Horses in the Middle Ages differed in size, build and breed from the modern
horse
The horse (''Equus ferus caballus'') is a domesticated, one-toed, hoofed mammal. It belongs to the taxonomic family Equidae and is one of two extant subspecies of ''Equus ferus''. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million ...
, and were, on average, smaller. They were also more central to society than their modern counterparts, being essential for
war,
agriculture
Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled peop ...
, and
transport
Transport (in British English), or transportation (in American English), is the intentional movement of humans, animals, and goods from one location to another. Modes of transport include air, land ( rail and road), water, cable, pipel ...
.
Consequently, specific types of horse developed, many of which have no modern equivalent. While an understanding of modern
horse breeds and
equestrianism is vital for any analysis of the medieval horse, researchers also need to consider documentary (both written and pictorial) and
archaeological
Archaeology or archeology is the scientific study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, sites, and cultural landscape ...
evidence.
Horses in the
Middle Ages
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire ...
were rarely differentiated by breed, but rather by use. This led them to be described, for example, as "
chargers" (war horses), "
palfreys" (riding horses),
cart horses or
packhorse
A packhorse, pack horse, or sumpter refers to a horse, mule, donkey, or pony used to carry goods on its back, usually in sidebags or panniers. Typically packhorses are used to cross difficult terrain, where the absence of roads prevents the use of ...
s. Reference is also given to their place of origin, such as "Spanish horses," but whether this referred to one breed or several is unknown. Another difficulty arising during any study of medieval documents or literature is the flexibility of the medieval languages, where several words can be used for one thing (or, conversely, several objects are referred to by one word). Words such as '
courser' and 'charger' are used interchangeably (even within one document), and where one epic may speak disparagingly of a
rouncey, another praises its skill and swiftness.
Significant technological advances in equestrian equipment, often introduced from other cultures, allowed for significant changes in both warfare and agriculture. In particular, improved designs for the
solid-treed saddle as well as the arrival of the
stirrup
A stirrup is a light frame or ring that holds the foot of a rider, attached to the saddle by a strap, often called a ''stirrup leather''. Stirrups are usually paired and are used to aid in mounting and as a support while using a riding animal ...
,
horseshoe
A horseshoe is a fabricated product designed to protect a horse hoof from wear. Shoes are attached on the palmar surface (ground side) of the hooves, usually nailed through the insensitive hoof wall that is anatomically akin to the human ...
and
horse collar
A horse collar is a part of a horse harness that is used to distribute the load around a horse's neck and shoulders when pulling a wagon or plough. The collar often supports and pads a pair of curved metal or wooden pieces, called hames, to wh ...
were significant advances in medieval society.
Consequently, the assumptions and theories developed by historians are not definitive, and debate still rages on many issues, such as the breeding or size of the horse, and a number of sources must be consulted in order to understand the breadth of the subject.
Breeding
During the
Decline of the Roman Empire
The fall of the Western Roman Empire (also called the fall of the Roman Empire or the fall of Rome) was the loss of central political control in the Western Roman Empire, a process in which the Empire failed to enforce its rule, and its vas ...
and the
Early Middle Ages
The Early Middle Ages (or early medieval period), sometimes controversially referred to as the Dark Ages, is typically regarded by historians as lasting from the late 5th or early 6th century to the 10th century. They marked the start of the M ...
, much of the quality breeding stock developed during the
classical period was lost due to uncontrolled
breeding and had to be built up again over the following centuries.
[Carey et al., p. 112] In the west, this may have been due in part to the reliance of the
British and
Scandinavia
Scandinavia; Sámi languages: /. ( ) is a subregion in Northern Europe, with strong historical, cultural, and linguistic ties between its constituent peoples. In English usage, ''Scandinavia'' most commonly refers to Denmark, Norway, and Swe ...
ns on
infantry
Infantry is a military specialization which engages in ground combat on foot. Infantry generally consists of light infantry, mountain infantry, motorized infantry & mechanized infantry, airborne infantry, air assault infantry, and m ...
-based warfare, where horses were only used for riding and pursuit.
However, there were exceptions; in the 7th century a
Merovingian
The Merovingian dynasty () was the ruling family of the Franks from the middle of the 5th century until 751. They first appear as "Kings of the Franks" in the Roman army of northern Gaul. By 509 they had united all the Franks and northern Gauli ...
kingdom still retained at least one active Roman horse-breeding centre.
[Nicolle, p. 267] The
Spanish also retained many quality horses, in part due to the historic reputation of the region as a horse-breeding land, and partially due to the cultural influences related to the
Islamic conquest of the Iberian peninsula between the 8th and 15th centuries.
[Bennett (1998)]
The origins of the medieval war horse are obscure, although it is believed they had some
Barb and
Arabian blood through the Spanish
Jennet, a forerunner to the modern
Friesian and
Andalusian horse
The Andalusian, also known as the Pure Spanish Horse or PRE (Spanish language literally translates to “Spanish pure breed”. This name is sometimes capitalized when used in English-language publications, but is all lower-case in Spanish, wh ...
.
[Bennett, Deb (2004]
"The Spanish Mustang: The Origin and Relationships of the Mustang, Barb, and Arabian Horse"
. ''Frank Hopkins''. Retrieved 2008-08-14. It is also possible that other sources of oriental bloodstock came from what was called the ''
Nisaean breed'' (possibly akin to the
Turkoman horse) from
Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkm ...
and
Anatolia
Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The r ...
, another type of
oriental horse brought back from the
Crusades
The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Latin Church in the medieval period. The best known of these Crusades are those to the Holy Land in the period between 1095 and 1291 that were ...
.
"Spanish" horses, whatever their breeding, were the most expensive. In fact, in
Germany
Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG),, is a country in Central Europe. It is the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany lies between the Baltic and North Sea to the north and the Alps to the sou ...
the word ''spanjol'' became the term for quality war horses. However, German literary sources also refer to fine horses from Scandinavia.
[Bumke, p. 178] France also produced good war horses. Some scholars attribute this to the strong
Feudal society there,
[Gies & Gies, p. 88] but an equally probable explanation is the historic influence of the Roman horse breeding traditions preserved by the Merovingians,
combined with the addition of valuable Spanish and oriental bloodstock captured in the wake of the victory of
Charles Martel
Charles Martel ( – 22 October 741) was a Frankish political and military leader who, as Duke and Prince of the Franks and Mayor of the Palace, was the de facto ruler of Francia from 718 until his death. He was a son of the Frankish state ...
over the Islamic
Umayyad
The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE; , ; ar, ٱلْخِلَافَة ٱلْأُمَوِيَّة, al-Khilāfah al-ʾUmawīyah) was the second of the four major caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. The caliphate was ruled by the ...
invaders at the
Battle of Tours in 732. Following this battle, the
Carolingian
The Carolingian dynasty (; known variously as the Carlovingians, Carolingus, Carolings, Karolinger or Karlings) was a Frankish noble family named after Charlemagne, grandson of mayor Charles Martel and a descendant of the Arnulfing and Pippi ...
s began to increase their heavy cavalry, which resulted in the seizure of land (for fodder production), and a change in
tribute
A tribute (; from Latin ''tributum'', "contribution") is wealth, often in kind, that a party gives to another as a sign of submission, allegiance or respect. Various ancient states exacted tribute from the rulers of land which the state conq ...
payment from cattle to horses.
As the importance of horse breeding to successful warfare was realized, planned breeding programs increased. Many changes were due to the influence of
Islamic
Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God (or ''Allah'') as it was revealed to Muhammad, the main ...
culture through both the Crusades and the
Moorish invasions
The Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula (), also known as the Arab conquest of Spain, by the Umayyad Caliphate occurred between approximately 711 and the 720s. The conquest resulted in the destruction of the Christian Visigothic Kingdom of ...
of
Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = '' Plus ultra'' ( Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, ...
