![HPIM2395 Movie Poster for War Bonnet Starring Princess Mona Darkfeather](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/HPIM2395_Movie_Poster_for_War_Bonnet_Starring_Princess_Mona_Darkfeather.JPG)
The portrayal of
Native Americans in television and films concerns
Indigenous
Indigenous may refer to:
*Indigenous peoples
*Indigenous (ecology), presence in a region as the result of only natural processes, with no human intervention
*Indigenous (band), an American blues-rock band
*Indigenous (horse), a Hong Kong racehorse ...
roles in cinema, particularly their depiction in
Hollywood productions. Especially in the
Western
Western may refer to:
Places
*Western, Nebraska, a village in the US
*Western, New York, a town in the US
*Western Creek, Tasmania, a locality in Australia
*Western Junction, Tasmania, a locality in Australia
*Western world, countries that id ...
genre, Native American
stock characters can reflect contemporary and historical perceptions of Native Americans and the
Wild West
The American frontier, also known as the Old West or the Wild West, encompasses the geography, history, folklore, and culture associated with the forward wave of American expansion in mainland North America that began with European colonial ...
.
The portrayal of Native Americans in film has been criticized for perceived systemic problems since the inception of the industry for its use of stereotypes that range from violent
barbarians to noble and
peaceful savages.
A variety of images appeared from the early to mid 1930s, and by the late 1930s negative images briefly dominated Westerns. In 1950, the watershed film ''
Broken Arrow'' appeared that many credit as the first postwar Western to depict Native Americans sympathetically. Starting in the 1990s, Native American filmmakers have attempted to make
independent films that work to represent the depth and complexity of indigenous peoples as people and provide a realistic account of their culture.
Contemporary Native filmmakers have employed the use of visual sovereignty, defined by
Seneca
Seneca may refer to:
People and language
* Seneca (name), a list of people with either the given name or surname
* Seneca people, one of the six Iroquois tribes of North America
** Seneca language, the language of the Seneca people
Places Extrat ...
scholar Michelle H. Raheja as "a way of reimagining Native-centered articulations of self-representation and autonomy that engage the powerful ideologies of mass media," to take back the right to tell their own stories.
[Raheja, Michelle H. “Visual Sovereignty.” Native Studies Keywords, pp. 25–34., https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt183gxzb.6.]
History
Origins
Circa the 1860s, stories involving heroic Indian figures were proliferated in
dime novel
The dime novel is a form of late 19th-century and early 20th-century U.S. popular fiction issued in series of inexpensive paperbound editions. The term ''dime novel'' has been used as a catchall term for several different but related forms, r ...
s.
From the 1870s to the 1910s,
Wild West shows
Wild West shows were traveling vaudeville performances in the United States and Europe that existed around 1870–1920. The shows began as theatrical stage productions and evolved into open-air shows that depicted romanticized stereotypes of co ...
such as
Buffalo Bill
William Frederick Cody (February 26, 1846January 10, 1917), known as "Buffalo Bill", was an American soldier, Bison hunting, bison hunter, and showman. He was born in Le Claire, Iowa, Le Claire, Iowa Territory (now the U.S. state of Iowa), but ...
's
''Wild West Show'' popularized conflict between
cowboys and Indians. These stage performances toured America and Europe, presenting
romanticized fiction about the
American frontier
The American frontier, also known as the Old West or the Wild West, encompasses the geography, history, folklore, and culture associated with the forward wave of United States territorial acquisitions, American expansion in mainland North Amer ...
which some audiences misunderstood as history.
In 1912, Buffalo Bill Cody produced a three-minute silent film titled ''The Life of Buffalo Bill,'' starring himself''.''
In his 1917 novel, Cody identified himself as an "Indian fighter," and his wild west shows led to widespread misrepresentation of Native Americans, despite involvement with Native American actors.
