.
*
Frederick II (1194–1250),
Hohenstaufen
The Hohenstaufen dynasty (, , ), also known as the Staufer, was a noble family of unclear origin that rose to rule the Duchy of Swabia from 1079, and to royal rule in the Holy Roman Empire during the Middle Ages from 1138 until 1254. The dynast ...
Emperor, at whose court in
Palermo,
Sicily
(man) it, Siciliana (woman)
, population_note =
, population_blank1_title =
, population_blank1 =
, demographics_type1 = Ethnicity
, demographics1_footnotes =
, demographi ...
, translations from Arabic into Latin continued.
*
Ibn Kammuna (c. 1215-c. 1285), Jewish scholar of
Baghdad
Baghdad (; ar, بَغْدَاد , ) is the capital of Iraq and the second-largest city in the Arab world after Cairo. It is located on the Tigris near the ruins of the ancient city of Babylon and the Sassanid Persian capital of Ctesiphon. I ...
, his fair-minded though controversial ''Tanqih al-abhat li-l-milal al-talat''
Three_Faiths.html" ;"title="Abrahamic_religion.html" ;"title="xamination of the Inquiries into the Abrahamic religion">Three Faiths">Abrahamic_religion.html" ;"title="xamination of the Inquiries into the Abrahamic religion">Three Faiths(1280)
n Arabic
*Alfonso X of Castile, Alfonso X el Sabio (1221–1284),
Castile, his royal Scriptorium o
Escuela de Traductorescontinued translations from Arabic (especially
Greek scientific works and
Islamic) into Latin, which then became widely known in Europe; many translators were Jewish.
*
Ramon Marti (d. c. 1286) Castilla,
Dominican friar
A friar is a member of one of the mendicant orders founded in the twelfth or thirteenth century; the term distinguishes the mendicants' itinerant apostolic character, exercised broadly under the jurisdiction of a superior general, from the ...
, ''
Summa contra errores
Alcoranorum'' (1260); ''Pugio fidei adversus
mauros et
judaeos'' (c. 1280); a traditional partisan, he refers to the Qur'an,
Hadith
Ḥadīth ( or ; ar, حديث, , , , , , , literally "talk" or "discourse") or Athar ( ar, أثر, , literally "remnant"/"effect") refers to what the majority of Muslims believe to be a record of the words, actions, and the silent approva ...
, as well as
al-Farabi
Abu Nasr Muhammad Al-Farabi ( fa, ابونصر محمد فارابی), ( ar, أبو نصر محمد الفارابي), known in the West as Alpharabius; (c. 872 – between 14 December, 950 and 12 January, 951)PDF version was a renowned early Isl ...
,
Ibn Sina,
al-Ghazali
Al-Ghazali ( – 19 December 1111; ), full name (), and known in Persian-speaking countries as Imam Muhammad-i Ghazali (Persian: امام محمد غزالی) or in Medieval Europe by the Latinized as Algazelus or Algazel, was a Persian poly ...
,
Ibn Rushd
Ibn Rushd ( ar, ; full name in ; 14 April 112611 December 1198), often Latinized as Averroes ( ), was an
Andalusian polymath and jurist who wrote about many subjects, including philosophy, theology, medicine, astronomy, physics, psychology, ...
.
*
Tomás d'Aquino (c. 1225–1274) Italian Dominican,
Doctor of the Church ("Angelicus"), his ''Summa contra
Gentiles'' (c. 1261–64)
includes criticism of the
Aristotelianism
Aristotelianism ( ) is a philosophical tradition inspired by the work of Aristotle, usually characterized by deductive logic and an analytic inductive method in the study of natural philosophy and metaphysics. It covers the treatment of the so ...
of
Ibn Rushd
Ibn Rushd ( ar, ; full name in ; 14 April 112611 December 1198), often Latinized as Averroes ( ), was an
Andalusian polymath and jurist who wrote about many subjects, including philosophy, theology, medicine, astronomy, physics, psychology, ...
(Averroës); also ''De Unitate Intellectus Contra
Averroistas'' (
Paris
Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, most populous city of France, with an estimated population of 2,165,423 residents in 2019 in an area of more than 105 km² (41 sq mi), ma ...
1270)
*
Bar 'Ebraya bu-l-Farag(1226–1286),
Catholicos of the
Syriac Orthodox Church, learned theologian, prolific author, his spiritual treatise in Syriac ''Kethabha dhe yauna''
ook of the Dove as well as his ''Ethikon'' said by Wensinck to show influence by
al-Ghazali
Al-Ghazali ( – 19 December 1111; ), full name (), and known in Persian-speaking countries as Imam Muhammad-i Ghazali (Persian: امام محمد غزالی) or in Medieval Europe by the Latinized as Algazelus or Algazel, was a Persian poly ...
.
*
Ramon Llull aimundo Lulio(1232–1316) Majorcan author and theologian, "Doctor Illuminatus", proponent of the "
Ars Magna", fluent in Arabic, three times missionary to
Tunis
''Tounsi'' french: Tunisois
, population_note =
, population_urban =
, population_metro = 2658816
, population_density_km2 =
, timezone1 = CET
, utc_offset1 ...
; his ''Llibre del Gentile e dels tres Savis'' (1274–76)
in which one learned in Hellenic philosophy hears three scholars, Jewish, Christian, and Muslim, whose views are shared with exquisite courtesy by reasoning over their mutual virtues, rather than by attack and defense. Lull infers a heterodox continuum between the natural & the revealed supernatural.
*
Riccoldo di Monte Croce (1243–1320) Italian (
Firenze) Dominican, a missionary during the 1290s, lived in
Baghdad
Baghdad (; ar, بَغْدَاد , ) is the capital of Iraq and the second-largest city in the Arab world after Cairo. It is located on the Tigris near the ruins of the ancient city of Babylon and the Sassanid Persian capital of Ctesiphon. I ...
, his ''Propugnaculum
Fidei'' soon translated into Greek, later into German by
Martin Luther
Martin Luther (; ; 10 November 1483 – 18 February 1546) was a German priest, theologian, author, hymnwriter, and professor, and Augustinian friar. He is the seminal figure of the Protestant Reformation and the namesake of Lutherani ...
; also polemic ''Contra
Legum Serracenorum'' (Baghdad, c. 1290).
*
Ramananda (died 1410)
Hindu
Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...
egalitarian reformer of
bhakti movement, origin as
Brahmin
Brahmin (; sa, ब्राह्मण, brāhmaṇa) is a varna as well as a caste within Hindu society. The Brahmins are designated as the priestly class as they serve as priests (purohit, pandit, or pujari) and religious teachers (gur ...
in sect of
Ramanuja
Ramanuja ( Middle Tamil: Rāmāṉujam; Classical Sanskrit: Rāmanuja; 1017 CE – 1137 CE; ; ), also known as Ramanujacharya, was an Indian Hindu philosopher, guru and a social reformer. He is noted to be one of the most important exponents ...
; his popular synthesis of both Islamic and Hindu elements led also to inter-religious understanding; the
Sant Mat poet
Kabir was a disciple.
*
Ruy Gonzáles de Clavijo Ruy may refer to:
Arts and Entertainment
* Ruy, the Little Cid, Spanish animated television series
* Ruy Blas, a character in the eponymous tragic drama by Victor Hugo
People
*another form of Rui, a Portuguese male given name
*another form of the ...
(died 1412), ambassador of Enrique III of
Castile to
Timur
Timur ; chg, ''Aqsaq Temür'', 'Timur the Lame') or as ''Sahib-i-Qiran'' ( 'Lord of the Auspicious Conjunction'), his epithet. ( chg, ''Temür'', 'Iron'; 9 April 133617–19 February 1405), later Timūr Gurkānī ( chg, ''Temür Kü ...
at
Samarkand, ''Embajada a Tamor Lán'' (1582)
*
Nicolaus Cusanus (1401–1464) German
Cardinal, at cusp of
renaissance
The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history
The history of Europe is traditionally divided into four time periods: prehistoric Europe (prior to about 800 BC), classical antiquity (800 BC to AD ...
; following the fall of
Constantinople
la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه
, alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya ( Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis ( ...
, his ''De pace fidei'' (1455)
sought common ground among the various religions, presenting fictitious short dialogues involving an
Arab
The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Western Asia, ...
, an
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
n, an
Assyrian, a
Jew
Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""T ...
, a
Scythian
The Scythians or Scyths, and sometimes also referred to as the Classical Scythians and the Pontic Scythians, were an ancient Eastern
* : "In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Centra ...
, a
Persia
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
n, a
Syrian, a
Turk, a
Tartar, and various
Christians
Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words '' Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρ ...
; also his ''Cribratio Alcorani'' (1460).
*
Nanak
Gurū Nānak (15 April 1469 – 22 September 1539; Gurmukhi: ਗੁਰੂ ਨਾਨਕ; pronunciation: , ), also referred to as ('father Nānak'), was the founder of Sikhism and is the first of the ten Sikh Gurus. His birth is celebrated wor ...
(1469–1539) India, influenced by Muslim
sufis and Hindu
bhakti, became a teacher who traveled far to preach the unity of God;
Sikhs revere him as their first
Guru
Guru ( sa, गुरु, IAST: ''guru;'' Pali'': garu'') is a Sanskrit term for a "mentor, guide, expert, or master" of certain knowledge or field. In pan-Indian traditions, a guru is more than a teacher: traditionally, the guru is a reverential ...
; opposed to caste divisions, and opposed to Hindu-Muslim rivalry/conflict.
*
Leo Africanus
Joannes Leo Africanus (born al-Hasan Muhammad al-Wazzan, ar, الحسن محمد الوزان ; c. 1494 – c. 1554) was an Andalusian diplomat and author who is best known for his 1526 book '' Cosmographia et geographia de Affrica'', later ...
(c.1488-1554), originally Al Hassan, Muslim of
Fez; traveled with his diplomat uncle to
Timbuktu
Timbuktu ( ; french: Tombouctou;
Koyra Chiini: ); tmh, label=Tuareg, script=Tfng, ⵜⵏⴱⴾⵜ, Tin Buqt a city in Mali, situated north of the Niger River. The town is the capital of the Tombouctou Region, one of the eight administrativ ...
; later captured by Christian pirates & sold into slavery; freed by Pope
Leo X
Pope Leo X ( it, Leone X; born Giovanni di Lorenzo de' Medici, 11 December 14751 December 1521) was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 9 March 1513 to his death in December 1521.
Born into the prominent political an ...
and baptised; wrote ''Cosmographia Dell'Africa'' of his travels; returned to Islam.
* => The
following a title indicates books translated into English.
1500 to 1800
*
Enbaqom (c.1470-1565),
Ethiopia
Ethiopia, , om, Itiyoophiyaa, so, Itoobiya, ti, ኢትዮጵያ, Ítiyop'iya, aa, Itiyoppiya officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country in the Horn of Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the ...
, ''
echage'' or abbot of
Dabra Libanos, origin as trader from
Yemen
Yemen (; ar, ٱلْيَمَن, al-Yaman), officially the Republic of Yemen,, ) is a country in Western Asia. It is situated on the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula, and borders Saudi Arabia to the Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, north and ...
; his ''Anqasa Amin''
ateway of Faith(c.1533), written in
Ge'ez, defends Christianity contra Islam, citing the Qur'an, and is addressed to the Muslim invader
Ahmad Gran.