; the
Arabs
The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Western Asia, ...
kept extensive pedigrees of their Barb and Arabian horses via an
oral tradition
Oral tradition, or oral lore, is a form of human communication wherein knowledge, art, ideas and cultural material is received, preserved, and transmitted orally from one generation to another. Vansina, Jan: ''Oral Tradition as History'' (1985 ...
.
Some of the earliest written pedigrees in recorded European history were kept by
Carthusian monks, who were among those who bred the Spanish Jennet. Because they could read and write, thus kept careful records,
monastics were given the responsibility for horse breeding by certain members of the nobility, particularly in Spain.
In England, a common source of warhorses were the wild moorland ponies, which were rounded up annually by horse-breeders, including the
Cistercians
The Cistercians, () officially the Order of Cistercians ( la, (Sacer) Ordo Cisterciensis, abbreviated as OCist or SOCist), are a Catholic religious order of monks and nuns that branched off from the Benedictines and follow the Rule of Sain ...
, for use as campaign riding horses, or light cavalry; one such breed was the
Fell pony, which had similar ancestry to the Friesian horse.
It is also hard to trace what happened to the bloodlines of
destriers when this type seems to disappear from record during the 17th century.
[Prestwich, p. 30] Many modern draft breeds claim some link to the medieval "great horse," with some historians considering breeds such as the
Percheron,
Belgian and
Suffolk Punch likely descendants of the destrier.
However, other historians discount this theory, since the historical record suggests the medieval warhorse was quite a different 'type' to the modern
draught horse
A draft horse (US), draught horse (UK) or dray horse (from the Old English ''dragan'' meaning "to draw or haul"; compare Dutch ''dragen'' and German ''tragen'' meaning "to carry" and Danish ''drage'' meaning "to draw" or "to fare"), less o ...
. Such a theory would suggest the war horses were crossed once again with "cold blooded" work horses, since war horses, and the destrier in particular, were renowned for their hot-blooded nature.
Types of horse
Throughout the period, horses were rarely considered breeds, but instead were defined by ''type'': by describing their purpose or their physical attributes. Many of the definitions were not precise, or were interchangeable. Prior to approximately the 13th century, few pedigrees were written down. Thus, many terms for horses in the Middle Ages did not refer to breeds as we know them today, but rather described appearance or purpose.
One of the best-known of the medieval horses was the
destrier, renowned and admired for its capabilities in war. It was well trained, and was required to be strong, fast and agile.
A 14th-century writer described them as "tall and majestic and with great strength". In contemporary sources, the destrier was frequently referred to as the "great horse" because of its size and reputation.
[Oakeshott (1998), p. 11] Being a subjective term, it gives no firm information about its actual height or weight, but since the average horse of the time was , a "great horse" by medieval standards might appear small to our modern eyes. The destrier was highly prized by knights and men-at-arms, but was actually not very common,
and appears to have been most suited to the
joust
Jousting is a martial game or hastilude between two horse riders wielding lances with blunted tips, often as part of a tournament. The primary aim was to replicate a clash of heavy cavalry, with each participant trying to strike the opponent ...
.
Coursers were generally preferred for hard battle as they were light, fast and strong.
They were valuable, but not as costly as the destrier.
They were also used frequently for
hunting
Hunting is the human practice of seeking, pursuing, capturing, or killing wildlife or feral animals. The most common reasons for humans to hunt are to harvest food (i.e. meat) and useful animal products ( fur/ hide, bone/ tusks, horn/ a ...
.
A more general-purpose horse was the
rouncey (also ''rounsey''), which could be kept as a riding horse or trained for war.
It was commonly used by
squire
In the Middle Ages, a squire was the shield- or armour-bearer of a knight.
Use of the term evolved over time. Initially, a squire served as a knight's apprentice. Later, a village leader or a lord of the manor might come to be known as a ...
s,
men-at-arms or poorer knights. A wealthy knight would keep rounceys for his
retinue
A retinue is a body of persons "retained" in the service of a noble, royal personage, or dignitary; a ''suite'' (French "what follows") of retainers.
Etymology
The word, recorded in English since circa 1375, stems from Old French ''retenue'', ...
.
Sometimes the expected nature of warfare dictated the choice of horse; when a summons to war was sent out in England, in 1327, it expressly requested rounceys, for swift pursuit, rather than destriers. Rounceys were sometimes used as pack horses (but never as cart horses).
The well-bred
palfrey, which could equal a destrier in price, was popular with nobles and highly ranked knights for riding, hunting and ceremonial use.
[Oakeshott (1998), p. 14] Ambling was a desirable trait in a palfrey, as the smooth gait allowed the rider to cover long distances quickly in relative comfort.
Other horse types included the
jennet, a small horse first bred in Spain from
Barb and
Arabian bloodstock.
Their quiet and dependable nature, as well as size, made them popular as riding horses for ladies; however, they were also used as
cavalry horses by the Spanish.
The
hobby
A hobby is considered to be a regular activity that is done for enjoyment, typically during one's leisure time. Hobbies include collecting themed items and objects, engaging in creative and artistic pursuits, playing sports, or pursuing ...
was a lightweight horse, about , developed in Ireland from Spanish or Libyan (Barb) bloodstock. This type of quick and agile horse was popular for
skirmishing, and was often ridden by
light cavalry
Light cavalry comprised lightly armed and armored cavalry troops mounted on fast horses, as opposed to heavy cavalry, where the mounted riders (and sometimes the warhorses) were heavily armored. The purpose of light cavalry was primarily ...
known as ''
Hobelars''. Hobbies were used successfully by both sides during the
Wars of Scottish Independence
The Wars of Scottish Independence were a series of military campaigns fought between the Kingdom of Scotland and the Kingdom of England in the late 13th and early 14th centuries.
The First War (1296–1328) began with the English invasion of ...
, with
Edward I of England
Edward I (17/18 June 1239 – 7 July 1307), also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots, was King of England and Lord of Ireland from 1272 to 1307. Concurrently, he ruled the duchies of Duchy of Aquitaine, Aquitaine and D ...
trying to gain advantage by preventing Irish
exports
An export in international trade is a good produced in one country that is sold into another country or a service provided in one country for a national or resident of another country. The seller of such goods or the service provider is an ...
of the horses to Scotland.
Robert Bruce employed the hobby for his
guerilla warfare
Guerrilla warfare is a form of irregular warfare in which small groups of combatants, such as paramilitary personnel, armed civilians, or irregulars, use military tactics including ambushes, sabotage, raids, petty warfare, hit-and-run t ...
and mounted raids, covering a day.
Horses in warfare
While
light cavalry
Light cavalry comprised lightly armed and armored cavalry troops mounted on fast horses, as opposed to heavy cavalry, where the mounted riders (and sometimes the warhorses) were heavily armored. The purpose of light cavalry was primarily ...
had been used in warfare for many centuries, the medieval era saw the rise of
heavy cavalry
Heavy cavalry was a class of cavalry intended to deliver a battlefield charge and also to act as a tactical reserve; they are also often termed '' shock cavalry''. Although their equipment differed greatly depending on the region and histori ...
, particularly the European
knight
A knight is a person granted an honorary title of knighthood by a head of state (including the Pope) or representative for service to the monarch, the church or the country, especially in a military capacity. Knighthood finds origins in the G ...
. Historians are uncertain when the use of heavy cavalry in the form of mounted
shock troops first occurred, but the technique had become widespread by the mid-12th century.
The heavy cavalry charge itself was not a common occurrence in warfare.