Some Native actors chose to portray the shows' chiefs as belligerent, while others portrayed their roles with humble dignity - possibly creating the
bloodthirsty savage &
noble Indian dichotomy, or "double stereotype."
Silent film era
![James Young Deer 1](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/James_Young_Deer_1.jpg)
In 1908,
D.W. Griffith
David Wark Griffith (January 22, 1875 – July 23, 1948) was an American film director. Considered one of the most influential figures in the history of the motion picture, he pioneered many aspects of film editing and expanded the art of the na ...
released ''
The Red Man and the Child
''The Red Man and the Child'' is a 1908 American black-and-white short silent Western film directed by D. W. Griffith for the American Mutoscope & Biograph Company. It stars Charles Inslee and six-year old John Tansey.
Cast
* Charles Inslee a ...
.'' The film featured a sympathetic depiction of Native American characters; however, critics describe their portrayal as a "helpless Indian race...forced to recede before the
advancing white." Similar depictions included ''The Indian Runner's Romance'' (1909) and ''
The Red Man's View
''The Red Man's View'' (also cited ''The Redman's View'') is a 1909 American short silent Western film directed by D. W. Griffith and shot in New York state. Prints of the film exist in the film archives of the Museum of Modern Art and the Lib ...
'' (1909).
By 1910, one-fifth of
American films
This is a list of films produced by the American film industry from the earliest films of the 1890s to the present. Films are listed by year of release on separate pages, either in alphabetical order (1900–2013) or in chronological order (2 ...
were
Westerns
The Western is a genre set in the American frontier and commonly associated with folk tales of the Western United States, particularly the Southwestern United States, as well as Northern Mexico and Western Canada. It is commonly referred ...
.
Circa 1910,
Nanticoke Nanticoke may refer to:
* Nanticoke people in Delaware, United States
* Nanticoke language, an Algonquian language
* Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape, a state-recognized tribe in New Jersey
Place names Canada
* Nanticoke, Ontario
** Nanticoke Generating S ...
film director
James Young Deer
James Young Deer (April 1, 1876 – April 6, 1946), also known as J. Younger Johnson or Jim Young Deer, was actually born James Young Johnson in Washington, D.C. Although he was identified in the early Hollywood trade paper Moving Picture World as ...
was hired by
Pathé
Pathé or Pathé Frères (, styled as PATHÉ!) is the name of various French people, French businesses that were founded and originally run by the Pathé Brothers of France starting in 1896. In the early 1900s, Pathé became the world's largest ...
to produce accurate Native American silent films with positive portrayals.
Deer, an actor, writer, and director, was involved in the production of over 150 movies, an example being
''White Fawn's Devotion: A Play Acted by a Tribe of Red Indians in America''.
In 1912,
D. W. Griffith released ''A Pueblo Legend'' and
''The Massacre'', which both failed to show Native Americans in a positive light.
''The Massacre'' romanticized
Custer
George Armstrong Custer (December 5, 1839 – June 25, 1876) was a United States Army officer and cavalry commander in the American Civil War and the American Indian Wars.
Custer graduated from West Point in 1861 at the bottom of his class, b ...
's roles in the
Indian Wars
The American Indian Wars, also known as the American Frontier Wars, and the Indian Wars, were fought by European governments and colonists in North America, and later by the United States and Canadian governments and American and Canadian settle ...
, with recurring scenes of white mother struggling to protect her infant, while a Native American mother is killed and collapses offscreen. Griffith would later become infamous for his creation of
''The'' ''Birth of a Nation'', a
racist
Racism is the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to inherited attributes and can be divided based on the superiority of one race over another. It may also mean prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism ...
propaganda film
A propaganda film is a film that involves some form of propaganda. Propaganda films spread and promote certain ideas that are usually religious, political, or cultural in nature. A propaganda film is made with the intent that the viewer will ad ...
that portrayed the
KKK as heroic.