*
Theodor Bibliander
Theodore (or Theodorus) Bibliander (german: Theodor Buchmann; 1509 in Bischofszell – 26 September 1564 in Zurich) was a Swiss orientalist, publisher, Protestant reformer and linguist. Born Theodor Buchmann (''Bibliander'' is a Greek translati ...
uchmann(1506–1564), Swiss (
Zurich)
theologian
Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the ...
, in 1543 published in
Basle
, french: link=no, Bâlois(e), it, Basilese
, neighboring_municipalities= Allschwil (BL), Hégenheim (FR-68), Binningen (BL), Birsfelden (BL), Bottmingen (BL), Huningue (FR-68), Münchenstein (BL), Muttenz (BL), Reinach (BL), Riehen (BS), ...
various documents (with a preface by
Martin Luther
Martin Luther (; ; 10 November 1483 – 18 February 1546) was a German priest, theologian, author, hymnwriter, and professor, and Augustinian friar. He is the seminal figure of the Protestant Reformation and the namesake of Lutherani ...
), which included the ''Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete'' of 1143.
*
Luis de Marmol Carvajal (c. 1520-c. 1600), Spanish soldier in Africa twenty years, captured and enslaved seven years, travels in
Guinea,
North Africa
North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in ...
,
Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Medit ...
, and perhaps
Ethiopia
Ethiopia, , om, Itiyoophiyaa, so, Itoobiya, ti, ኢትዮጵያ, Ítiyop'iya, aa, Itiyoppiya officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country in the Horn of Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the ...
: ''Descripción general de África'' (1573, 1599).
*Alonso del Castillo (1520s-c.1607), Spain, formative work in Arabic archives and inscriptions (his father once a
Morisco
Moriscos (, ; pt, mouriscos ; Spanish for "Moorish") were former Muslims and their descendants whom the Roman Catholic church and the Spanish Crown commanded to convert to Christianity or face compulsory exile after Spain outlawed the open ...
of
Granada).
*
Andre du Ryer (c. 1580-c. 1660) France, translation of the Qur'an: ''
L'Alcoran de Mahomet translaté d'arabe en françois'' (Paris 1647)
*
Alexander Ross (1591–1654), Scotland, chaplain to
Charles I, first English translation of the Qur'an (1649) from the French of du Ryer.
*
Ludovico Marracci (1612–1700) Italian priest, professor of Arabic, Latin translation of the Qur'an, ''Alcorani textus universus...'' (
Padova
Padua ( ; it, Padova ; vec, Pàdova) is a city and ''comune'' in Veneto, northern Italy. Padua is on the river Bacchiglione, west of Venice. It is the capital of the province of Padua. It is also the economic and communications hub of the ...
1698), publication delayed by Church censors, in two volumes: ''Prodromus'' contains a biography of Mohammad and summary of Islamic doctrine; ''Refutatio Alcorani'' contains the Qur'an in Arabic text, with Latin translation, annotated per partisan purposes (cf.,
Ottoman military proximity); cited by
Edward Gibbon
Edward Gibbon (; 8 May 173716 January 1794) was an English historian, writer, and member of parliament. His most important work, '' The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', published in six volumes between 1776 and 1788, is ...
. Also, his earlier contributions translating the Bible into Arabic (1671).
*
Dara Shikuh (1615–1659),
Mughal, elder brother of
Aurangzeb; Muslim but included here because of his syncretism in the tradition of his great-grandfather
Akbar; his ''Majma-ul-Bahrain''
ingling of Two Oceans(1655)
finds parallels between
Sufism and the monotheistic
Vedanta
''Vedanta'' (; sa, वेदान्त, ), also ''Uttara Mīmāṃsā'', is one of the six (''āstika'') schools of Hindu philosophy. Literally meaning "end of the Vedas", Vedanta reflects ideas that emerged from, or were aligned with, t ...
of
Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
, it was later translated into Sanskrit; also his own translation into Persian of the
Upanishads
The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , ...
.
*
Johann Heinrich Hottinger
Johann Heinrich Hottinger (10 March 1620 – 5 June 1667) was a Swiss philologist and theologian.
Life and works
Hottinger studied at Geneva, Groningen and Leiden. After visiting France and England he was appointed professor of church history ...
(1620–1667) Swiss philologist, theologian, ''Historia Orientalis'' (Tiguri 1651) in Latin.
*
Barthelemy d'Herbelot de Molainville (1625–1695) French philologist, ''Bibliothèque orientale'' (1697), based initially on the Turkish scholar
Katip Celebi's ''Kashf al-Zunum'' which contains over 14,000 alphabetical entries.
*
Henry Stubbe (1632–1676) English author, his ''An Account of the rise and progress of Mahometanism: with the life of Mahomet and a vindication of him and his religion from the calumnies of the Christians'', which evidently lay in manuscript several hundred years until edited by Mahmud Khan Shairani and published (London: Luzac 1911).
*
Jean Chardin (1643–1713) French merchant, ''Journal du Voyage.. de Chardin en
Perse et aux Indes Orientales'' (1686, 1711)
*
Antoine Galland (1646–1715) France, first in the West to translate the
Arabian Nights, ''Les Mille et Une Nuits'' (1704–1717).
*
Humphrey Prideaux
Humphrey Prideaux (3 May 1648 – 1 November 1724) was a Cornish churchman and orientalist, Dean of Norwich from 1702. His sympathies inclined to Low Churchism in religion and to Whiggism in politics.
Life
The third son of Edmond Prideaux, he wa ...
(1648–1724) Anglican
Dean
Dean may refer to:
People
* Dean (given name)
* Dean (surname), a surname of Anglo-Saxon English origin
* Dean (South Korean singer), a stage name for singer Kwon Hyuk
* Dean Delannoit, a Belgian singer most known by the mononym Dean
Titles
* ...
, traditional partisan, ''The True Nature of Imposture fully display'd in the Life of Mahomet'' (London 1697), reprint 1798, Fairhaven, Vermont; this work follows earlier polemics, & also refutes European
deist
Deism ( or ; derived from the Latin '' deus'', meaning "god") is the philosophical position and rationalistic theology that generally rejects revelation as a source of divine knowledge, and asserts that empirical reason and observation ...
s.
*
Abraham Hinckelmann (1652–1692), edited an Arabic text of the Qur'an, later published in
Hamburg
(male), (female) en, Hamburger(s),
Hamburgian(s)
, timezone1 = Central (CET)
, utc_offset1 = +1
, timezone1_DST = Central (CEST)
, utc_offset1_DST = +2
, postal ...
, Germany, in 1694.
*
Henri Comte de Boulainviller (1658–1722) French historian, his ''Vie de Mahomet'' (2nd ed., Amsterdam 1731)
praises what he saw as the instrumental rationalism of the prophet, portraying Islam in terms of a natural religion.
*
Liu Zhi (c.1660-c.1730) Chinese Muslim scholar writing in
Chinese (Arabic "Han Kitab", ''Chinese books''); during early
Qing, presented Islam to
Manchus as consonant with
Confucianism
Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or a ...
, e.g., his ''Tianfang Dianli'' dealing with
ritual
A ritual is a sequence of activities involving gestures, words, actions, or objects, performed according to a set sequence. Rituals may be prescribed by the traditions of a community, including a religious community. Rituals are characterized ...
, comparing
li with Muslim practice.
*
Jean Gagnier (c. 1670–1740)
Oxford Univ., ''De vita et rebus Mohammedis'' (1723), annotated Latin translation of chapters on Muhammad from ''Mukhtasar Ta'rikh a-Bashar'' by Abu 'l-Fida (1273–1331); also ''La Vie de Mahomet'' (Amsterdam 1748), biography in French.
*Liu Chih (16wx-17yz) China, ''T'ien-fang Chih-sheng shi-lu'' (
721-1724 1779),
True Annals of the Prophet of Arabia" I. Mason
''The Arabian Prophet; A life of Mohammed from Chinese sources'' (Shanghai 1921).
*
Simon Ochley (1678-1720) England,
Cambridge Univ., his ''
History of the Saracens'' (1708, 1718) praises Islam at arm's length.
*
Voltaire
François-Marie Arouet (; 21 November 169430 May 1778) was a French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher. Known by his ''nom de plume'' M. de Voltaire (; also ; ), he was famous for his wit, and his criticism of Christianity—es ...
rancois-Marie Arouet(1694–1778) French author, critic,
anti-cleric,
deist
Deism ( or ; derived from the Latin '' deus'', meaning "god") is the philosophical position and rationalistic theology that generally rejects revelation as a source of divine knowledge, and asserts that empirical reason and observation ...
, wealthy speculator; his play ''Mahomet le prophete ou le fanatisme'' (1741)
invents scurrilous legends & attacks hypocrisy, (also being a hidden attack on the French ''ancien régime'').
*
George Sale (1697–1736), English lawyer, using Hinckelmann and Marracci, annotated and translated into English a well regarded ''The Koran'' (1734); member of the "Society for Promotion of Christian Knowledge", proofread its ''Arabic
New Testament
The New Testament grc, Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη, transl. ; la, Novum Testamentum. (NT) is the second division of the Christian biblical canon. It discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first-century Chri ...
'' (S.P.C.K. 1726).
*
Miguel Casiri (1710-1780s), Syrian
Maronite, ''Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana
Escurialensis'' (2 volumes,
Madrid
Madrid ( , ) is the capital and most populous city of Spain. The city has almost 3.4 million inhabitants and a Madrid metropolitan area, metropolitan area population of approximately 6.7 million. It is the Largest cities of the Europ ...
1760–1770).
*
Carsten Niebuhr
Carsten Niebuhr, or Karsten Niebuhr (17 March 1733 Lüdingworth – 26 April 1815 Meldorf, Dithmarschen), was a German mathematician, cartographer, and explorer in the service of Denmark. He is renowned for his participation in the Royal Danish ...
(1733–1815) Germany, member of royal Danish expedition to
Yemen
Yemen (; ar, ٱلْيَمَن, al-Yaman), officially the Republic of Yemen,, ) is a country in Western Asia. It is situated on the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula, and borders Saudi Arabia to the Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, north and ...
, ''Beschreibung von Arabien'' (
Kobenhavn 1772); ''Reisebeschreibung nach Arabien und andern umliegenden Landern'' (3 volumes, Kobenhavn 1774, 1778, Hamburg 1837).
*
Silvestre de Sacy (1758–1838) Jewish French, his ''Grammaire arabe'' (2v., 1810); teacher of
Champollion who read the
Rosetta Stone
The Rosetta Stone is a stele composed of granodiorite inscribed with three versions of a decree issued in Memphis, Egypt, in 196 BC during the Ptolemaic dynasty on behalf of King Ptolemy V Epiphanes. The top and middle texts are in Ancien ...
.
*
José Antonio Conde
José Antonio Conde y García (1766–1820) was a Spanish Orientalist and historian of Al-Andalus period. His ''Anacreon'' (1791) obtained him a post in the royal library in 1795. He also published several paraphrases of Greek classics. Thes ...
(1765–1820) ''Historia de la dominacion de los arabes en Espana'' (Madrid 1820–1821), pioneer work now depreciated.