Pitched battles were avoided if at all possible, with most offensive
warfare
War is an intense armed conflict between State (polity), states, governments, Society, societies, or paramilitary groups such as Mercenary, mercenaries, Insurgency, insurgents, and militias. It is generally characterized by extreme violenc ...
in the early Middle Ages taking the form of
siege
A siege is a military blockade of a city, or fortress, with the intent of conquering by attrition, or a well-prepared assault. This derives from la, sedere, lit=to sit. Siege warfare is a form of constant, low-intensity conflict characterize ...
s, or swift mounted raids called ''
chevauchée
A ''chevauchée'' (, "promenade" or "horse charge", depending on context) was a raiding method of medieval warfare for weakening the enemy, primarily by burning and pillaging enemy territory in order to reduce the productivity of a region, in ...
s'', with the warriors lightly armed on swift horses and their heavy war horses safely in the stable. Pitched battles were sometimes unavoidable, but were rarely fought on land suitable for heavy cavalry. While mounted riders remained effective for initial attacks, by the 14th century, it was common for knights to dismount to fight. Horses were sent to the rear, and kept ready for pursuit.
[Sadler, p. 32]
By the
Late Middle Ages
The Late Middle Ages or Late Medieval Period was the period of European history lasting from AD 1300 to 1500. The Late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the early modern period (and in much of Europe, the Ren ...
(approx 1300-1550), large battles became more common, probably because of the success of
infantry tactics and changes in
weaponry. However, because such tactics left the knight unmounted, the role of the war horse also changed. By the 17th century, the medieval charger had become a thing of the past, replaced by lighter, unarmoured horses.
Throughout the period, light horse, or ''prickers'', were used for scouting and reconnaissance; they also provided a defensive screen for marching armies.
Large teams of draught horses, or oxen, were used for pulling the heavy early cannon. Other horses pulled wagons and carried supplies for the armies.
Tournaments
Tournaments and
hastiludes began in the 11th century as both a sport and to provide training for battle. Usually taking the form of a
melee
A melee ( or , French: mêlée ) or pell-mell is disorganized hand-to-hand combat in battles fought at abnormally close range with little central control once it starts. In military aviation, a melee has been defined as " air battle in which ...
, the participants used the horses,
armour
Armour (British English
British English (BrE, en-GB, or BE) is, according to Lexico, Oxford Dictionaries, "English language, English as used in Great Britain, as distinct from that used elsewhere". More narrowly, it can refer specificall ...
and weapons of war. The sport of
jousting
Jousting is a martial game or hastilude between two horse riders wielding lances with blunted tips, often as part of a tournament. The primary aim was to replicate a clash of heavy cavalry, with each participant trying to strike the opponent ...
grew out of the tournament and, by the 15th century, the art of
tilting became quite sophisticated. In the process, the pageantry and specialization became less war-like, perhaps because of the knight's changing role in war.
Horses were specially bred for the joust, and heavier
horse armour developed. However, this did not necessarily lead to significantly larger horses. Interpreters at the
Royal Armouries
The Royal Armouries is the United Kingdom's national collection of arms and armour. Originally an important part of England's military organization, it became the United Kingdom's oldest museum, originally housed in the Tower of London from t ...
, Leeds, re-created the joust, using specially bred horses and replica armour. Their horses accurately represented the medieval mount, being compactly built and not particularly tall.
Types of war horse
The most well-known horse of the
medieval
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...
era of
Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a subcontinent of Eurasia and it is located enti ...
is the
destrier, known for carrying
knight
A knight is a person granted an honorary title of knighthood by a head of state (including the Pope) or representative for service to the monarch, the church or the country, especially in a military capacity. Knighthood finds origins in the G ...
s into war. However, most knights and mounted
men-at-arms rode smaller horses known as
coursers and
rounceys. (A common generic name for medieval war horses was ''charger,'' which was interchangeable with the other terms). In
Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = '' Plus ultra'' ( Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, ...
, the
jennet was used as a
light cavalry
Light cavalry comprised lightly armed and armored cavalry troops mounted on fast horses, as opposed to heavy cavalry, where the mounted riders (and sometimes the warhorses) were heavily armored. The purpose of light cavalry was primarily ...
horse.
Stallion
A stallion is a male horse that has not been gelded (castrated).
Stallions follow the conformation and phenotype of their breed, but within that standard, the presence of hormones such as testosterone may give stallions a thicker, "cresty" nec ...
s were often used as war horses in Europe due to their natural aggression and hot-blooded tendencies. A 13th-century work describes destriers "biting and kicking" on the battlefield,
[Bumke, p. 175] and, in the heat of battle, war horses were often seen fighting each other. However, the use of mares by European warriors cannot be discounted from literary references.
[Bumke, p. 177] Mares were the preferred war horse of the
Moors
The term Moor, derived from the ancient Mauri, is an exonym first used by Christian Europeans to designate the Muslim inhabitants of the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Sicily and Malta during the Middle Ages.
Moors are not a distinct o ...
.
[Edwards] They also were preferred by the
Mongol
The Mongols ( mn, Монголчууд, , , ; ; russian: Монголы) are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, Inner Mongolia in China and the Buryatia Republic of the Russian Federation. The Mongols are the principal member ...
s.
War horses were more expensive than normal riding horses, and destriers the most prized, but figures vary greatly from source to source. Destriers are given a values ranging from seven times the price of an ordinary horse
to 700 times.
The Bohemian king
Wenzel II rode a horse "valued at one thousand
marks" in 1298.
At the other extreme, a 1265 French ordinance ruled that a
squire
In the Middle Ages, a squire was the shield- or armour-bearer of a knight.
Use of the term evolved over time. Initially, a squire served as a knight's apprentice. Later, a village leader or a lord of the manor might come to be known as a ...
could not spend more than twenty marks on a rouncey.
[Oakeshott (1998), p. 12] Knights were expected to have at least one war horse (as well as riding horses and packhorses), with some records from the later Middle Ages showing knights bringing twenty-four horses on campaign.
Five horses was perhaps the standard.
Size of war horses
There is dispute in medievalist circles over the size of the war horse, with some notable historians claiming a size of , as large as a modern
Shire horse. However, there are practical reasons for this dispute. Analysis of existing
horse armour located in the
Royal Armouries
The Royal Armouries is the United Kingdom's national collection of arms and armour. Originally an important part of England's military organization, it became the United Kingdom's oldest museum, originally housed in the Tower of London from t ...
indicates the equipment was originally worn by horses of , or about the size and build of a modern
field hunter
Field may refer to:
Expanses of open ground
* Field (agriculture), an area of land used for agricultural purposes
* Airfield, an aerodrome that lacks the infrastructure of an airport
* Battlefield
* Lawn, an area of mowed grass
* Meadow, a grass ...
or ordinary riding horse.
[Gravett, p. 59] Research undertaken at the
Museum of London
The Museum of London is a museum in London, covering the history of the UK's capital city from prehistoric to modern times. It was formed in 1976 by amalgamating collections previously held by the City Corporation at the Guildhall Museum (fou ...
, using literary, pictorial and archaeological sources, supports military horses of , distinguished from a riding horse by its strength and skill, rather than its size. This average does not seem to vary greatly across the medieval period. Horses appear to have been selectively bred for increased size from the 9th and 10th centuries, and by the 11th century the average warhorse was probably , a size verified by studies of
Norman horseshoes as well as the depictions of horses on the
Bayeux Tapestry. Analysis of
horse transports suggests 13th-century destriers were a stocky build, and no more than . Three centuries later, warhorses were not significantly bigger; the Royal Armouries used a
Lithuanian Heavy Draught mare as a model for the statues displaying various 15th- and 16th-century horse armours, as her body shape was an excellent fit.