In 1914,
Theodore Wharton directed ''
The Indian War Refought: The Wars for Civilization in America'' which romanticized multiple battles including the 1890
Wounded Knee Massacre, wherein U.S. Army soldiers killed over 250
Lakota Indians, including men, women, and children, and buried them in a
mass grave
A mass grave is a grave containing multiple human corpses, which may or may not be identified prior to burial. The United Nations has defined a criminal mass grave as a burial site containing three or more victims of execution, although an exact ...
. This film depicted the
massacre as a battle; it was directed by the
War Department War Department may refer to:
* War Department (United Kingdom)
* United States Department of War (1789–1947)
See also
* War Office, a former department of the British Government
* Ministry of defence
* Ministry of War
* Ministry of Defence
* Dep ...
and approved by the
United States government
The federal government of the United States (U.S. federal government or U.S. government) is the national government of the United States, a federal republic located primarily in North America, composed of 50 states, a city within a fede ...
. It can be therefore considered a
propaganda
Propaganda is communication that is primarily used to influence or persuade an audience to further an agenda, which may not be objective and may be selectively presenting facts to encourage a particular synthesis or perception, or using loaded ...
film, with the goal of rationalizing the government's actions. Despite its historical inaccuracies, a 1914
''Moving Picture World'' advertisement claims,
This most realistic film of the age...has been APPROVED BY THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT
The federal government of the United States (U.S. federal government or U.S. government) is the national government of the United States, a federal republic located primarily in North America, composed of 50 states, a city within a fede ...
and made under the DIRECTION OF THE WAR DEPARTMENT War Department may refer to:
* War Department (United Kingdom)
* United States Department of War (1789–1947)
See also
* War Office, a former department of the British Government
* Ministry of defence
* Ministry of War
* Ministry of Defence
* Dep ...
...Historically Correct and all scenes TAKEN ON THE EXACT LOCATION of the original battles.
In 1914, ethnologist
Edward S. Curtis
Edward Sherriff Curtis (February 19, 1868 – October 19, 1952) was an American photographer and ethnologist whose work focused on the American West and on Native American people. Sometimes referred to as the "Shadow Catcher", Curtis traveled ...
directed silent film
''In The Land of the Head Hunters'', a fictionalized documentary about the lives and culture of
Kwakwakaʼwakw people of the
Queen Charlotte Strait
, image = Canadian pilot, near Port Hardy BC.jpg
, alt =
, caption = A pilot boat plies Queen Charlotte Strait near Port Hardy
, image_bathymetry = Locmap-QCS-Hecate-Dixon.png
, alt_bathymetry =
...
in
Canada
Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...
. Although Curtis wrote and directed the film, all of its actors were entirely
Kwakwakaʼwakw
The Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw (), also known as the Kwakiutl (; "Kwakʼwala-speaking peoples") are one of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast. Their current population, according to a 2016 census, is 3,665. Most live in their traditi ...
.
The 1930 silent film
''The Silent Enemy'' is an example of a film that focuses on Native American characters prior to colonization. The film dramatizes a famine experienced by the
Ojibwe
The Ojibwe, Ojibwa, Chippewa, or Saulteaux are an Anishinaabe people in what is currently southern Canada, the northern Midwestern United States, and Northern Plains.
According to the U.S. census, in the United States Ojibwe people are one of ...
during the
post-classical era
In world history, post-classical history refers to the period from about 500 AD to 1500, roughly corresponding to the European Middle Ages. The period is characterized by the expansion of civilizations geographically and development of trade ...
and incorporates
folklore
Folklore is shared by a particular group of people; it encompasses the traditions common to that culture, subculture or group. This includes oral traditions such as tales, legends, proverbs and jokes. They include material culture, ranging ...
,
spiritual visions, and
religious
Religion is usually defined as a social system, social-cultural system of designated religious behaviour, behaviors and practices, morality, morals, beliefs, worldviews, religious text, texts, sacred site, sanctified places, prophecy, prophecie ...
elements. The film begins with a
sound-synchronized speech in English by
Ojibwe
The Ojibwe, Ojibwa, Chippewa, or Saulteaux are an Anishinaabe people in what is currently southern Canada, the northern Midwestern United States, and Northern Plains.