*
Ram Mohan Roy
Raja Ram Mohan Roy ( bn, রামমোহন রায়; 22 May 1772 – 27 September 1833) was an Indian reformer who was one of the founders of the Brahmo Sabha in 1828, the precursor of the Brahmo Samaj, a social-religious reform ...
aja Ram Mohun Roy(1772–1833), India (
Kolkata
Kolkata (, or , ; also known as Calcutta , the official name until 2001) is the capital of the Indian state of West Bengal, on the eastern bank of the Hooghly River west of the border with Bangladesh. It is the primary business, comme ...
,
Bengal
Bengal ( ; bn, বাংলা/বঙ্গ, translit=Bānglā/Bôngô, ) is a geopolitical, cultural and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal, predom ...
), early journalist, influential religious and social reformer, founder of
Brahmo Samaj
Brahmo Samaj ( bn, ব্রহ্ম সমাজ, Brahmô Sômaj, ) is the societal component of Brahmoism, which began as a monotheistic reformist movement of the Hindu religion that appeared during the Bengal Renaissance.
It was one of t ...
, his ''Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhidin''
ift of the Unitarians(1803–1804), a book in Persian on, e.g., the unity of religions.
*
Washington Irving
Washington Irving (April 3, 1783 – November 28, 1859) was an American short-story writer, essayist, biographer, historian, and diplomat of the early 19th century. He is best known for his short stories "Rip Van Winkle" (1819) and " The Legen ...
(1783–1859) U.S., author, Minister to Spain 1842–1846, ''Chronicle of the Conquest of Granada'' (1829); ''
Tales of the Alhambra
''Tales of the Alhambra'' (1832) is a collection of essays, verbal sketches and stories by American author Washington Irving (1783–1859) inspired by, and partly written during, his 1828 visit to the palace/fortress complex known as the Alhambr ...
'' (1832, 1851) where he lived several years; ''Mahomet and His Successors'' (
New York City
New York, often called New York City or NYC, is the most populous city in the United States. With a 2020 population of 8,804,190 distributed over , New York City is also the most densely populated major city in the Un ...
: Putnam 1849) a popular, fair-minded biography based on translations from Arabic and on western authors, since edited (Univ.of Wisconsin 1970).
*
Charles Mills (1788–1826) England, ''History of Mohammedanism'' (1818).
*
Garcin de Tassy (1794–1878) France, ''L'Islamisme d'apre le Coran'' (Paris 1874), the religion based on a reading of the Qur'an.
*
Yusuf Ma Dexin
Yusuf Ma Dexin (also ''Ma Tesing''; 1794–1874) was a Hui Chinese Hanafi- Maturidi scholar from Yunnan, known for his fluency and proficiency in both Arabic and Persian, and for his knowledge of Islam. He also went by the Chinese name Ma Fu ...
(1794–1874) Chinese (
Yunnan
Yunnan , () is a landlocked province in the southwest of the People's Republic of China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 48.3 million (as of 2018). The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders the C ...
) Muslim scholar and leader; first to translate the Qur'an into
Chinese.
*
A. P. Caussin de Perceval (1795–1871) ''Essai sur l'histoire des Arabes avant l'Islamisme'' (
Paris
Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, most populous city of France, with an estimated population of 2,165,423 residents in 2019 in an area of more than 105 km² (41 sq mi), ma ...
1847–1849), Arabia before Muhammad.
*=> The
following a title indicates books translated into English.
1800 to 1900
*
Gustav Leberecht Flügel
Gustav Leberecht Flügel (February 18, 1802 – July 5, 1870) was a German orientalist.
Life
After attending high school in his native city Flügel studied theology and philosophy in Leipzig. He soon discovered his passion for oriental langua ...
(1802–1870), Germany, ''Al-Qoran: Corani textus Arabicus'' (
Leipzig
Leipzig ( , ; Upper Saxon: ) is the most populous city in the German state of Saxony. Leipzig's population of 605,407 inhabitants (1.1 million in the larger urban zone) as of 2021 places the city as Germany's eighth most populous, as ...
1834), Arabic text for
academics
An academy (Attic Greek: Ἀκαδήμεια; Koine Greek Ἀκαδημία) is an institution of secondary or tertiary higher learning (and generally also research or honorary membership). The name traces back to Plato's school of philosophy, ...
.
*
Gustav Weil (1808–1889) Jewish German, ''Mohammed der
Prophet
In religion, a prophet or prophetess is an individual who is regarded as being in contact with a divine being and is said to speak on behalf of that being, serving as an intermediary with humanity by delivering messages or teachings from the s ...
'' (
Stuttgart 1843); ''Biblische Legenden der Musel-manner'' (Frankfort 1845)
''Das
Leben Mohammeds nach
Mohammed ibn Ishak, bearbeitet von
Abdel Malik ibn Hischam'' (Stuttgart 1864).
*
John Medows Rodwell (1808–1900), English translation of The Koran, using derived chronological sequence of
Suras.
*
Pascual de Gayangos y Arce
Pascual de Gayangos y Arce (June 21, 1809 – October 4, 1897) was a Spanish scholar and Orientalism, orientalist.
Life
Born in Seville, he was the son of Brigadier#Officer rank in the former Spanish empire, Brigadier José de Gayangos, intend ...
(1809–1897), Spanish Arabist, studied under de Sacy in Paris; translated
al-Maqqari
Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad al-Maqqarī al-Tilmisānī (or al-Maḳḳarī) (), (1577-1632) was an Algerian scholar, biographer and historian who is best known for his , a compendium of the history of Al-Andalus which provided a basis for the scholar ...
(d.1632) into English as ''History of the Mohammedan Dynasties of Spain'' (1840, 1843); ''Tratados de Legislación Musulmana'' (v.5, ''Mem.His.Esp.'' 1853).
*
Abraham Geiger
Abraham Geiger (Hebrew: ''ʼAvrāhām Gayger''; 24 May 181023 October 1874) was a German rabbi and scholar, considered the founding father of Reform Judaism. Emphasizing Judaism's constant development along history and universalist traits, Geig ...
(1810–1874) German
rabbi
A rabbi () is a spiritual leader or religious teacher in Judaism. One becomes a rabbi by being ordained by another rabbi – known as ''semikha'' – following a course of study of Jewish history and texts such as the Talmud. The basic form of ...
and scholar, major founder of
Reform Judaism
Reform Judaism, also known as Liberal Judaism or Progressive Judaism, is a major Jewish denomination that emphasizes the evolving nature of Judaism, the superiority of its ethical aspects to its ceremonial ones, and belief in a continuous sear ...
, his ''Was hat Mohammed aus dem Judenthume aufgenommen?'' (
Bonn
The federal city of Bonn ( lat, Bonna) is a city on the banks of the Rhine in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia, with a population of over 300,000. About south-southeast of Cologne, Bonn is in the southernmost part of the Rhine-Ru ...
1833)
restates and updates a perennial thesis (e.g., cf.
L. Marracci).
*
Aloys Sprenger
Aloys Sprenger (born 3 September 1813, in Nassereith, Tyrol; died 19 December 1893 in Heidelberg) was an Austrian Oritentalist.
Sprenger studied medicine, natural sciences as well as oriental languages at the University of Vienna. In 1836 he ...
(1813–1893)
Austria
Austria, , bar, Östareich officially the Republic of Austria, is a country in the southern part of Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine states, one of which is the capital, Vienna, the most populous ...
, ''Das Leben und die Lehre des Mohammad'' (2nd edition, 3 volumes, Berlin 1869).
*
Carl Paul Caspari
Carl Paul Caspari (8 February 1814 – 11 April 1892) was a Norwegian neo-Lutheran theologian and academic. He was a Professor of Old Testament Theology at the University of Oslo. He wrote several books and is best known for his interpretations ...
(1814–1892) German, Christian convert from Judaism, Norwegian academic, ''Grammatica Arabica'' (1844–48), Latin.
*
William Muir
Sir William Muir (27 April 1819 – 11 July 1905) was a Scottish Orientalist, and colonial administrator, Principal of the University of Edinburgh and Lieutenant Governor of the North-West Provinces of British India.
Life
He was born at Gl ...
(1819–1905), Scotland, government official in India, ''The Life of Mohamet'' (
London
London is the capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary dow ...
, 1861).
*
Edward Rehatsek (1819–1891)
Hungary
Hungary ( hu, Magyarország ) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning of the Pannonian Basin, Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the ...
, later India, first translation of
Sirah Rasul Allah into English (deposited, 1898).
*
Reinhart Dozy
Reinhart Pieter Anne Dozy (Leiden, Netherlands, 21 February 1820 – Leiden, 29 April 1883) was a Dutch scholar of French (Huguenot) origin, who was born in Leiden. He was an Orientalist scholar of Arabic language, history and literature.
Biogra ...
(1820–1883)
Netherlands
)
, anthem = ( en, "William of Nassau")
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, subdivision_type = Sovereign state
, subdivision_name = Kingdom of the Netherlands
, established_title = Before independence
, established_date = Spanish Netherl ...
, ''Histoire des Musulmans d'Espagne jusqu'a la Conquete de l'Andalousie par les Almoravides'' (
Leiden
Leiden (; in English and archaic Dutch also Leyden) is a city and municipality in the province of South Holland, Netherlands. The municipality of Leiden has a population of 119,713, but the city forms one densely connected agglomeration wi ...
, 1861), 4 volumes; ''Recherches sur l'Histoire et la Littérature de l'Espagne pendant le moyen âge'' (1881).
*
Richard Francis Burton (1821–1890) British, ''Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to
al-Madinah and
Mecca
Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow ...
'' (2 vol., 1855).
*
Ernest Renan (1823–1892) French, Catholic
apostate
Apostasy (; grc-gre, ἀποστασία , 'a defection or revolt') is the formal religious disaffiliation, disaffiliation from, abandonment of, or renunciation of a religion by a person. It can also be defined within the broader context of emb ...
, ''Histoire generale et system compare des langues semitiques'' (Paris 1863).
*Friedrich Max Müller (1823–1900) German philologist, comparative religion pioneer, Oxford Univ. professor, editor of 50 volume ''Sacred Books of the East'', volumes 6 and 9 being the ''Qur'an'' translated by E. H. Palmer.
*:es:Francisco Javier Simonet (1825-c.1897) Spanish Arabist, traditional partisan, ''Leyendas históricas árabes'' (Madrid 1858); ''Historia de los
mozarabes de Espana'' (Madrid 1897–1903); controversial views, e.g., suggests that one-sided Muslim marriage law caused an insulation in the subject people that over generations fused their religious & lineage identities, hence focus put on ''limpio de sangre''.
*Ludolf Krehl (1825–1901) ''Beitrage zur Muhammedanischen Dogmatik'' (Leipzig 1885).
*Alfred von Kremer (1828–1889) Austria, professor of Arabic at Vienna, Wien, foreign service to
Cairo
Cairo ( ; ar, القاهرة, al-Qāhirah, ) is the Capital city, capital of Egypt and its largest city, home to 10 million people. It is also part of the List of urban agglomerations in Africa, largest urban agglomeration in Africa, List of ...
,
Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Medit ...
; ''History, Geschichte de herrschenden Ideen des Islams'' (Leipzig 1868); ''Culturgeschichte Streifzüge auf dem Gebiete des Islams'' (
Leipzig
Leipzig ( , ; Upper Saxon: ) is the most populous city in the German state of Saxony. Leipzig's population of 605,407 inhabitants (1.1 million in the larger urban zone) as of 2021 places the city as Germany's eighth most populous, as ...