Perhaps one reason for the pervasive belief that the medieval war horse had to be of
draught horse
A draft horse (US), draught horse (UK) or dray horse (from the Old English ''dragan'' meaning "to draw or haul"; compare Dutch ''dragen'' and German ''tragen'' meaning "to carry" and Danish ''drage'' meaning "to draw" or "to fare"), less o ...
type is the assumption, still held by many, that medieval armour was heavy. In fact, even the heaviest tournament armour (for knights) weighed little more than , and field (war) armour ;
barding, or horse armour, rarely weighed more than . Allowing for the weight of the rider and other equipment, horses can carry approximately 30% of their weight; thus such loads could certainly be carried by a heavy riding horse in the range, and a draught horse was not needed.
Although a large horse is not required to carry an armoured knight, it is held by some historians that a large horse was desirable to increase the power of a
lance
A lance is a spear designed to be used by a mounted warrior or cavalry soldier ( lancer). In ancient and medieval warfare, it evolved into the leading weapon in cavalry charges, and was unsuited for throwing or for repeated thrusting, unli ...
strike. However, practical experiments by re-enactors have suggested that the rider's weight and strength is of more relevance than the size of the mount, and that little of the horse's weight is translated to the lance.
[Alvarez, Richard]
"Saddle, Lance and Stirrup: An Examination of the Mechanics of Shock Combat and the Development of Shock Tactics"
. ''Classical Fencing''. Retrieved 2007-03-08.
Further evidence for a 14-16 hand () war horse is that it was a matter of pride to a knight to be able to vault onto his horse in full armour, without touching the
stirrup
A stirrup is a light frame or ring that holds the foot of a rider, attached to the saddle by a strap, often called a ''stirrup leather''. Stirrups are usually paired and are used to aid in mounting and as a support while using a riding animal ...
. This arose not from vanity, but necessity: if unhorsed during battle, a knight would remain vulnerable if unable to mount by himself. In reality, of course, a wounded or weary knight might find it difficult, and rely on a vigilant squire to assist him. Incidentally, a knight's armour served in his favour in any fall. With his long hair twisted on his head to form a springy padding under his padded-linen hood, and his
helm
Helm may refer to:
Common meanings
* a ship's steering mechanism; see tiller and ship's wheel
* another term for helmsman
* an archaic term for a helmet, used as armor
Arts and entertainment
* Matt Helm, a character created by Donald Hamilt ...
placed on top, he had head protection not dissimilar to a modern bicycle or
equestrian helmet.
Transportation
Throughout the Middle Ages it was customary for people of all classes and background to travel, often widely. The households of the upper classes and royal courts moved between manors and estates; the demands of
diplomacy
Diplomacy comprises spoken or written communication by representatives of states (such as leaders and diplomats) intended to influence events in the international system.Ronald Peter Barston, ''Modern diplomacy'', Pearson Education, 2006, p. 1 ...
, war and
crusades took men to distant countries; priests travelled between churches, monasteries and formed emissaries to Rome; people of all classes went on
pilgrimage
A pilgrimage is a journey, often into an unknown or foreign place, where a person goes in search of new or expanded meaning about their self, others, nature, or a higher good, through the experience. It can lead to a personal transformation, aft ...
, or travelled to find work; others travelled as a pastime. Most people undertook small journeys on foot and hired horses for longer journeys.
[Clark, p. 8] For the upper classes, travel was accompanied by a great deal of pomp and display, with fine horses, large retinues and magnificent cavalcades in order to display their wealth as well as to ensure personal comfort.
[Labarge, p. xiii] For example, in 1445, the English royal household contained 60 horses in the king's stable and 186 kept for "chariots" (carriages) and
cart
A cart or dray (Australia and New Zealand) is a vehicle designed for transport, using two wheels and normally pulled by one or a pair of draught animals. A handcart is pulled or pushed by one or more people.
It is different from the flatbed tr ...
s.
During much of the Middle Ages, there was no system of interconnected
roads and bridges ''Roads and Bridges'' is a 2000 film by Abraham Lim about a Chinese-American man facing racial prejudice in the American Midwest. Lim plays the main character, Johnson Lee, a Chinese-American man who is placed on a Kansas road-cleaning crew by his p ...
. Though parts of Europe still had remnants of
Roman road
Roman roads ( la, viae Romanae ; singular: ; meaning "Roman way") were physical infrastructure vital to the maintenance and development of the Roman state, and were built from about 300 BC through the expansion and consolidation of the Roman R ...
s built before the collapse of the
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post- Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings around the Medite ...
, most had long fallen into disrepair.
[Nicolle, p. 267] Because of the necessity to ride long distances over uncertain roads, smooth-
gaited horses were preferred, and most ordinary riding horses were of greater value if they could do one of the smooth but ground-covering four-beat gaits collectively known as an ''
amble'' rather than the more jarring
trot.
Mule trains, for land travel, and
barge
Barge nowadays generally refers to a flat-bottomed inland waterway vessel which does not have its own means of mechanical propulsion. The first modern barges were pulled by tugs, but nowadays most are pushed by pusher boats, or other vessels. ...
s, for river and canal travel, were the most common form of long-distance haulage, although wheeled
horse-drawn vehicles were used for shorter journeys.
[Tuchman, p. 57] In areas with good roads, regular carrier services were established between major towns.
[Clark, pp. 9-10] However, because medieval roads were generally so poor,
carriages for human passengers were rare. When roads permitted, early carriages were developed from freight wagons. Carriage travel was made more comfortable in the late 14th century with the introduction of the ''chariot branlant'', which had strap suspension.
[Gies & Gies, p. 56]
The speed of travel varied greatly. Large retinues could be slowed by the presence of slow-paced carts and litters, or by servants and attendants on foot, and could rarely cover more than fifteen to twenty miles a day. Small mounted companies might travel 30 miles a day. However, there were exceptions: stopping only for a change of horses midway,
Richard II of England
Richard II (6 January 1367 – ), also known as Richard of Bordeaux, was King of England from 1377 until he was deposed in 1399. He was the son of Edward the Black Prince, Prince of Wales, and Joan, Countess of Kent. Richard's father died ...
once managed the 70 miles between
Daventry and
Westminster
Westminster is an area of Central London, part of the wider City of Westminster.
The area, which extends from the River Thames to Oxford Street, has many visitor attractions and historic landmarks, including the Palace of Westminster, Buck ...
in a night.
For breeding, war and travel purposes, it was also necessary to be able to transport horses themselves. For this purpose,
boats
A boat is a watercraft of a large range of types and sizes, but generally smaller than a ship, which is distinguished by its larger size, shape, cargo or passenger capacity, or its ability to carry boats.
Small boats are typically found on i ...
were adapted and built to be used as
horse transports.
William of Normandy's invasion of England
The term Invasion of England may refer to the following planned or actual invasions of what is now modern England, successful or otherwise.
Pre-English Settlement of parts of Britain
* The 55 and 54 BC Caesar's invasions of Britain.
* The 43 AD ...
in 1066 required the transfer of over 2000 horses from
Normandy
Normandy (; french: link=no, Normandie ; nrf, Normaundie, Nouormandie ; from Old French , plural of ''Normant'', originally from the word for "northman" in several Scandinavian languages) is a geographical and cultural region in Northwestern ...
. Similarly, when travelling to France in 1285–6,
Edward I of England
Edward I (17/18 June 1239 – 7 July 1307), also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots, was King of England and Lord of Ireland from 1272 to 1307. Concurrently, he ruled the duchies of Duchy of Aquitaine, Aquitaine and D ...
ferried over 1000 horses across the
English Channel
The English Channel, "The Sleeve"; nrf, la Maunche, "The Sleeve" ( Cotentinais) or (Jèrriais), ( Guernésiais), "The Channel"; br, Mor Breizh, "Sea of Brittany"; cy, Môr Udd, "Lord's Sea"; kw, Mor Bretannek, "British Sea"; nl, Het Kan ...
to provide the royal party with transport.
[Clark, p. 6]
Riding horses
Riding horses were used by a variety of people during the Middle Ages, and so varied greatly in quality, size and breeding. Knights and nobles kept riding horses in their war-trains, saving their warhorses for the battle.