According to the U.S. census, in the United States Ojibwe people are one of ...
chief and activist
Chauncey Yellow Robe
Chief Chauncey Yellow Robe (born Canowikacte Yellow Robe, 1867) was a Sičhą́ǧú ( Rosebud Sioux) educator, lecturer, actor, and Native American activist. His given name, Canowicakte, means "kill in woods," and he was nicknamed "Timber" in ...
who stars in the film.
Early films featuring Native characters varied in their depictions. Some of these characters were often shown wearing leather clothing with feathers in their hair or with elaborate feather headdresses. Authors have argued that Native communities were often depicted as cruel societies that sought out constant warfare and vengeance against white characters. But while some individual Native characters appeared as drunkards, cruel, or unintelligent, others, like those in ''The Red Man and the Child'' (1908), ''A Mohawk's Way'' (1910), and ''The Red Girl and the Child'' (1910), were friends or allies to white settlers. These depictions however were often one-dimensional and perpetuated the idea that the only good Native is one that helps white settlers.
[Green, Rayna. “The Pocahontas Perplex: The Image of Indian Women in American Culture.” Intercultural and Interracial Relations, 1993, pp. 150–166., https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110978926.150.] A few successful Indian/white marriages did occur in film during these early years, such as ''A Cry from the Wilderness'' (1909), ''A Leap for Life'' (1910) and ''The Indian Land Grab'' (1911). Other depictions were generalized stereotypes and used largely for aesthetic purposes and many tribes were represented. Feather headdresses were culturally and historically correct for approximately two dozen Plains tribes, and those of the American southwest were often wearing traditional clothing. This was done to create a more recognizable character for white audiences to view as “indian”. Many directors did not care about accuracy when it came to language either, with Native actors being asked to speak in their native language no matter what tribe they are supposed to be from in the film. These discrepancies worked to create the Hollywood Indian stereotype prevalent within the western genre.
Beverly R. Singer argues that "Despite the fact that a diversity of indigenous peoples had a legal and historical significance in the formation of every new country founded in the Western Hemisphere, in the United States and Canada the term 'Indians' became a hegemonic designation implying that they were all the same in regards to culture, behavior, language, and social organization". Other scholars argued these films in fact showed a wide range of depictions of Native people from noble to sympathetic.
Later films
The
Revisionist Western
The revisionist Western (also called the anti-Western, sometimes revisionist antiwestern) is a sub-genre of the Western film. Designated a post-classical variation of the traditional Western, the revisionist subverts the myth and romance of the ...
, also known as a Modern Western or an Anti-Western, is a subgenre of Western films that began circa 1960. This subgenre is characterized by a darker and more cynical tone that was generally not present in earlier Western films.
Revisionist Westerns featuring Native characters
*''
Two Rode Together
''Two Rode Together'' is a 1961 American Western film directed by John Ford and starring James Stewart, Richard Widmark, and Shirley Jones. The supporting cast includes Linda Cristal, Andy Devine, and John McIntire. The film was based upon the ...
'' (1961)
*''
The Deadly Companions
''The Deadly Companions'' is a 1961 American Western and war film directed by Sam Peckinpah and starring Maureen O'Hara, Brian Keith, Steve Cochran, and Chill Wills. Based on the novel of the same name by A. S. Fleischman, the film is abo ...
'' (1961)
*''Bitter Wind'' (1963)
*
''Hombre'' (1967)
*
''Tell Them Willie Boy is Here'' (1969)
*''
Soldier Blue
''Soldier Blue'' is a 1970 American Revisionist Western film directed by Ralph Nelson and starring Candice Bergen, Peter Strauss, and Donald Pleasence. Adapted by John Gay from the novel ''Arrow in the Sun'' by T.V. Olsen, it is inspired by eve ...