1873)
*Girish Chandra Sen (1836–1910)
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
, translated Muslim works into Bengali language, Bengali, including the Qur'an (1886); professor of Islam for the
Brahmo Samaj
Brahmo Samaj ( bn, ব্রহ্ম সমাজ, Brahmô Sômaj, ) is the societal component of Brahmoism, which began as a monotheistic reformist movement of the Hindu religion that appeared during the Bengal Renaissance.
It was one of t ...
, universalist Hindu reform society founded in 1828 by
Ram Mohan Roy
Raja Ram Mohan Roy ( bn, রামমোহন রায়; 22 May 1772 – 27 September 1833) was an Indian reformer who was one of the founders of the Brahmo Sabha in 1828, the precursor of the Brahmo Samaj, a social-religious reform ...
(1772–1833).
*:es:Francisco Codera y Zaidín (1836–1917) ''Tratado numismática arábigo-español'' (Madrid 1879); founded ''library, Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana''.
*Michael Jan de Geoje (1836–1909) Dutch academic, led the editing of the Arabic text of ''Ta'rikh al-rasul wa'l muluk'' [History of Prophets and Kings] of the Persian al-Tabari (d. 923), in 14 volumes (Leiden: Brill 1879–1901).
*Theodor Noldeke, Theodor Nöldeke (1836–1930) Germany, well regarded philologist and academic, ''Das Leben Mohammeds'' (1863); ''Zur Grammatik de klassische Arabisch'' (1896); with Friedrich Schwally ''Geschichte des Qorans'' (Leipzig, 1909–1919, 2 volumes).
*Edward Henry Palmer (1840–1882), English; traveler in Arab lands; called to the bar in 1874; translated Qur'an for the
S.B.E. (1880); killed in Egypt by desert ambush while with British military patrol.
*Ignazio Guidi (1844–1935) Italy, ''L'Arabe Pre-Islamic Arabia, anteislamique'' (Paris 1921).
*Julius Wellhausen (1844–1918) Germany, ''Muhammed in Medina'' (Berlin 1882); ''Das Arabische Reich und sein Sturz'' (Berlin 1902); his ''Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels'' (Berlin 1878, 1882)
presents studies using the "higher criticism" of the Bible.
*William Robertson Smith (1846–1894) Scotland, ''Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia'' (Cambridge 1885); ''Lectures on the Religion of the Semites'' (1889), sought to locate ancient Judaism in its historical context; in his Old Testament studies influenced by Wellhausen.
*Italo Pizzi (1849–1920) ''L'Islamismo'' (Milan 1905).
*Ignaz Goldziher (1850–1921),
Hungary
Hungary ( hu, Magyarország ) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning of the Pannonian Basin, Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the ...
, ''Die Zahiriten'' (Leipzig 1884); ''Muhammedanische Studien'' (2 volumes, Halle 1889–1890)
; ''Vorlesungen uber den Islam'' (Heidelberg 1910, 1925)
''Die Richtungen der islamischen Koranauslegung'' (Leiden 1920); well regarded Jewish scholar, admirer of Islam, e.g., writing that he felt fulfillment when praying with Muslims in a
Cairo
Cairo ( ; ar, القاهرة, al-Qāhirah, ) is the Capital city, capital of Egypt and its largest city, home to 10 million people. It is also part of the List of urban agglomerations in Africa, largest urban agglomeration in Africa, List of ...
mosque.
*H. U. Weitbrecht, Herbert Udny Weitbrecht (1851−1937), ''The Teaching of the Qur’an'' with an Account of Its Growth and a Subjekt Index, (1919)
*Martijn Theodoor Houtsma (1851–1943)
Netherlands
)
, anthem = ( en, "William of Nassau")
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, subdivision_type = Sovereign state
, subdivision_name = Kingdom of the Netherlands
, established_title = Before independence
, established_date = Spanish Netherl ...
, lead editor of ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'' (Leiden: E.J.Brill 1913–1938), 9 volumes; eclipsed by a new edition (1954–2002) of 11 volumes with index and supplements.
*Julián Ribera, Julián Ribera y Tarragó (1858–1934) Spain (Valencia, Spain, Valencia), professor of Arabic, studies in mixed culture of
al-Andalus
Al-Andalus translit. ; an, al-Andalus; ast, al-Ándalus; eu, al-Andalus; ber, ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵍⵓⵙ, label= Berber, translit=Andalus; ca, al-Àndalus; gl, al-Andalus; oc, Al Andalús; pt, al-Ândalus; es, al-Ándalus () was the M ...
(e.g., connections to the troubadours); ''El Cancionero de Abencuzmán'' (Madrid 1912); ''La musica de las Cantigas'' (Madrid 1922).
*David Samuel Margoliouth (1858–1940), Anglican, his father a Jewish convert, ''Mohammed and the Rise of Islam'' (London 1905, 1923); ''Relations between Arabs and Israelites prior to the Rise of Islam'' (1924); ''Table-talk of a Mesopotamian judge'' (1921, 1922, 2v).
*William St. Clair Tisdall (1859–1928) Anglican priest, linguist, traditional partisan, ''The Original Sources of the Quran'' (S.P.C.K. 1905).
*Edward G. Browne (1862–1926) English, ''A Literary History of Persia'' (4 volumes, 1902–1924).
*Henri Lammens (1862–1937) Flemish people, Flemish Jesuit, a modern partisan; ''Fatimah, Fatima et ls filles de Mahomet'' (Rome, Roma 1912); ''Le berceau de l'Islam'' (Roma 1914); ''L'Islam, croyances et institutions'' (Beirut, Beyrouth 1926)
''L'Arabe Occidental avant l'Hegire'' (Beyrouth 1928).
*Henri Pirenne (1862–1935) Belgium, Belgian historian, ''Mahomet et Charlemagne'' (Paris 1937)
how the Arab conquests disrupted Mediterranean trade, isolating the European economies which declined.
*Maurice Gaudefroy-Desmombynes (1862–1957) France, ''Le pelerinage a la Mekke'' (Paris 1923); ''Le monde musulman et byzantin jusqu'aux croisades'' (Paris 1931) with S.F.Platonov; ''Les institutions musulmanes'' (Paris 1946)
*Duncan Black MacDonald (1863–1943) Scotland; Hartford Seminary in U.S.; ''Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory'' (New York 1903); ''The Religious Attitude and Life in Islam'' (Chicago 1909).
*Friedrich Zacharias Schwally (1863–1919), Germany; student of Theodor Nöldeke; ''Ibraham ibn Muhammed el-Baihaqi Kitab el Mahdsin val Masdwi'' (Leipzig 1899–1902); ''Kitab al-mahasin vai-masavi'' (Gießen 1902).
*Thomas Walker Arnold (1864–1930) England, professor in India associating with Shibli Nomani & Muhammad Iqbal, later at London School of Oriental and African Studies, S.O.A.S.; ''The Caliphate'' (Oxford 1924); ''Painting in Islam. A study of the place of pictorial art in Muslim culture'' (1928); ''The Preaching of Islam'' (1929); ''Legacy of Islam'' (Oxford 1931) editor with Alfred Guillaume, A. Guillaume.
*Miguel de Unamuno (1864-1936) Spain, philosopher; embraced Spanish connection to Berber North Africa but not to the Arabs.
*François Nau (1864–1913) ''Les chrétiens arabes en Mesopotamia et en Syrie au VIIe et VIIIe siècles'' (Paris 1933).
*William Ambrose Shedd (1865–1918) U.S., Presbyterian, ''Islam and the Oriental Churches: Their historical relations'' (1904).
*Marshall Broomhall (1866-1937) British, Protestant missionary to China
''Islam in China. A neglected problem''(1910).
*Theodor Juynboll (1866–1948) ''Handbuch des islamischen Gesetzes'' (Leipzig: Brill Harrassowitz 1910) on Islamic law.
*Samuel Marinus Zwemer (1867–1952) U.S., Dutch Reform missionary to Islam, later at Princeton University, Princeton, ''Islam. A Challenge to Faith'' (NY 1907); ''Law of Apostasy in Islam'' (1924).
*Leon Walerian Ostroróg, Comte (1867–1932) Poland, ''The Angora Reform'' (London 1927), on the "Law of Fundamental Organization" (1921) of republican Turkey transferring power from the Sultan to the Assembly; ''Pour la réforme de la justice Ottoman empire, ottomane'' (Paris 1912).
*Gertrude Bell (1868-1926) English, ''Persian Pictures'' (1894); ''Syria: The desert and the sown'' (1907); became a British Political officer (British Empire), political officer in Arab lands during World War I.
*Reynold Nicholson (1868–1945) English, ''The Mystics of Islam'' (1914); ''A Literary History of the Arabs'' (Cambridge Univ. 1930).
*Carl Brockelmann (1868–1956) ''Geschichte der arabischen Literatur'' (5 vol., Weimar &
Leiden
Leiden (; in English and archaic Dutch also Leyden) is a city and municipality in the province of South Holland, Netherlands. The municipality of Leiden has a population of 119,713, but the city forms one densely connected agglomeration wi ...
, 1898–1942), ''Geschichte der islamischen Volker und Staaten'' (Munich, Munchen 1939)
*Ramón Menéndez Pidal (1869-1968), Spain, elaborates Julian Ribera, Ribera and Miguel Asín Palacios, Asín. ''España, eslabón entre la cristiandad y el islam'' (1956)
*Leone Caetani (1869–1935) Italian nobleman, ''Annali dell'Islam'' (10 volumes, 1904–1926) reprint 1972, contains early Arabic sources.
*Mahatma Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand "Mahatma" Gandhi (1869–1948) spiritual and independence leader in
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
, opposed caste divisions; prolific writer, teacher of satyagraha worldwide, influencing Martin Luther King Jr.; his letter to Mohammad Ali Jinnah of Sept. 11, 1944, stated "My life mission has been Hindu Religion, Hindu-Muslim unity... not to be achieved without the foreign ruling power being ousted." Because of policies favorable to Islam, Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi, Gandhi was assassinated by a Hindu ultra-nationalist. Cf., McDonough, ''Gandhi's responses to Islam'' (New Delhi 1994).
*Miguel Asín Palacios (1871–1944), Catholic priest, professor of Arabic, studied the mutuality of influence between Christian and Islamic spirituality (prompting vigorous response), ''Al-Ghazali, Algazel'' (Zaragoza 1901); ''La eschatology, escatologia musulmana en la Divina Comedia'' (Madrid 1923) ["t"] per influence on Dante of ''mi'raj'' literature; ''El Islam cristianizado. Estudio del
sufismo a traves de las obras de Ibn Arabi, Abenarabi de Murcia'' (Madrid 1931); ''Huellas del Islam'' (
Madrid
Madrid ( , ) is the capital and most populous city of Spain. The city has almost 3.4 million inhabitants and a Madrid metropolitan area, metropolitan area population of approximately 6.7 million. It is the Largest cities of the Europ ...
1941) includes comparative articles on
Tomas d'Aquino and John of the Cross, Juan de las Cruz.
*De Lacy O'Leary (1872–1957) Bristol University, Bristol Univ. ''Arabic Thought and Its Place in History'' (1922, 1939); ''Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages'' (1923); ''Arabia before Muhammad'' (1927); ''How Greek Science passed to the Arabs'' (1949).
*Georg Graf (1875–1955) Germany, ''Geschichte der Christlichen Arabischen Literatur'' (Vatican 1944).