The names of horses referred to a ''type'' of horse, rather than a breed. Many horses were named by the region where they or their immediate ancestors were foaled. For example, in Germany, Hungarian horses were commonly used for riding.
Individual horses were often described by their gait ('
trotters' or '
amblers'), by their colouring, or by the name of their breeder.
The most typical riding horse was known as a
rouncy. It was relatively small and inexpensive. The best riding horses were known as
palfreys; another breed of horse was developed in the 14th century in England called a
hackney, from which the modern term "
hack" is derived. Because the hackney had a trotting gait it was not considered a comfortable ride for most purposes. Women sometimes rode rouncies, palfreys or small horses known as
jennets.
Harness and pack horses
A variety of work horses were used throughout the Middle Ages. The
pack horse (or "sumpter horse") carried equipment and belongings.
Common riding horses, often called "hackneys", could be used as pack horses.
Cart horses pulled wagons for trading and freight haulage, on farms, or as part of a military campaign. These
draught horses were smaller than their modern counterparts; pictorial and archaeological evidence suggests that they were stout but short, approximately , and capable of drawing a load of per horse.
[Clark, pp. 27-28] Four-wheeled wagons and two-wheeled carts were more common in towns, such as
London
London is the capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary dow ...
and, depending on type of vehicle and weight of the load, were usually pulled by teams of two, three, or four horses harnessed in
tandem
Tandem, or in tandem, is an arrangement in which a team of machines, animals or people are lined up one behind another, all facing in the same direction.
The original use of the term in English was in ''tandem harness'', which is used for two ...
.
Starting in the 12th century, in England the use of oxen to pull carts was gradually superseded by the use of horses, a process that extended through the 13th century. This change came because horse-drawn transport moved goods quicker and over greater distances than ox-drawn methods of transport.
[Dyer ''Making a Living'' p. 129]
Agriculture
The
Romans had used a two-field
crop rotation
Crop rotation is the practice of growing a series of different types of crops in the same area across a sequence of growing seasons. It reduces reliance on one set of nutrients, pest and weed pressure, and the probability of developing resistant ...
agricultural system, but from the 8th century on, a three-field system became more common. One field would be sown with a winter crop, the second with a spring crop, and the third left fallow. This allowed a greater amount of spring crop of oats to be grown, which provided
fodder
Fodder (), also called provender (), is any agricultural foodstuff used specifically to feed domesticated livestock, such as cattle, rabbits, sheep, horses, chickens and pigs. "Fodder" refers particularly to food given to the animals (including ...
for horses.
[Slocum, pp. 140-1] Another advance during the Middle Ages was the development of the heavy
mouldboard plough, which allowed dense and heavy soils to be tilled easily; this technology required the use of larger teams of
draught animals including
oxen
An ox ( : oxen, ), also known as a bullock (in BrE, AusE, and IndE), is a male bovine trained and used as a draft animal. Oxen are commonly castrated adult male cattle; castration inhibits testosterone and aggression, which makes the ma ...
and horses, as well as the adoption of larger fields.
[Slocum, pp. 141-2] Particularly after the 12th century, the increased use of both the
horse collar
A horse collar is a part of a horse harness that is used to distribute the load around a horse's neck and shoulders when pulling a wagon or plough. The collar often supports and pads a pair of curved metal or wooden pieces, called hames, to wh ...
and use of iron
horse shoe
A horseshoe is a fabricated product designed to protect a horse hoof from wear. Shoes are attached on the palmar surface (ground side) of the hooves, usually nailed through the insensitive hoof wall that is anatomically akin to the human toe ...
s allowed horsepower to be directed more efficiently.
[Slocum, p. 143] Horse teams usually were four horses, or perhaps six, as compared to eight oxen, and the lesser numbers compensated for the fact that the horses needed to be fed grain on top of pasture, unlike oxen. The increased speed of horses also allowed more land to be ploughed in a day, with an eight ox plough team averaging half of an acre per day, but a horse team averaged a full acre per day.
[
For farm work, such as ploughing and harrowing, the draught horses utilized for these purposes were, in England, called 'affers' and 'stotts' ( and in medieval Latin). These horses were usually smaller and cheaper than the cart horse.] The difference between ''affers'' and ''stotts'' was largely nominal. Medieval English records from south-east England and East Anglia typically use the term 'stott', while 'affer' is used in documents from across the rest of the country. While oxen
An ox ( : oxen, ), also known as a bullock (in BrE, AusE, and IndE), is a male bovine trained and used as a draft animal. Oxen are commonly castrated adult male cattle; castration inhibits testosterone and aggression, which makes the ma ...
were traditionally used as work animals on farms, horses began to be used in greater numbers after the development of the horse collar. Oxen and horses were sometimes harnessed together. The transition from oxen to horses for farm work was documented in pictorial sources (for example, the 11th-century Bayeux tapestry depicts working horses), and also clear from the change from the Roman two-field crop-rotation system to a new three-field system, which increased the cultivation of fodder crops (predominantly oats, barley and beans). Horses were also used to process crops; they were used to turn the wheels in mills (such as corn mills), and transport crops to market.[Gies & Gies, p. 273] The change to horse-drawn teams also meant a change in ploughs, as horses were more suited to a wheeled plough, unlike oxen.[
]
Equestrian equipment and technological innovations
The development of equestrian technology proceeded at a similar pace as the development of horse breeding
Horse breeding is reproduction in horses, and particularly the human-directed process of selective breeding of animals, particularly purebred horses of a given breed. Planned matings can be used to produce specifically desired characteristics i ...
and utilisation. The changes in warfare during the Early Middle Ages to heavy cavalry
Heavy cavalry was a class of cavalry intended to deliver a battlefield charge and also to act as a tactical reserve; they are also often termed '' shock cavalry''. Although their equipment differed greatly depending on the region and histori ...
both precipitated and relied on the arrival of the stirrup
A stirrup is a light frame or ring that holds the foot of a rider, attached to the saddle by a strap, often called a ''stirrup leather''. Stirrups are usually paired and are used to aid in mounting and as a support while using a riding animal ...
, solid-treed saddle
The saddle is a supportive structure for a rider of an animal, fastened to an animal's back by a girth. The most common type is equestrian. However, specialized saddles have been created for oxen, camels and other animals. It is not kno ...
, and horseshoe
A horseshoe is a fabricated product designed to protect a horse hoof from wear. Shoes are attached on the palmar surface (ground side) of the hooves, usually nailed through the insensitive hoof wall that is anatomically akin to the human ...
from other cultures.
The development of the nailed horseshoe
A horseshoe is a fabricated product designed to protect a horse hoof from wear. Shoes are attached on the palmar surface (ground side) of the hooves, usually nailed through the insensitive hoof wall that is anatomically akin to the human ...
enabled longer, faster journeys on horseback, particularly in the wetter lands in northern Europe, and were useful for campaigns on varied terrains.[Bennet et al., p. 74] By providing protection and support, nailed horse shoes also improved the efficiency of draught horse
A draft horse (US), draught horse (UK) or dray horse (from the Old English ''dragan'' meaning "to draw or haul"; compare Dutch ''dragen'' and German ''tragen'' meaning "to carry" and Danish ''drage'' meaning "to draw" or "to fare"), less o ...
teams. Though the Romans had developed an iron " hipposandal" that resembled a hoof boot, there is much debate over the actual origins of the nailed horseshoe, though it does appear to be of European origin. There is little evidence of nailed-on shoes prior to AD 500 or 600, though there is speculation that the Celtic Gauls
The Gauls ( la, Galli; grc, Γαλάται, ''Galátai'') were a group of Celtic peoples of mainland Europe in the Iron Age and the Roman period (roughly 5th century BC to 5th century AD). Their homeland was known as Gaul (''Gallia''). They s ...
were the first to nail on metal horseshoes.[McBane, pp. 57-60] The earliest clear written record of iron horseshoes is a reference to "crescent figured irons and their nails" in a list of cavalry equipment from AD 910.[Heymering, Henry, RJF, CJF]
"Who Invented Horseshoeing?"