'' (1970)
*
''Little Big Man'' (1970)
*''
Chato's Land
''Chato's Land'' is a 1972 Western Technicolor film directed by Michael Winner, starring Charles Bronson and Jack Palance.
In Apache country, the half-native Chato shoots the local sheriff in self-defense, and finds himself hunted by a posse of ...
'' (1972)
*
''Jeremiah Johnson'' (1972)
*
''Buffalo Bill and the Indians'' (1976)
*''
The Missouri Breaks
''The Missouri Breaks'' is a 1976 American Western film starring Marlon Brando and Jack Nicholson. The film was directed by Arthur Penn, with supporting performances by Randy Quaid, Harry Dean Stanton, Frederic Forrest, John McLiam, and Kath ...
'' (1976)
*''
Back to the Future Part III
''Back to the Future Part III'' is a 1990 American science fiction Western film and the final installment of the ''Back to the Future'' trilogy. The film was directed by Robert Zemeckis, and stars Michael J. Fox, Christopher Lloyd, Mary Stee ...
'' (1990)
*
''Dances With Wolves'' (1990)
*''
Thunderheart
''Thunderheart'' is a 1992 American Neo-Western mystery film directed by Michael Apted from a screenplay by John Fusco. The film is a loosely based fictional portrayal of events relating to the Wounded Knee incident in 1973, when followers of th ...
'' (1992)
*''
Dead Man
''Dead Man'' is a 1995 American acid western film written and directed by Jim Jarmusch. It stars Johnny Depp, Gary Farmer, Billy Bob Thornton, Iggy Pop, Crispin Glover, John Hurt, Michael Wincott, Lance Henriksen, Gabriel Byrne, Mili Avital, an ...
'' (1995)
*
''The Missing'' (2003)
*''
The Only Good Indian
''The Only Good Indian'' is a 2009 American independent Western film directed by Kevin Willmott.
The film was shot almost entirely in Kansas—the only exception being a scene at Missouri's Ha Ha Tonka State Park—featuring locations such as the ...
'' (2009)
In the 1970s, Revisionist Westerns like ''
Little Big Man
Little Big Man ( Lakota: Wičháša Tȟáŋkala), or Charging Bear, was an Oglala Lakota, or Oglala Sioux, who was a fearless and respected warrior who fought under, and was distant cousin to, Crazy Horse ("His-Horse-Is-Crazy"). He opposed the 186 ...
'' and ''
Soldier Blue
''Soldier Blue'' is a 1970 American Revisionist Western film directed by Ralph Nelson and starring Candice Bergen, Peter Strauss, and Donald Pleasence. Adapted by John Gay from the novel ''Arrow in the Sun'' by T.V. Olsen, it is inspired by eve ...
'' often portrayed Native Americans as victims and white people as the frontier's aggressive intruders.
While the studio comedy ''Little Big Man'' still centers on a white protagonist,
Dustin Hoffman
Dustin Lee Hoffman (born August 8, 1937) is an American actor and filmmaker. As one of the key actors in the formation of New Hollywood, Hoffman is known for his versatile portrayals of antiheroes and emotionally vulnerable characters. He is th ...
, the Native Americans are depicted sympathetically while members of the United States Cavalry are depicted as villains. The Cheyenne in the film are living harmoniously and peacefully at the start of the film, and it's the encroachment of the violent white men who are the harmful, disruptive influence on their culture and landscape.
The film is also noted for including a
Two-Spirit
Two-spirit (also two spirit, 2S or, occasionally, twospirited) is a modern, , umbrella term used by some Indigenous North Americans to describe Native people in their communities who fulfill a traditional third-gender (or other gender-variant) ...
character as well as showing Lt. Colonel
George Armstrong Custer
George Armstrong Custer (December 5, 1839 – June 25, 1876) was a United States Army officer and cavalry commander in the American Civil War and the American Indian Wars.