*Richard Bell (Arabist), Richard Bell (1876–1952) British, ''Origin of Islam in its Christian Environment'' (Edinburgh University, Edinburgh Univ. 1925).
*Arthur S. Tritton (1881–1973) ''The Caliphs and their Non-Muslim Subjects. A critical study of the Covenant of 'Umar'' (Oxford 1930).
*Alphonse Mingana (1881–1937) Chaldean Catholic Church, Assyrian Christian (Iraq), former priest, religious historian, collected early Syriac language, Syriac and Arabic documents and books into the "Mingana Collection".
*Julian Morgenstern (1881-1976) U.S., ''Rites of passage, Rites of Childbirth, Birth, Marriage, Funeral, Death and Kindred Occasions among the Semitic people, Semites'' (Cincinnati 1966).
*Arent Jan Wensinck (1882–1939) Dutch, ''Mohammed en de Joden te Medina'' (Amsterdam 1908)
''La pensee de Ghazzali'' (Paris 1940); ''Handworterbuch des Islam'' (1941)
with J. H. Kramers; from Syriac, ''Bar Hebraeus's Book of the Dove'' (Leyden 1919).
*Louis Massignon (1883–1962) France, influenced Catholic-Islamic understanding per the ''Nostra aetate'' of Vatican II (1962–1965); a married priest (Orthodox [Arabic rite]), ''Essai sur les origines du lexique technique de la mystique musulmane'' (Paris 1922, 2nd ed. 1954)
''Passion de Husayn Ibn Mansur Hallaj'' (Paris 1973)
*José Ortega y Gasset (1883-1955) Spain, philosopher; like Miguel de Unamuno, Unamuno opposed modern trend to incorporate into Spanish historiography the positive Islamic element. ''Abenjaldún nos revela el secreto'' (1934), about Ibn Khaldun.
*Nicolas P. Aghnides (1883-19xx) ''Mohammedan Theories of Finance'' (Columbia University, Columbia Univ. 1916).
*Margaret Smith (author), Margaret Smith (1884–1970) ''Rabia Basri, Rabi'a the mystic and her fellow saints in Islam'' (
Cambridge Univ. 1928); ''Studies in Early Mysticism in the Near and Middle East'' (1931) development of early Christian mysticism, of Islamic re Sufism, and a comparison.
*Seymour Gonne Vesey-FitzGerald (1884-1954), ''Muhammadan Law, an abridgement, according to its various schools'' (Oxford Univ. 1931); ''The Iraq Treaty, 1930'' (London 1932).
*Tor Andrae (1885–1947), Sweden, University of Uppsala, Univ.of Uppsala, history of religion, comparative religion; ''Mohammed. Sein Leben und Sein Glaube'' (Göttingen 1932)
''I myrtenträdgarden: Studier i tidig islamisk mystik'' (Stockholm: Albert Bonniers Forlag 1947)
*Américo Castro (1885-1972) Spain, reinterpreted Spanish history by integrating Muslim and Jewish contributions. ''España en su historia: Cristianos, moros y judíos'' (1948)
''Sobre el nombre y quién de los españoles: cómo llegaron a serlo'' (1973).
*Philip Khuri Hitti (1886–1978) Lebanon, formative re Arabic studies in the U.S., ''Origins of the Islamic State'' (Columbia Univ. 1916) annotated translation of ''Kitab Futuh Al-Buldan'' of al-Baladhuri; ''History of
Syria, including Lebanon and Palestine (region), Palestine'' (1957).
*Shūmei Ōkawa (1886–1957) Japanese author activist; pan-Asian modern partisan, pro-India since 1913 (criticized per China by Gandhi in 1930s); indicted at Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal for his "clash of civilizations" view; translation of Qur'an into Japanese (1950).
*Giorgio Levi Della Vida (1886–1967) Jewish Italian, professor of semitic languages, ''Storia e religione nell'Oriente semitico'' (Roma 1924); ''Les Sémites et leur rôle das l'histoire religieuse'' (Paris 1938); anti-Fascist Italian politician in 1920s.
*Gonzangue Ryckmans (1887–1969) Belgium, Catholic priest, Catholic University of Leuven (1834–1968), Louvain professor, epigraphy of pre-Islamic South Arabia; ''Les Religions Arabes preislamiques'' (Louvain 1951).
*Harry Austryn Wolfson (1887–1974) U.S., Harvard Univ., ''Philo. Foundations of Religious Philosophy in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam'' (1947); ''The Philosophy of the
Kalam
''ʿIlm al-Kalām'' ( ar, عِلْم الكَلام, literally "science of discourse"), usually foreshortened to ''Kalām'' and sometimes called "Islamic scholastic theology" or "speculative theology", is the philosophical study of Islamic doc ...
'' (1976); ''Repercussions of the Kalam in Jewish philosophy, Jewish Philosophy'' (1979).
*Alfred Guillaume (1888-1966) England, ''Life of Muhammad'' (Oxford 1955) annotated translation of Ibn Ishaq's ''Sirah Rasul Allah, Sirat Rasul Allah'', an early "biography" of the prophet (as transmitted by Ibn Hisham); ''Legacy of Islam'' (Oxford 1931) co-editor with T. W. Arnold.
*:es:Ángel González Palencia (1889–1949) Spanish Arabist, ''História de la España musulmana'' (Barcelona 1925, 3rd ed 1932); ''História de la literatura arábigo-española'' (Barcelona 1928, 1945); ''Moros y cristianos in España medieval. Estudios históricos-literarios'' (1945).
*Arthur Jeffery (1892–1959) American University at Cairo 1921–1938, ''Materials for the history of the text of the Quran'' (Leiden 1937–1951); ''Foreign Vocabulary in the Quran'' (Baroda 1938); ''A Reader on Islam'' (1962).
*Barend ter Haar (1892–1941) Dutch, ''Beginselen en Stelsel van het Adatrecht'' (Groningen Batavia 1939)
on Adat law in Indonesia.
*Olaf Caroe (1892-1981) a former governor of the area, ''The Pathans. 550 B.C. - A.D. 1957'' (London 1958).
*Freya Stark (1893-1993) English, ''Valley of the Assassins'' (1934) about NW Iran; ''The Southern Gates of Arabia. A journey in the Hadhramaut'' (1936); ''A winter in Arabia'' (1939).
*Willi Heffening (1894-19xx) Germany, ''Das islamische fremdenrecht zu den islamisch-fränkischen staatsverträgen. Eine rechtshistorischen studie zum fiqh'' (Hanover 1925).
*Évariste Lévi-Provençal (1894-1956) France, ''Histoire de Al-Andalus, l'Espagne musulmane, 711-1031'' (3 volumes, Paris-Leiden 1950–1953).
*E. A. Belyaev (1895–1964) Russia (USSR), ''Araby, Islam i arabskii Khalifat'' (Moscow, Moskva, 2nd ed 1966)
*Henri Terrasse (1895–1971) French Arabist, ''Histoire du Maroc'' (2 volumes, Casablanca 1949–1950)
''Islam d'Espagne'' (Paris 1958).
*Morris S. Seale (1896-1993) ''Muslim Theology. A Study of Origins with Reference to the Church Fathers'' (London: Luzac 1964).
*Gerald de Gaury (1897-1984) English soldier, ''Rulers of Mecca'' (New York, c.1950).
*José López Ortiz (1898–1992) Spain, Arabist with interest in legal history; article on fatwas of
Granada; ''Los Jurisconsultos Musulmanes'' (El Escorial, 1930); ''Derecho musulman'' (Barcelona, 1932); a Catholic priest, later made Bishop.
*Enrico Cerulli (1898–1988) Italy, ''Documenti arabi per la storia nell' Ethiopia, Etiopia'' (Roma 1931); his two works re Dante and Islam per Miguel Asín Palacios, M. Asín: ''Il "mi'raj, Libro della scala" e la question delle fonti arabo-spagnole della Divine Comedy, Divina commedia'' (Vatican 1949), ''Nuove ricerche sul "Libro della Scala" e la conoscenza dell'Islam in Occidente'' (Vatican 1972).
*=> The
following a title indicates books translated into English.
1900 to 1950s
*Claude L. Pickens (1900–1985), professor of Chinese at Harvard University, ''Annotated Bibliography of Literature on Islam in China'' (Hankow: Society of Friends of the Moslems in China 1950).
*Joseph Schacht, Josef Schacht (1902–1969) France (Alsace), Islamic legal history, ''Der Islam'' (Tübingen 1931); ''Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence'' (Oxford 1950) influential work, a legal historical critique (following, e.g., Goldziher) the early oral transmission of
Hadith
Ḥadīth ( or ; ar, حديث, , , , , , , literally "talk" or "discourse") or Athar ( ar, أثر, , literally "remnant"/"effect") refers to what the majority of Muslims believe to be a record of the words, actions, and the silent approva ...
& founding jurists; ''Introduction to Islamic Law'' (Oxford University, Oxford 1964); ''Legacy of Islam'' (2nd ed., Oxford 1974) edited with C. E. Bosworth.
*J. Spencer Trimingham (1904-1987) English; ''Islam in
Ethiopia
Ethiopia, , om, Itiyoophiyaa, so, Itoobiya, ti, ኢትዮጵያ, Ítiyop'iya, aa, Itiyoppiya officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country in the Horn of Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the ...
'' (Oxford 1952), history and sociology; ''tariqa, Sufi Orders in Islam'' (Oxford 1971); ''Christianity among the Arabs in Pre-Islamic Arabia, Pre-Islamic Times'' (Beirut 1990).
*Erwin Rosenthal (1904-1991) German, ''Political Thought in Medieval Islam'' (1958); ''Judaism and Islam'' (1961).
*Arthur John Arberry (1905–1969) English, ''The Koran Interpreted'' (1955), a translation that attempts to capture the medium of the original Arabic; various other translations; ''Sufism. An Account of the Mystics of Islam'' (1950).
*Emilio García Gómez (1905–1995) Spain, Arabist, poet; ''Poemas arabigoandaluces'' (Madrid 1940); ''Poesia arabigoandaluza'' (Madrid 1952); his theories, e.g., on origins of the ''muwashshahat'' (popular medieval strophic verse); his admired translations from Arabic.
*Henri Laoust (1905-1983) France, ''Essai sur les doctrines sociales et politiques de Ibn Taymiyya, Taki-d-Din Ahmad Taimiya, cononiste Hanbali, 'anbalite'' (Cairo, Le Caire 1939); ''Le traite de droit public d'Ibn Taimiya'' [al-Siyasah al-Shariyah] (Beirut 1948); Le politique de Gazali (Paris 1970).
*:de:Geo Widengren, Geo Widengren (1907-1996) Sweden, comparative religion; ''Muhammad, The Apostle of God, and His Ascension'' (Uppsala 1955).
*Frithjof Schuon (1907–1998) German Swiss; of Traditionalist School (''sophia perennis'' or "western"
sufi), its co-founder with Rene Guenon and Ananda Coomaraswamy; ''De l'unite transcendente des religions'' (Paris 1948)
''Comprendre l'Islam'' (Paris 1961)
''Regards sur le Mondes Anciens'' (Paris 1967)
*Henry Corbin (1907–1978) France, associated with Eranos Institute (inspired by Carl Jung), an academic in history of religions; ''Les Motifs Zoroastrian religion, zoroastriens dans la philosophie de Suhrawardi'' (Tehran 1948); ''Avicenne et la recit vissionaire'' (Tehran 1954)
''L'imagination creatrice dans le sufi, soufisme d'Ibn 'Arabi'' (Zurich 1955–56, Paris 1958)
''Terre celeste et corps de resurrection: de l'Iran Ahura Mazda, mazdeen a l'Iran shia, shi'ite'' (Paris 1960)
*Neal Robinson (1908-1983) academic, ''Christ in Islam and Christianity'' (SUNY 1991), study of Islamic commentaries and interpretations.