''Science of Motion'', Retrieved on 2011-11-06. Additional archaeological evidence suggests they were used in Siberia
Siberia ( ; rus, Сибирь, r=Sibir', p=sʲɪˈbʲirʲ, a=Ru-Сибирь.ogg) is an extensive geographical region, constituting all of North Asia, from the Ural Mountains in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east. It has been a part o ...
during the 9th and 10th centuries, and had spread to Byzantium soon afterward; by the 11th century, horseshoes were commonly used in Europe. By the time the Crusades
The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Latin Church in the medieval period. The best known of these Crusades are those to the Holy Land in the period between 1095 and 1291 that were ...
began in 1096, horseshoes were widespread and frequently mentioned in various written sources.
Riding technology
The saddle
The saddle is a supportive structure for a rider of an animal, fastened to an animal's back by a girth. The most common type is equestrian. However, specialized saddles have been created for oxen, camels and other animals. It is not kno ...
with a solid tree provided a bearing surface to protect the horse from the weight of the rider. The Romans are credited with the invention of the solid-treed saddle, possibly as early as the 1st century BC, and it was widespread by the 2nd century AD.[Hope, Chapters 1 and 2] Early medieval saddles resembled the Roman "four-horn" saddle, and were used without stirrups.[Oakeshott (1998), p. 40] The development of the solid saddle tree was significant; it raised the rider above the horse's back, and distributed the rider's weight, reducing the pressure on any one part of the horse's back, thus greatly increasing the comfort of the horse and prolonging its useful life. Horses could carry more weight when distributed across a solid saddle tree. It also allowed a more built up seat to give the rider greater security in the saddle. From the 12th century on, the high war-saddle became more common, providing protection as well as added security. The built up cantle of a solid-treed saddle enabled horsemen to use lance
A lance is a spear designed to be used by a mounted warrior or cavalry soldier ( lancer). In ancient and medieval warfare, it evolved into the leading weapon in cavalry charges, and was unsuited for throwing or for repeated thrusting, unli ...
more effectively.
Beneath the saddle, caparisons or saddle cloths were sometimes worn; these could be decorated or embroidered with heraldic colours and arms.[Wagner et al., p. 65] War horses could be equipped with additional covers, blankets and armour collectively referred to as barding; this could be for decorative or protective purposes. Early forms of horse armour, usually restricted to tournaments, comprised padded leather pieces, covered by a trapper (a decorated cloth), which was not particularly heavy.[Barker, pp. 175-6] Mail and plate armour was also occasionally used; there are literary references to horse armour (an "iron blanket") starting in the late 12th century.[Bumke, p. 176]
The solid tree allowed for effective use of the stirrup
A stirrup is a light frame or ring that holds the foot of a rider, attached to the saddle by a strap, often called a ''stirrup leather''. Stirrups are usually paired and are used to aid in mounting and as a support while using a riding animal ...
. The stirrup was developed in China and in widespread use there by 477 AD. By the 7th century, primarily due to invaders from Central Asia, such as the Avars, stirrups arrived in Europe, and European riders had adopted them by the 8th century. Among other advantages, stirrups provided greater balance and support to the rider, which allowed the knight
A knight is a person granted an honorary title of knighthood by a head of state (including the Pope) or representative for service to the monarch, the church or the country, especially in a military capacity. Knighthood finds origins in the G ...
to use a sword
A sword is an edged, bladed weapon intended for manual cutting or thrusting. Its blade, longer than a knife or dagger, is attached to a hilt and can be straight or curved. A thrusting sword tends to have a straighter blade with a pointed t ...
more efficiently without falling, especially against infantry
Infantry is a military specialization which engages in ground combat on foot. Infantry generally consists of light infantry, mountain infantry, motorized infantry & mechanized infantry, airborne infantry, air assault infantry, and m ...
.
The increased use of the stirrup from the 8th century on aided the warrior's stability and security in the saddle when fighting. This may have led to greater use of shock tactics, although a couched lance could be used effectively without stirrups. In particular, Charles Martel
Charles Martel ( – 22 October 741) was a Frankish political and military leader who, as Duke and Prince of the Franks and Mayor of the Palace, was the de facto ruler of Francia from 718 until his death. He was a son of the Frankish state ...
recognized the military potential of the stirrup, and distributed seized lands to his retainers on condition that they serve him by fighting in the new manner.[World Decade for Cultural Development 1988–1997. United Nations Page 3]
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. World Decade Secretariat.
A theory known as The Great Stirrup Controversy argues that the advantages in warfare that stemmed from use of the stirrup led to the birth of feudalism
Feudalism, also known as the feudal system, was the combination of the legal, economic, military, cultural and political customs that flourished in medieval Europe between the 9th and 15th centuries. Broadly defined, it was a way of structu ...
itself. Other scholars, however, dispute this assertion, suggesting that stirrups provided little advantage in shock warfare, being useful primarily for allowing a rider to lean farther to the left and right on the saddle while fighting, and simply reduce the risk of falling off. Therefore, it is argued, they are not the reason for the switch from infantry to cavalry in Medieval militaries, nor the reason for the emergence of Feudalism.
There was a variety of headgear used to control horses, predominantly bridle
A bridle is a piece of equipment used to direct a horse. As defined in the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', the "bridle" includes both the that holds a bit that goes in the mouth of a horse, and the reins that are attached to the bit.
Headgear ...
s with assorted designs of bits. Many of the bits used during the Middle Ages resemble the bradoon, snaffle bit and curb bit that are still in common use today. However, they often were decorated to a greater degree: the bit rings or shanks were frequently covered with large, ornamental "bosses." Some designs were also more extreme and severe than those used today. The curb bit was known during the classical period, but was not generally used during the Middle Ages until the mid-14th century.[Oakeshott (1998), p. 38] Some styles of snaffle bit used during the Middle Ages had the lower cheek extended, in the manner of the modern half-cheek or full cheek snaffle. Until the late 13th century, bridles generally had a single pair of reins; after this period it became more common for knights to use two sets of reins, similar to that of the modern double bridle
A double bridle, also called a full bridle or Weymouth bridle,Gurney, Hilda. "Double Bridle Pros and Cons." ''Practical Horseman'' Sept. 2007. is a bridle that has two bits and four reins (sometimes called "double reins"). One bit is the '' brado ...
, and often at least one set was decorated.[Oakeshott (1998), p. 39]
Spur
A spur is a metal tool designed to be worn in pairs on the heels of riding boots for the purpose of directing a horse or other animal to move forward or laterally while riding. It is usually used to refine the riding aids (commands) and to ba ...
s were commonly used throughout the period, especially by knights, with whom they were regularly associated. A young man was said to have "won his spurs" when he achieved knighthood. Wealthy knights and riders frequently wore decorated and filigreed spurs. Attached to the rider's heel by straps, spurs could be used both to encourage horses to quickly move forward or to direct lateral movement.[Wagner et al., p. 66] Early spurs had a short shanks or "neck", placing the rowel relatively close to the rider's heel; further developments in the spur shape lengthened the neck, making it easier to touch the horse with less leg movement on the part of the rider.[Wagner et al., p. 67]
Harness technology
A significant development which increased the importance and use of horses in harness
A harness is a looped restraint or support. Specifically, it may refer to one of the following harness types:
* Bondage harness
* Child harness
* Climbing harness
* Dog harness
* Pet harness
* Five-point harness
* Horse harness
* Parrot harness
* ...