Custer graduated from West Point in 1861 at the bottom of his class, b ...
as a lunatic – a fool and a fop – whom the white protagonist betrays for the sake of his adopted Indian family.
The 1980s saw the emergence of
independent films with contemporary Native content such as ''
Powwow Highway
''Powwow Highway'' is a 1989 comedy-drama film from George Harrison’s Handmade Films Company, directed by Jonathan Wacks. Based on the novel ''Powwow Highway'' by David Seals, it features A Martinez, Gary Farmer, Joanelle Romero and Amanda Wy ...
'', a
road movie
A road movie is a film genre in which the main characters leave home on a road trip, typically altering the perspective from their everyday lives. Road movies often depict travel in the hinterlands, with the films exploring the theme of alienatio ...
and
buddy film
The buddy film is a subgenre of adventure and comedy film in which two people are put together and are on an adventure, a quest, or a road trip. The two often contrast in personality, which creates a dynamic onscreen different from a pairing of ...
where one protagonist, an angry young activist, namechecks the
American Indian Movement
The American Indian Movement (AIM) is a Native American grassroots movement which was founded in Minneapolis, Minnesota in July 1968, initially centered in urban areas in order to address systemic issues of poverty, discrimination, and police ...
while the other visits sacred sites to greet the dawn. Both are on their way to free a friend from jail.
Ebert, Roger
Roger Joseph Ebert (; June 18, 1942 – April 4, 2013) was an American film critic, film historian, journalist, screenwriter, and author. He was a film critic for the ''Chicago Sun-Times'' from 1967 until his death in 2013. In 1975, Ebert beca ...
,
Powwow Highway
for the Chicago Sun-Times
The ''Chicago Sun-Times'' is a daily newspaper published in Chicago, Illinois, United States. Since 2022, it is the flagship paper of Chicago Public Media, and has the second largest circulation among Chicago newspapers, after the ''Chicago T ...
. April 28, 1989. Archived at Digital Chicago, Inc.
1990's ''
Dances with Wolves
''Dances with Wolves'' is a 1990 American epic western film starring, directed, and produced by Kevin Costner in his feature directorial debut. It is a film adaptation of the 1988 novel ''Dances with Wolves'' by Michael Blake that tells the s ...
'', while hailed by mainstream audiences and providing jobs for many
Lakota
Lakota may refer to:
*Lakota people, a confederation of seven related Native American tribes
*Lakota language, the language of the Lakota peoples
Place names
In the United States:
*Lakota, Iowa
*Lakota, North Dakota, seat of Nelson County
*Lakota ...
actors, has also been cited as a return to the
White savior narrative in film
The white savior is a cinematic trope in which a white central character rescues non-white (often less prominent) characters from unfortunate circumstances. This recurs in an array of genres in American cinema, wherein a white protagonist is port ...
.
In the film U.S. soldiers capture John Dunbar (
Kevin Costner
Kevin Michael Costner (born January 18, 1955) is an American actor, producer, film director and musician. He has received various accolades, including two Academy Awards, two Golden Globe Awards, a Primetime Emmy Award, and two Screen Actor ...
) and take him as a prisoner. Native Americans race onto the scene and kill all of the U.S. soldiers while none of the Native Americans appear to have been killed. Some of them receive injuries, but they are portrayed as strong and immune to the pain. However, Dunbar then becomes part of the tribe and leads the Sioux against their rivals, the Pawnee, and later helps them escape the same army he once served. The final credits of the film suggest that
Sioux
The Sioux or Oceti Sakowin (; Dakota language, Dakota: Help:IPA, /otʃʰeːtʰi ʃakoːwĩ/) are groups of Native Americans in the United States, Native American tribes and First Nations in Canada, First Nations peoples in North America. The ...
people are now extinct, which a few criticized.