*James Norman Dalrymple Anderson (1908–1994) U.K., Sharia, Islamic law at School of Oriental and African Studies, S.O.A.S., ''Islamic Law in Africa'' (H.M.S.O., 1954); ''Islamic Law in the Modern World'' (New York University, 1959); ''Law Reform in the Muslim World'' (Athlone, 1976).
*Titus Burckhardt (1908–1984) German Swiss, early contact with Traditionalist School and Rene Guenon; ''Du Soufisme'' (Lyon 1951)
''Die Maurische Kultur in Spanien'' (Munchen 1970)
*Abraham Katsh (1908–1998) US academic, ''Judaism in Islam. Biblical and
Talmud
The Talmud (; he, , Talmūḏ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law ('' halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the ce ...
ic backgrounds of the Koran and its Commentators, Sura I & II'' (New York 1954), reprinted 1962 as ''Judaism and the Koran''.
*William Montgomery Watt (1909–2006) ''Muhammad at Mecca (book), Muhammad at Mecca'' (Oxford 1953), ''Muhammad at Medina (book), Muhammad at Medina'' (Oxford, 1956); with P. Cachia ''A History of Islamic Spain'' (Edinburgh 1965); ''Formative Period of Islamic Thought'' (1998).
*Claude Cahen (1909-1991) France, ''Introduction a l'histoire du monde musulman medieval, VIIe-XVIe siecle'' (Paris 1983).
*Józef Bielawski (arabist), Józef Bielawski (1910–1997) University of Warsaw, Uniwersytet Warszawski, former Polish diplomat to Turkey; ''Historia lieratury arabskiej: zarys'' (Wroclaw 1968); translation of Qur'an into Polish (Warsaw, Warszawa 1986), improving on that of J.M.T.Buczacki (1858).
*Jacques Berque (1910 Algeria - 1995 France), pied-noir scholar who early favored Maghreb, Maghribi independence, he retained his ties to Africa; Moroccan Berber people, Berber ethnology: ''Les structures sociales du Haut Atlas'' (1955); Arab renaissance: ''Les Arabes d'hier a demain'' (1960)
*Geoffrey Parrinder (1910-2005) comparative religion, ''Jesus in the Qur'an'' (London 1965), reprint Oneworld 1995.
*Wilfred Thesiger (1910–2003) England; ''Arabian Sands'' (New York 1959), on late 1940s explorations by camel of the "empty quarter" Rub' al Khali, Ar-Rab' Al-Khali; ''The Marsh Arabs'' (London 1964), on the rural people of southern Iraq.
*Ann K. S. Lambton (1912-2008) English, ''State and Government in medieval Islam'' (1981); ''Continuity and Change in medieval Persia. Aspects of administrative, economic and social history, 11th-14th century'' (1988).
*Giulio Basetti-Sani (1912-2001) Italy, ''Mohammed et Saint François'' (Ottawa 1959); ''Per un dialogo cristiano-musulmano'' (Milano 1969).
*Kenneth Cragg (1913-2012) U.S., ''The Call of the Minaret'' (Oxford 1956; 2d Orbis 1985); ''The Arab Christian'' (Westm./Knox 1991).
*George Hourani (1913–1984) Lebanon, Lebanese English, ''Averroes. On the Harmony of Religion and Philosophy'' (London 1961) annotated translation of ''Kitab fasl al maqal'' of
Ibn Rushd
Ibn Rushd ( ar, ; full name in ; 14 April 112611 December 1198), often Latinized as Averroes ( ), was an
Andalusian polymath and jurist who wrote about many subjects, including philosophy, theology, medicine, astronomy, physics, psychology, ...
; ''Reason and Tradition in Islamic Ethics'' (
Cambridge Univ. 1985); ''Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean in ancient and medieval times'' (Princeton University, Princeton Univ. 1951, 1995).
*Uriel Heyd [Heydt] (1913–1968) German, later Israeli, ''Studies in old Ottoman criminal Law'' (Oxford 1973).
*Robert Charles Zaehner (1913–1974) religious studies at Oxford University, Oxford, ''The Comparison of Religions'' (London 1958); ''Hindu and Muslim Mysticism'' (London 1960); ''Concordant Discord: The Interdependence of Faiths'' (Oxford 1970).
*Franz Rosenthal (1914-2003) ''Fortleben der Antike im Islam'' (Zurich 1965); ''Muslim intellectual and social history'' (''Variorum'' 1990).
*Toshihiko Izutsu (1914–1993) Japan, ''Ethico-Religious Concepts in the Qur'an'' (1959, 1966); ''
Sufism and Taoism'' (Berkeley, California, Berkeley 1984).
*Igor Diakonov, Igor Mikhailovich Diakonov (1914–1999) USSR/Russia, historian, linguistics, ''Semitokhamitskie iazyki'' [Semito-Hamitic languages] (Moskva 1965)
''Afraziiskie iazyki'' [Afrasian languages] (Moscow, Moskva 1988)
both on history and description of Afroasiatic languages.
*Joseph Greenberg (1915–2001) U.S., Stanford University, Stanford Univ., linguistic anthropology; in historical linguistics use of his mass lexical comparison to establish language families; ''Languages of Africa'' (1966) coined "Afroasiatic" to replace "Hamito-Semitic" for it includes as equal branches Ancient Egyptian, Berber, Chadic, and Cushitic, as well as Semitic languages, Semitic; also his recent book on Eurasiatic; cf. Nostratic.
*Albert Hourani (1915–1993) UK, ''Minorities in the Arab World'' (Oxford 1947); ''Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798-1939'' (1962) on the Arab ''nahda'' [revival]; ''Political Society in Lebanon'' (MIT 1986); ''A History of the Arab Peoples'' (1991, Harvard 2002); brother of George Hourani.
*Maxime Rodinson (1915–2004) French Marxist, ''Mahomet'' (Paris 1961)
as understood with empathy by an atheist; ''Islam et capitalisme'' (Paris 1966)
''Israel et le refus arabe'' (Paris 1968).
*Bernard Lewis (1916-2018) British-American, ''Arabs in History'' (1950); ''Muslim Discovery of Europe'' (1982, 2001); ''What went Wrong? The Clash between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East'' (2002).
*George Makdisi (1920–2002) U.S., Islamic studies, ''Rise of Colleges. Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West'' (Edinburgh Univ. 1981); ''Rise of Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West'' (Edinburgh Univ. 1990).
*Marshall Hodgson (1922–1968) U.S., ''The Venture of Islam'' (3 volumes, Univ.of Chicago [1958], 1961, 1974); ''The Order of the Assassins'' (The Hague: Mouton 1955); ''Rethinking World History. Essays on Europe, Islam...'' (Cambridge Univ. 1993).
*Annemarie Schimmel (1922–2003) Germany, specialist in Sufism, ''Die Bildersprache Dschelaladdin Rumi'' (Walldorf 1949); ''Mevlana Celalettin Rumi'nin sark ve garpta tesirleri'' (Ankara 1963); ''Mystical Dimensions of Islam'' (Univ.of N.Carolina 1975).
*Sabatino Moscati (1922-1997>) Italy, Semitic languages, Semitic studies, ''Le antiche civiltà semitiche'' (Milano 1958)
''I Fenici e Cartagine'' (Torino 1972).
*Bogumił Witalis Andrzejewski (1922–1994), Poland, linguistics at School of Oriental and African Studies, S.O.A.S. in London; ''Islamic literature in Somalia'' (Indiana University (Bloomington), Indiana Univ. 1983); formulator of Latin alphabet for Somali language, Somali; also work in Oromo language, Oromo, another East Cushitic languages, Cushitic language, of the Afroasiatic language family.
*Donald Leslie (1922-2004>) Australia, ''Islamic Literature in China, late Ming and early Ch'ing'' (1981); ''Islam in Traditional China'' (1986).
*Ernest Gellner (1925–1995) London Sch.of Econ., ''Saints of the Atlas'' (London 1969); ''Muslim Society: Essays'' (Cambridge 1981).
*Leonard Binder (1927->) Univ.of Chicago, ''Religion and Politics in Pakistan'' (Univ.of California 1961).
*Francis E. Peters (1927->) U.S.; ''
Aristotle
Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of ph ...
Arabus'' (Leiden: Brill 1968); ''Jerusalem and
Mecca
Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow ...
'' (NYU 1986); ''Muhammad and the Origins of Islam'' (SUNY 1994); ''Arabs and Pre-Islamic Arabia, Arabia on the Eve of Islam'' (''Ashgate'' 1999).
*John K. Cooley (1927-2008) U.S. journalist, long time coverage of Arab world, ''An Alliance against Babylon'' (Univ.of Michigan 2006); ''Unholy Wars. Afghanistan, America and International Terrorism'' (2001); ''Baal, Christ, and Mohammed. Religion and Revolution in North Africa'' (1965); collaboration with Edward W. Said, E. W. Said (2002).
*Fredrik Barth (1928-2016>) ''Political Leadership among the Swat Pathans'' (Univ.of London 1959).
*Aram Ter-Ghevondyan (1928–1988), Armenian historian; ''The Arab Emirates in Bagratid Armenia'' (Yerevan, 1965)
historical, political, and social study on the Bagratuni Kingdom of Armenia (885-1045) and its relations with Byzantium and the Arab Emirates; ''Armenia and the Arab Caliphate'' (''Армения и apaбcкий Халифат'') (Yerevan, 1977).
*Speros Vryonis (1928->) U.S., U.C.L.A., ''The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century'' (Univ. California 1971); ''Studies on Byzantium, Seljuks and Ottomans'' (Malibu, California, Malibu 1981).
*John Wansbrough (1928–2002) U.S., Islamic studies at School of Oriental and African Studies, S.O.A.S., reinterpretation of Islamic origins, ''Quranic Studies'' (Oxford 1977), ''Sectarian Milieu'' (Oxford 1978).
*Noel J. Coulson (1928–1986) U.K., Sharia, Islamic law at School of Oriental and African Studies, S.O.A.S., ''History of Islamic Law'' (Edinburgh Univ. 1964); ''Conflict and Tensions in Islamic Jurisprudence'' (University of Chicago, Univ.of Chicago 1969); ''Succession in the Muslim Family'' (Cambridge Univ. 1971); ''Commercial Law in the Gulf States: The Islamic Legal Tradition'' (Graham & Trotman 1984).
*J. Hoeberichts (1929->) Dutch, ''Franciscus en de Islam'' (Assen: Van Gorcum 199x)
formerly a theology professor in Karachi.
*Wilferd Madelung (1930->) Germany, ''The Succession to Muhammad'' (Cambridge Univ. 1997); studies on the Shia.
*Jacob Neusner (1932-2016>) U.S., ''Comparing Religions through Law: Judaism and Islam'' (1999) with T.Sonn; ''Judaism and Islam in Practice'' (1999) editor, with T.Sonn & J.E.Brockopp; ''Three Faiths, One God'' (2003) with B. Chilton & W. Graham.