, particularly for ploughing and other farm
A farm (also called an agricultural holding) is an area of land that is devoted primarily to agricultural processes with the primary objective of producing food and other crops; it is the basic facility in food production. The name is used ...
work, was the horse collar
A horse collar is a part of a horse harness that is used to distribute the load around a horse's neck and shoulders when pulling a wagon or plough. The collar often supports and pads a pair of curved metal or wooden pieces, called hames, to wh ...
. The horse collar was invented in China during the 5th century, arrived in Europe during the 9th century,[Chamberlin] and became widespread throughout Europe by the 12th century.[Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 317.] It allowed horses to pull greater weight than they could when hitched to a vehicle by means of yoke
A yoke is a wooden beam sometimes used between a pair of oxen or other animals to enable them to pull together on a load when working in pairs, as oxen usually do; some yokes are fitted to individual animals. There are several types of yoke, u ...
s or breastcollars used in earlier times.[Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 322.] The yoke was designed for oxen
An ox ( : oxen, ), also known as a bullock (in BrE, AusE, and IndE), is a male bovine trained and used as a draft animal. Oxen are commonly castrated adult male cattle; castration inhibits testosterone and aggression, which makes the ma ...
and not suited to the anatomy of horses, it required horses to pull with their shoulders rather than using the power of their hindquarters. Harnessed in such a manner, horse teams could pull no more than 500 kg. The breastplate-style harness that had flat straps across the neck and chest of the animal, while useful for pulling light vehicles, was of little use for heavy work. These straps pressed against the horse's sterno-cephalicus muscle and trachea
The trachea, also known as the windpipe, is a cartilaginous tube that connects the larynx to the bronchi of the lungs, allowing the passage of air, and so is present in almost all air-breathing animals with lungs. The trachea extends from th ...
, which restricted breathing and reduced the pulling power of the horse.[Needham, Volume 4, part 2, 305] Two horses harnessed with a breastcollar harness were limited to pulling a combined total of about .[Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 312] In contrast, the horse collar rested on horses' shoulders and did not impede breathing. It allowed a horse to use its full strength, by pushing forward with its hindquarters into the collar rather than to pull with its shoulders. With the horse collar, a horse could provide a work effort of 50% more foot-pounds per second than an ox, because it could move at a greater speed, as well as having generally greater endurance and the ability to work more hours in a day. A single horse with a more efficient collar harness could draw a weight of about .
A further improvement was managed by altering the arrangement of the teams; by hitching horses one behind the other, rather than side by side, weight could be distributed more evenly, and pulling power increased.[Gimpel, p. 34] This increase in horse power is demonstrated in the building accounts of Troyes
Troyes () is a commune and the capital of the department of Aube in the Grand Est region of north-central France. It is located on the Seine river about south-east of Paris. Troyes is situated within the Champagne wine region and is near ...
, which show carters hauling stone from quarries distant; the carts weighed, on average, , on which of stone was regularly loaded, sometimes increasing to – a significant increase from Roman-era loads.[Gimpel, p. 32]
Horse trades and professions
The elite horseman of the Middle Ages was the knight
A knight is a person granted an honorary title of knighthood by a head of state (including the Pope) or representative for service to the monarch, the church or the country, especially in a military capacity. Knighthood finds origins in the G ...
. Generally raised from the middle and upper classes, the knight was trained from childhood in the arts of war and management of the horse. In most languages, the term for knight reflects his status as a horseman: the French ''chevalier'', Spanish ''caballero'' and German ''Ritter''. The French word for horse-mastery – ''chevalerie'' – gave its name to the highest concept of knighthood: chivalry
Chivalry, or the chivalric code, is an informal and varying code of conduct developed in Europe between 1170 and 1220. It was associated with the medieval Christian institution of knighthood; knights' and gentlemen's behaviours were governed b ...
.
A large number of trades and positions arose to ensure the appropriate management and care of horses. In aristocratic households, the marshal was responsible for all aspects relating to horses: the care and management of all horses from the chargers to the pack horses, as well as all travel logistics.[Labarge, p. 41] The position of marshal (literally "horse servant") was a high one in court circles and the king's marshal (such as the Earl Marshal
Earl marshal (alternatively marschal or marischal) is a hereditary royal officeholder and chivalric title under the sovereign of the United Kingdom used in England (then, following the Act of Union 1800, in the United Kingdom). He is the eigh ...
in England) was also responsible for managing many military matters.[Norman, p. 133] Also present within the great households was the constable
A constable is a person holding a particular office, most commonly in criminal law enforcement. The office of constable can vary significantly in different jurisdictions. A constable is commonly the rank of an officer within the police. Other peop ...
(or "count of the stable"), who was responsible for protection and the maintenance of order within the household and commanding the military component and, with marshals, might organise hastiludes and other chivalrous events. Within lower social groupings, the 'marshal' acted as a farrier. The highly skilled marshal made and fitted horseshoes, cared for the hoof, and provided general veterinary care
Veterinary medicine is the branch of medicine that deals with the prevention, management, diagnosis, and treatment of disease, disorder, and injury in animals. Along with this, it deals with animal rearing, husbandry, breeding, research on nutri ...
for horses; throughout the Middle Ages, a distinction was drawn between the marshal and the blacksmith
A blacksmith is a metalsmith who creates objects primarily from wrought iron or steel, but sometimes from #Other metals, other metals, by forging the metal, using tools to hammer, bend, and cut (cf. tinsmith). Blacksmiths produce objects such ...
, whose work was more limited.
A number of tradesmen dealt with the provision of horses. Horse dealers (frequently called "horse coursers" in England) bought and sold horses, and frequently had a reputation as dishonest figures, responsible for the brisk trade in stolen horses.[Clark, p. 8] Others, such as the "hackneymen" offered horses for hire, and many formed large establishments on busy roads, often branding their horses to deter theft.
Women and horses
It was not uncommon for a girl to learn her father's trade and for a woman to share her husband's trade, since the entire family often helped run medieval shops and farms. Many guild
A guild ( ) is an association of artisans and merchants who oversee the practice of their craft/trade in a particular area. The earliest types of guild formed as organizations of tradesmen belonging to a professional association. They sometimes ...
s also accepted the membership of widows, so they might continue their husband's business. Under this system, some women trained in horse-related trades, and there are records of women working as farriers and saddle
The saddle is a supportive structure for a rider of an animal, fastened to an animal's back by a girth. The most common type is equestrian. However, specialized saddles have been created for oxen, camels and other animals. It is not kno ...
-makers. On farms, where every hand was needed, excessive emphasis on division of labour was impracticable, and women often worked alongside men (on their own farms or as hired help), leading the farm horses and oxen, and managing their care.
Despite the difficulties of travel, it was customary for many people, including women, to travel long distances. Upper-class wives frequently accompanied their husbands on crusade or to tournaments, and many women traveled for social or family engagements; both nuns and laywomen would perform pilgrimages. When not on foot, women would usually travel on horseback or, if weakened or infirm, be carried in a wagon or a litter
Litter consists of waste products that have been discarded incorrectly, without consent, at an unsuitable location. Litter can also be used as a verb; to litter means to drop and leave objects, often man-made, such as aluminum cans, paper cups ...
. If roads permitted, women sometimes rode in early carriages developed from freight wagons, pulled by three or four horses. After the invention of better suspension systems, travel in carriages became more comfortable. Women of the nobility also rode horses for sport, accompanying men in activities that included hunting
Hunting is the human practice of seeking, pursuing, capturing, or killing wildlife or feral animals. The most common reasons for humans to hunt are to harvest food (i.e. meat) and useful animal products ( fur/ hide, bone/ tusks, horn/ a ...
and hawking.