*Edward W. Said (1935–2003) Palestinian-American, academic, Columbia Univ.; ''Orientalism (book), Orientalism'' (New York 1978); collaborations with Christopher Hitchens (1988), Noam Chomsky (1999), John K. Cooley (2002).
*William Chittick (c.1943->) U.S., collaborations with Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Allameh Tabatabaei in Iran; ''A Shi'ite Anthology'' (SUNY 1981); ''Sufi Path of Love'' (State University of New York, SUNY 1983) text and commentary on Rumi; ''Sufi Path of Knowledge'' (SUNY 1989) on Ibn Arabi; ''Imaginal Worlds. Ibn al-'Arabi and the Problem of Religious Diversity'' (SUNY 1994).
*Sachiko Murata (c.1943->), Japan, ''Tao of Islam. A sourcebook on gender relationships in Islamic thought'' (SUNY 1992); ''Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light'' (SUNY 2000) with her translations from Chinese, and those from Persian by W. Chittick, her spouse.
*Richard E. Rubenstein (1938->) U.S., professor of conflict resolution, ''alchemy, Alchemists of Revolution. Terrorists in the modern world'' (1987); ''
Aristotle
Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of ph ...
's Children. How Christians, Muslims, & Jews rediscovered ancient wisdom & illuminated the Dark Ages'' (2003).
*Robert Simon (1939->) Hungary, ''Meccan Trade and Islam. Problems of origin and structure'' (Budapest 1989); Qur'an translation (1987).
*Michael Cook (historian), Michael Cook (1940->) English, ''Studies in the Origins of Early Islamic Culture and Tradition'' (2004); with Patricia Crone, P. Crone, ''Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World, Hagarism'' (1977).
*Roy Mottahedeh, Roy Parviz Mottahedeh (1940->) U.S., ''Loyalty and Leadership in an Early Islamic Society'' (Princeton University Press 1980), :The Mantle of the Prophet (Simon and Schuster, 1985).
*John L. Esposito (1940->) U.S., ''Islam. The Straight Path'' (Oxford 1988); editor-in-chief ''Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World'' (4 volumes, 1995); ''Islam and Civil Society'' (European Univ. Inst. 2000).
*Malise Ruthven (1942->) Scotland, ''Islam in the World'' (Oxford Univ. 1984); ''Fury for God. Islamist attack on America (Granta 2002).
*Mark R. Cohen (1943->) Princeton University, Princeton Univ., ''Jewish Self-Government in Medieval Egypt'' (1980); ''Under Crescent & Cross'' (1994).
*William A. Graham (dean), William A. Graham (1943->) U.S., Harvard University, "Divine Word and Prophetic Word in Early Islam" (Mouton, 1977); "Beyond the Written Word" (Cambridge, 1986); "Islamic and Comparative Religious Studies" (Ashgate, 2010)
*Gerald R. Hawting (1944->) with Wansbrough at S.O.A.S., ''The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661-750'' (1986, 2000); ''The Idea of Idolatry and the Rise of Islam: From polemic to history'' (Cambridge Univ. 1999).
*Karen Armstrong (1944->) English author; ''Muhammad, a Biography of the Prophet'' (San Francisco, 1993); ''Jerusalem: one city, three faiths'' (1997); ''A History of God'' (New York, 1999); "Islam: A Short History" (2002).
*Fred M. Donner (1945->) U.S., ''Narratives of Islamic Origins: The Beginnings of Islamic Historical Writings'' (1998).
*Patricia Crone (1945-2015) Denmark, professor in England & U.S., ''God's Rule : Government and Islam'' (New York 2004), on political thought; ''Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam'' (1989); ''Roman, Provincial and Islamic Law'' (Cambridge Univ. 1987), as sources of Islamic jurisprudence; with Michael Cook (historian), M. Cook, ''Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World'' (Cambridge Univ. 1977) following Wansbrough, sets forth the thesis that a multivalent sect of Judaic dissenters predated Muhammad and contributed to the Qur'an.
*Daniel Pipes (1949->) U.S., Hoover Institution, Hoover Inst., historian, political commentator; ''In the Path of God: Islam and Political Power'' (1983, 2002).
*Norman Calder (1950–1998) ''Studies in Early Muslim Jurisprudence'' (Oxford 1993), analysis of early Islamic legal texts.
*Carl W. Ernst (1950->) Islamic studies, Univ.of N.Carolina, ''Eternal Garden: Mysticism, History and Politics at a South Asian Sufi Center (1993); ''Shambhala Publications, Shambhala Guide to Sufism (1997); ''Following Muhammad. Rethinking Islam in the contemporary world'' (2003).
*Daniel Martin Varisco (1951->) U.S., ''Medieval Agriculture and Islamic Science: The Almanac of a Yemeni Sultan'' (Univ.of Washington 1994).
*François Déroche (1952->) France, Professor at the Collège de France, ''The Abbasid Tradition: Qur ̓ans of the 8th to 10th Centuries'' (1992); ''Scribes et manuscrits du Moyen-Orient'' (1997); ''Manuel de codicologie des manuscrits en écriture arabe'' (2000).
*María Rosa Menocal (1953-1912) U.S., her ''The Arabic Role in Medieval Literary History'' (University of Pennsylvania, Univ.of Pennsylvania 1987).
*Kim Ho-dong (1954->) Korea, ''Holy War in China. Muslim Rebellion and State in Chinese Central Asia 1864-1877'' (Stanford University, Stanford U., 2004).
*=> The
following a title indicates books translated into English.
Chronological by date of publication
*Austin Kennett England, ''Bedouin Justice. Law and Custom among the Egyptian Bedouin'' (Cambridge Univ. 1925).
*David Santillana Italy, ''Istituzioni di Diritto musulmano malichita'' (Roma 1926, 1938), 2 volumes, on Islamic law, Maliki school.
*Chin Chi-t'ang China, ''Chung-kuo hui-chiao shih yen-chiu'' [Studies in the History of Chinese Islam] (1935).
*Ugo Monneret de Villard Italian academic, ''Lo Studio dell' Islam in Europa nel XII e nel XIII secolo'' (Vatican 1944).
*José Muñoz Sendino Spanish academic, ''La Escala de Mahoma'' (Madrid 1949), on mi'raj literature re Dante and Islam per Miguel Asín Palacios, M. Asín.
*Jacques Ryckmans Belgium, Catholic University of Leuven (1834–1968), Leuven Univ. professor, ''L'institution monarchique en Pre-Islamic Arabia, Arabie meridionale avant l'Islam'' (Louvain 1951); ''Textes du Ancient history of Yemen, Yemen antique'' (Louvain-la-Neuve 1994); nephew of Gonzangue Ryckmans.
*Miguel Cruz Hernandez, University of Salamanca, Univ.of Salamanca, ''Filosofia Hispano-musulmana'' (Madrid 1957), 2 volumes.
*Joseph Chelhod ''Introduction a la Sociologie de l'Islam. De l'animisme a l'universalisme'' (Paris 1958).
*Norman Daniel ''Islam and the West. The making of an image'' (Edinburgh Univ. 1960).
*Jean Jacques Waardenburg ''L'Islam dans le miroir de l'Occident'' (Paris 1962), cultural review of various western scholars of Islam: Goldziher, Hurgronje, Becker, Macdonald, Massignon.
*James T. Monroe U.S., University of California, Univ.of California at Berkeley; ''Islam and the Arabs in Spanish Scholarship'' (Leiden: E. J. Brill 1970
Reprint, Cambridge: ILEX Editions/Harvard UP 2021; ''Hispano-Arabic Poetry'' (Univ.of Calif. 1974, reprint Gorgias 2004); with Benjamin M. Liu, ''Ten Hispano-Arabic Strophic Songs'' (U.C. 1989).
*Abraham L. Udovitch U.S., ''Partnership and Profit in Medieval Islam'' (Princeton Univ. 1970).
*Cristobal Cuevas ''El pensamiento del Islam. Contenido e Historia. Influencia en la Mistica espanola'' (Madrid 1972).
*Nilo Geagea Lebanese priest, ''Mary (mother of Jesus), Maria nel messagio coranico'' (Roma 1973)
study of texts and of a meeting point between religions.
*Victor Segesvary Swiss, ''L'Islam et la Protestant Reformation, Reforme'' (University of Geneva, Univ.de Genève 1973).
*Federico Corriente Spain, ''Las mu'allaqat: antologia y panorama de Arabia preislamica'' (Madrid: Instituto Hispano-arabe de cultura 1974), annotated translation of well-known collection of popular poetry in Arabia prior to Muhammad.
*Hava Lazarus-Yafeh, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Hebrew Univ.of Jerusalem, her ''Studies in Al-Ghazzali'' (Jerusalem 1975); ''Intertwined Worlds. Medieval Islam and Bible Criticism'' (Princeton Univ. 1992); ''Islam-Yahadut: Yahadut-Islam'' (Tel Aviv 2003).
*Bat Ye'or (Gisele Orebi Littman), British author, Jewish refugee (in 1958 thousands expelled by Egypt as reprisal for Lavon Affair); her Hebrew pen name "Daughter of the Nile"; modern partisan; ''The Dhimmi: Jews and Christians Under Islam, Le Dhimmi'' (Genève 1980)
''The Decline of Eastern Christianity: From Jihad to Dhimmitude, Les Chretientes d'Orient entre Jihad et Dhimmitude'' (Paris 1991)
''Eurabia: The Euro-Arab Axis'' (2006).
*G. W. Bowersock U.S., Princeton Univ., ''Roman Arabia'' (Harvard Univ. 1983), Nabataea (now Jordan) to 4th century.
*William Chittick U.S., SUNY Stony Brook, ''Sufi Path of Love. Spiritual teachings of Rumi'' (1983); ''Sufi Path of Knowledge. Ibn Arabi's Metaphysics of Imagination'' (1989); with Sachiko Murata and Tu Weiming, ''The Sage Learning of
Liu Zhi: Islamic Thought in Confucian Terms'' (2009).
*Antoine El-Gemayel, Lebanon, ''The Lebanese Legal System'' 2 vol. (International Law Inst., Georgetown Univ. 1985), editor.
*Luce López-Baralt Puerto Rico academic, her ''John of the Cross, San Juan de la Cruz y el Islam'' (Colegio de Mexico, University of Puerto Rico, Univ.de Puerto Rico 1985; Madrid 1990); ''Huellas del Islam en la literatura espanola'' (Madrid 1985, 1989)
influenced by Miguel Asín Palacios.
*Joseph Cuoq France, ''L'Islam en Ethiopie des origines au XVIe siecle'' (Paris 1981); ''Islamisation de la Nubie Chretienne'' (Paris 1986).
*George E. Irani Lebanon, U.S., ''The Papacy and the Middle East. The Role of the Holy See in the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1962-1984'' (University of Notre Dame, Univ.of Notre Dame 1986), e.g., the effect of Vatican II on Church policy.
*Lisa Anderson (scholar), Lisa Anderson U.S. academic, ''The State and Social Transformation in History of modern Tunisia, Tunisia and Libya, 1830-1980'' (Princeton Univ. 1986).
*David Stephen Powers ''Studies in Qur'an and
Hadith
Ḥadīth ( or ; ar, حديث, , , , , , , literally "talk" or "discourse") or Athar ( ar, أثر, , literally "remnant"/"effect") refers to what the majority of Muslims believe to be a record of the words, actions, and the silent approva ...
. The Formation of the Islamic Law of Inheritance'' (Univ.of California 1986).
*David B. Burrell U.S., ''Knowing the Unknowable God: Avicenna, Ibn-Sina, Maimonides, Aquinas'' (Univ.of Notre Dame 1986).
*Masataka Takeshita Japan, ''Ibn 'Arabi's Theory of the Perfect Man and its Place in the History of Islamic Thought'' (Tokyo 1987).
*Heribert Busse, University of Kiel, Univ.of Kiel, ''Theologischen Beziehungen des Islams zu Judentum und Christentum'' (Darmstadt 1988)
which discusses Muhammad, as well as the narratives found in the
Qur'an
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: , s ...
about the Old Testament and the
New Testament
The New Testament grc, Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη, transl. ; la, Novum Testamentum. (NT) is the second division of the Christian biblical canon. It discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first-century Chri ...
.
*R. Stephen Humphreys U.S., ''Islamic History: a framework for inquiry'' (Minneapolis 1988); ''Tradition and innovation in the study of Islamic history. The evolution of North Armerican scholarship since 1960'' (Tokyo 1998).
*Jean-François Breton, ''Arabia Felix, L'Arabie heureuse au temps de Queen of Sheba, la reine de Saba: Viii-I siècles avant J.-C.'' (Paris 1988)
*Claude Addas France, her ''Ibn 'Arabi ou La quete du Soufre Rouge'' (Paris: Editions Gallimard 1989)
*Julian Baldick, University of London, Univ. of London, ''Mystical Islam'' (1989); ''Black God. Afroasiatic roots of Jewish, Christian, & Muslim religions'' (1998).
*Harald Motzki Germany, ''Die Anfange der islamischen Jurisprudenz'' (
Stuttgart 1991)
by his review of early legal texts, provides a moderate challenge to Schacht's criticism of
Hadith
Ḥadīth ( or ; ar, حديث, , , , , , , literally "talk" or "discourse") or Athar ( ar, أثر, , literally "remnant"/"effect") refers to what the majority of Muslims believe to be a record of the words, actions, and the silent approva ...
& the origins of Islamic law.
*Jacob Lassner, Northwestern University, Northwestern Univ.; ''Demonizing the Queen of Sheba. Boundaries of gender and culture in postbiblical Judaism and medieval Islam (Univ.of Chicago 1993).
*Haim Gerber Hebrew Univ.of Jerusalem, ''State, Society and Law in Islam.
Ottoman Law in Comparative Perspective'' (SUNY 1994).
*Brannon M. Wheeler (1965->) U.S., ''Applying the Canon in Islam. The Authorization and Maintenance of Interpretive Reasoning in Hanafi Scholarship'' (SUNY 1996).
*G. H. A. Juynboll Dutch, ''Studies on the Origin and Uses of Islamic
Hadith
Ḥadīth ( or ; ar, حديث, , , , , , , literally "talk" or "discourse") or Athar ( ar, أثر, , literally "remnant"/"effect") refers to what the majority of Muslims believe to be a record of the words, actions, and the silent approva ...
'' ("Variorum" 1996).
*Michael Dillon, ''China's Muslims'' (Oxford Univ. 1996); ''China's Muslim Hui Community. Migration, Settlement, and Sects'' (London 1999).
*Robert G. Hoyland Oxford Univ., ''Seeing Islam as Others Saw It. A Survey and Evaluation of Christian, Jewish, and Zoroastrian religion, Zoroastrian Writings on early Islam'' (Darwin 1997); ''Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam'' (Routledge 2001).
*Christopher Melchert U.S., ''The Formation of the Sunni madhhab, Schools of Law'' (New York: Brill 1999); ''Ahmad Ibn Hanbal'' (2006), re Hanbali.
*Christoph Luxenberg (a pseudonym), ''The Syro-Aramaic Reading Of The Koran, Die Syro-Aramäische Lesart des Koran: Ein Beitrag zur Entschlüssenlung de Koransprache'' (Berlin 2000, 2007), employs historic Aramaic language, Aramaic to elucidate the
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walter ...
texts.
*Herbert Berg (religion), Herbert Berg, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Univ.of N.Carolina, Philosophy & Religion, ''The Development of Exegesis in Early Islam. The Debate over authenticity of Muslim literature from the formative period'' (Routledge/Curzon 2000).
*Knut S. Vikor, University of Bergen, Univ.of Bergen, Norway; ''Between God and the Sultan. A History of Islamic Law'' (Oxford Univ. 2005), a fruitful synthesis of much resent scholarship; ''Sufi and Scholar on the Desert Edge'' (1995).
*Benjamin Jokisch, ''Islamic Imperial Law. Harun al-Rashid, Harun-Al-Rashid's Codification Project'' (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter 2007) restates early Islamic legal history re law reform by
Abbasid
The Abbasid Caliphate ( or ; ar, الْخِلَافَةُ الْعَبَّاسِيَّة, ') was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttalib ...
Caliphate (Baghdad, c.780-798), including reception of Roman law via Byzantine Empire, drafting a code, & centralized judiciary, followed by triumph of a vigorous opposition led by Madhhab, orthodox jurists & rise of Usul al-fiqh, legal theory; ''Islamisches Recht in Theorie und Praxis - Analyse einiger kaufrechtlicher Fatwas von Ibn Taymiyya, Taqi'd-Din Ahmad b. Taymiyya'' (Berlin: K.Schwarz 1996).
*=> The
following a title indicates books translated into English.
Other and Incomplete: alphabetical
*
Akbar [Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar] (1542–1605), Mughul emperor; based chiefly on Islam and Hinduism he founded a court religion Din-i-Ilahi, which did not flourish following the end of his reign.
*Báb [Sayyid Ali Muhammad] (1819–1850), Iran; he proclaimed prophethood and, in succession to the three Abrahamic faiths including Islam, initiated a new religion which continues as the Baháʼí Faith.
*Juan Cole, American, contemporary academic and commentator on Islam.
*Mircea Eliade, Romania, U.S., late professor of comparative religions, University of Chicago.
*Cornell Fleischer, U.S., Kanuni Suleyman Prof. of Ottoman & Mod. Turkish Studies, Dept. of Nr. E. Lang. & Civil., U. of Chicago.
*H. A. R. Gibb (1895-1971), British historian of the Arabs and Islam.
*Betty Kelen, U.S., United Nations, U.N. editor, author, ''Muhammad, The Messenger of God (book), Muhammad, The Messenger of God''
*Martin Kramer (1954->), Israel, modern partisan, Washington Institute for Near East Policy, Wash. Inst. for Near East Policy; Shalem Center; Harvard University.
*Richard Landes, U.S., Boston University, modern partisan.
*Franklin Lewis, U.S., Assoc. Prof. of Persian Lang. & Lit., Dept. of Near Eastern Lang. & Civil., U. of Chicago.
*Elijah Muhammad [Elijah Poole] (1897–1975), U.S., started the Nation of Islam movement and proclaimed prophethood.
*Pai Shou-i, China, ''Chung-kuo I-ssu-lan shih kang-yao'' [Essentials of the History of Chinese Islam] (19xy).
*Andrew Rippin, Britain, Canada, University of Victoria.
*A. Holly Shissler, U.S., prof. of Ottoman & Early Turkish Republican History, Dept. of Nr. E. Lang. & Civil., U. of Chicago.
*Srđa Trifković, Serbian-American journalist, political analyst, modern partisan; author, ''The Sword of the Prophet''.
*John Woods (Islam scholar), John Woods, U.S., Prof. of Iranian & Central Asian History, Dept. of Near Eastern Lang. & Civil., Univ. of Chicago.
*Ehsan Yarshater, Ehsan Yar-Shater (1920->) Editor of encyclopedia ''Danishnamah-i Iran va Islam'' (10 volumes, Teheran 1976–1982); editor of ''History of al-Tabari'' [re the ''Ta'rikh al-rusul wa'l-muluk''] (39 volumes, SUNY c1985-c1999); editor of ''Encyclopædia Iranica'' (Costa Mesa: Zoroastrian religion, Mazda 1992->); ''History of Medicine in Iran'' (New York 2004).
*Irfan Shahid, (1926-2016>) Georgetown University, Georgetown Univ., Dumbarton Oaks; ''Byzantium and the Arabs'' (1984–1995) multi-vol., Pre-Islamic Arabia, pre-Islamic politics.
*Sami Zubaida (1937->) Univ.of London, ''Islam, the People and the State'' (1993); ''Law and Power in the Islamic World'' (I.B.Taurus 2003).
*Farhad Daftary (1938->) Inst. of Isma'ili Studies, London, ''The Isma'ilis: their history and doctrines'' (1990).
*Farhadt J. Ziadeh, University of Washington, ''Lawyers, the rule of law & liberalism in modern Egypt'' (1968).
*Mehrzad Boroujerdi U.S., ''Iranian Intellectuals and the West. The tormented triumph of nativism'' (Syracuse University 1996), includes clerical and lay religious thought, with critical profiles of several 20th-century academic writers.
*Malika Zeghal western academic, Institut d'Etudes Politiques (Paris), ''Gardiens de l'Islam. Les oulemas d'al-Azhar dans l'Egypte contemporaine'' (Paris 1996); ''Les islamistes morocains: le defi a la monarchie'' (Paris 2005); currently at Univ.of Chicago.
*Timur Kuran, Duke Univ., ''The Long Divergence. How Islamic law held back the Middle East'' (Princeton Univ. 2011); ''Islam and Mammon: The economic predicaments of Islamism'' (Princeton Univ. 2004).
*Alfonse Javed, N.Y. Sch.of the Bible, ''The Muslim Next Door'' (ANM 2013); ''Muslim Pakistani and Indian Students in their New York School System Experience'' (Liberty Univ. 2011).
* David S. Powers, ''Islamic Legal Interpretation. Muftis and their fatwas'' (1996); ''Dispensing Justice in Islam. Qadis and their judgments'' (2005).
* Claudia Liebeskind, ''Three Sufi traditions in South Asia in modern times'' (1998).
* Angelika Neuwirth, German Islamic studies scholar, ''Arabische Literatur. Postmodern'' (2004, t=2010); ''Scripture, Poetry and the Making of a Community'' (2015).
* Adam Gaiser, medieval Islamic studies, esp. Oman, ''Muslims, Scholars, Soldiers. The origin and elaboration of Ibadi Imanate traditions'' (2010).
* Rudolph Ware, ''The Walking Qur'an. Islamic education, embodied knowledge, and history in West Africa'' (2014).
*=> The
following a title indicates books translated into English.
Reference notes
See also
*Orientalism
*Middle Eastern studies
External links
''Booknotes'' interview with Karen Armstrong on ''Islam: A Short History'', September 22, 2000.''Booknotes'' interview with Bernard Lewis on ''What Went Wrong?'', December 30, 2001.''Booknotes'' interview with Caryle Murphy on ''Passion for Islam: Shaping the Modern Middle East—The Egyptian Experience'', November 3, 2002.''Booknotes'' interview with Stephen Schwartz on ''The Two Faces of Islam: The House of Sa'ud from Tradition to Terror'', February 2, 2003.
{{DEFAULTSORT:Islamic Studies By Author (Non-Muslim Or Academic)
Non-Muslim scholars of Islam,
Non-Islamic Islam studies literature,
Islam and other religions