Most medieval women rode astride. Although an early chair-like sidesaddle with handles and a footrest was available by the 13th century and allowed women of the nobility to ride while wearing elaborate gowns, they were not universally adopted during the Middle Ages. This was largely due to the insecure seat they offered, which necessitated a smooth-gaited horse being led by another handler. The sidesaddle did not become practical for everyday riding until the 16th-century development of the pommel horn that allowed a woman to hook her leg around the saddle and hence use the rein
Reins are items of horse tack, used to direct a horse or other animal used for riding. They are long straps that can be made of leather, nylon, metal, or other materials, and attach to a bridle via either its bit or its noseband.
Use fo ...
s to control her own horse. Even then, sidesaddle riding remained a precarious activity until the invention of the second, "leaping horn" in the 19th century.
It was not unknown for women
A woman is an adult female human. Prior to adulthood, a female human is referred to as a girl (a female child or adolescent). The plural ''women'' is sometimes used in certain phrases such as "women's rights" to denote female humans regardl ...
to ride war horses, and take their part in warfare. Joan of Arc
Joan of Arc (french: link=yes, Jeanne d'Arc, translit= an daʁk} ; 1412 – 30 May 1431) is a patron saint of France, honored as a defender of the French nation for her role in the siege of Orléans and her insistence on the corona ...
is probably the most famous female warrior of the medieval period, but there were many others, including the Empress Matilda
Empress Matilda ( 7 February 110210 September 1167), also known as the Empress Maude, was one of the claimants to the English throne during the civil war known as the Anarchy. The daughter of King Henry I of England, she moved to Germany as ...
who, armoured and mounted, led an army against her cousin Stephen of Blois, and Stephen's wife Matilda of Boulogne
Matilda (c.1105 – 3 May 1152) was Countess of Boulogne in her own right from 1125 and Queen of England from the accession of her husband, Stephen, in 1136 until her death in 1152. She supported Stephen in his struggle for the English throne ...
in the 12th century. The 15th-century writer Christine de Pizan
Christine de Pizan or Pisan (), born Cristina da Pizzano (September 1364 – c. 1430), was an Italian poet and court writer for King Charles VI of France and several French dukes.
Christine de Pizan served as a court writer in medieval Franc ...
advised aristocratic ladies that they must "know the laws of arms and all things pertaining to warfare, ever prepared to command her men if there is need of it."
See also
* Horse transports in the Middle Ages
*Domestication of the horse
A number of hypotheses exist on many of the key issues regarding the domestication of the horse. Although horses appeared in Paleolithic cave art as early as 30,000 BCE, these were wild horses and were probably hunted for meat.
How and when ho ...
Notes
References
* Barber, Richard (2005) ''The Reign of Chivalry'', 2nd Ed. UK: The Boydell Press
* Barker, Juliet (1986) ''The Tournament in England: 1100-1400.'' UK: The Boydell Press
*Bennet, Matthew; Bradbury, Jim; DeVries, Kelly; Dickie, Iain; Jestice, Phyllis G. (2005) ''Fighting Techniques of the Medieval World: AD 500-AD 1500'', London: Amber Books
*Bennett, Deb (1998) ''Conquerors: The Roots of New World Horsemanship.'' Amigo Publications Inc; 1st edition.
*Bumke, Joachim (2000) ''Courtly Culture: Literature and Society in the High Middle Ages,'' translated by Thomas Dunlap, USA: Overlook Duckworth (First published in 1986 as ''Höfische Kultur: Literatur und Gesellschaft im holen Mittelalter'' by Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag)
*Carey, Brian Todd; Allfree, Joshua B; Cairns, John (2006) ''Warfare in the Medieval World.'' UK: Pen & Sword Military
*Chamberlin, J. Edward (2006) ''Horse: How the Horse Has Shaped Civilizations.'' Bluebridge
*Clark, John (Ed) (2004) ''The Medieval Horse and its Equipment: c. 1150-c. 1450.'' Rev. 2nd Ed, UK: The Boydell Press
* Davis, R. (1989) ''The Medieval Warhorse.'' London:Thames and Hudson
* de Pisan, Christine. ''A Medieval Woman's Mirror of Honor: The Treasury of the City of Ladies.'' trans & ed. by C Willard and M Cosman, 1989
*Devereux, Frederick L. (1941) ''The Cavalry Manual of Horse Management''
*
*Edwards, Gladys Brown (1973) ''The Arabian: War Horse to Show Horse.'' Arabian Horse Association of Southern California, Revised Collector's Edition, Rich Publishing
*Gawronski, R.S. (2004) "Some Remarks on the Origins and Construction of the Roman Military Saddle." ''Archeologia (Archaeology)'', Volume 55
* Gies, Frances; Gies, Joseph (2005) ''Daily Life in Medieval Times.'' UK: Grange Books(originally published by Harper Collins in three volumes, 1969, 1974, 1990)
*Gimpel, Jean (1977) ''The Medieval Machine: The Industrial Revolution of the Middle Ages.'' London: victor Gollancz Ltd
* Gravett, Christopher (2002) ''English Medieval Knight 1300-1400''. Oxford: Osprey Publishing
* Hobson, John M. (2004). ''The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation''. Cambridge University Press. .
*Hope, Lt. Col. C.E.G. (1972) ''The Horseman's Manual''. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
* Hyland, Ann (1994) ''The Medieval Warhorse From Byzantium to the Crusades.'' UK: Grange Books
*Hyland, Ann (1998) ''The Warhorse 1250-1600.'' UK: Sutton Publishing
* Labarge, Margaret Wade (1982) ''Medieval Travellers: The Rich and the Restless'', republished 2005 UK: Phoenix,
* Leyser, Henrietta (1996) ''Medieval Women: A Social History of Women in England 450-1500.'' UK: Phoenix Press
*McBane, Susan (1992) ''A Natural Approach to Horse Management'', London: Methuen
*Needham, Joseph
Noel Joseph Terence Montgomery Needham (; 9 December 1900 – 24 March 1995) was a British biochemist, historian of science and sinologist known for his scientific research and writing on the history of Chinese science and technology, init ...
(1986). ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering''. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
* Nicolle, David (1999) ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom.'' UK: Brockhampton Press
*Norman, Vesey (1971) ''The Medieval Soldier'' repub. 2006 UK: Pen & Sword Military Classics
*Oakeshott, Ewart
Ronald Ewart Oakeshott (25 May 1916 – 30 September 2002) was a British illustrator, collector, and amateur historian who wrote prodigiously on medieval arms and armour. He was a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, a Founder Member of the Ar ...
(1998) ''A Knight and His Horse.'' Rev. 2nd Ed. USA:Dufour Editions
*Oakeshott, Ewart (1999) ''A Knight and His Armour'' Rev. 2nd Ed. USA: Dufour Editions
* Power, Eileen (1975) ''Medieval Women.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
* Prestwich, Michael (1996) ''Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience.'' New Haven: Yale University Press
* Sadler, John (2005) ''Border Fury: England and Scotland at War 1296-1568'', UK: Pearson Education Ltd,
* Slocum, Kay (2005) ''Medieval Civilisation.'' London: Laurence King Publishing
* Tuchman, Barbara W (1978) ''A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous 14th Century.'' New York: Ballantine Books
* Wagner, Eduard; Drobiná, Zoroslava; Durdik, Jan; (2000) ''Medieval Costume, Armour and Weapons'', trans. by Jean Layton, NY: Dover Publications (first published in 1956 as ''Kroje, zbroj a zbrane doby predhusitské a husitské''; first published in English in 1958 by Andrew Dakers)
* White Jr., Lynn. (1966)''Medieval Technology and Social Change''. Oxford University Press.
Further reading
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External link
Warhorse: the archaeology of a medieval revolution?
AHRC funded research project by the University of Exeter and the University of East Anglia
{{good article
Transport in the Middle Ages
Warfare of the Middle Ages
Horse history and evolution
Types of horse
Medieval society
Horse trade