Native Filmmaker
Chris Eyre
Chris Eyre (born 1968), an enrolled member of the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes, is an American film director and producer who as of 2012 is chairman of the film department at the Santa Fe University of Art and Design.
Films
In 1998, Chris Eyre ...
wrote and directed the film ''
Smoke Signals
The smoke signal is one of the oldest forms of long-distance communication. It is a form of visual communication used over a long distance. In general smoke signals are used to transmit news, signal danger, or to gather people to a common area ...
'' (1998) which has been selected for preservation in the
National Film Registry
The National Film Registry (NFR) is the United States National Film Preservation Board's (NFPB) collection of films selected for preservation, each selected for its historical, cultural and aesthetic contributions since the NFPB’s inception i ...
for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
It is one of few films featuring Native American characters and directed by a Native filmmaker (along with
Edwin Carewe
Edwin Carewe (March 3, 1883 – January 22, 1940) was an American motion picture director, actor, producer, and screenwriter. His birth name was Jay John Fox; he was born in Gainesville, Texas.
Career
After brief studies at the Universities of ...
's early films) that received theatrical distribution.
''Smoke Signals'' was written, directed, and acted in by Native Americans.
Like ''
Powwow Highway
''Powwow Highway'' is a 1989 comedy-drama film from George Harrison’s Handmade Films Company, directed by Jonathan Wacks. Based on the novel ''Powwow Highway'' by David Seals, it features A Martinez, Gary Farmer, Joanelle Romero and Amanda Wy ...
'', it is also a road movie and buddy film that examines friendship, fatherhood, and the roles of tradition versus modernity in Indian Country.
In ''
The Doe Boy
''The Doe Boy'' is a 2001 independent drama film written and directed by Randy Redroad. It was selected as the United States winner of the Sundance Film Festival/NHK International Filmmakers Award in 2000. ''The Doe Boy'' was produced by film ...
'' (2001) a Cherokee boy is nicknamed Hunter, after accidentally killing a female deer instead of a buck during his first hunting trip. The disappointment of his father and the distance between them is compounded by the physical limitations placed on Hunter to avoid injury. Breaking away from his father and overprotective mother, he meets with a girlfriend and falls in love with her, and drawing on the wisdom of his full-blood grandfather, Hunter gradually discovers love and a true sense of his possibilities. Later on his father was accidentally shot and killed by hunters. Hunter meets with the buck deer and decides not to kill the buck.
In ''
Buffalo Dreams'' (2005) Josh Townsend has to move again with his mother and father, astrophysics researcher Dr. Nick Townsend, to a New Mexico small town. While working on the copy machine, Josh gets bored and decides to work for the Native American family tribal buffalo reserve, working with Navajo clan elder John Blackhorse's cynical grandson Thomas and his buddy Moon. Kyle's cyclist gang invites him for a bike ride which Josh joins their group, and he takes them to a secret waterfall where they spray-paint graffiti in the sacred site and litter the ground, Josh gets into trouble with John, and he apologizes to John's family and challenges his rival Kyle to a mountain bike race. During the race the buffalos escape and stampede towards town, and Josh and his friends gather up the buffalos to save their small town from getting stampede.
''
The New World
The term ''New World'' is often used to mean the majority of Earth's Western Hemisphere, specifically the Americas."America." ''The Oxford Companion to the English Language'' (). McArthur, Tom, ed., 1992. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 3 ...
'' (2005) offers a largely fictionalized retelling of the relationship between
John Smith and
Pocahontas
Pocahontas (, ; born Amonute, known as Matoaka, 1596 – March 1617) was a Native American woman, belonging to the Powhatan people, notable for her association with the colonial settlement at Jamestown, Virginia. She was the daughter of ...
. John Smith arrives to the Americas with the Pilgrims and is immediately captured by a Native American tribe. The film did offer several myths about Pocahontas, changing her into an adult so the film can be made into a love story. In reality, Pocahontas was a child of about ten she met John Smith, and most scholars agree that some of the events in the film ever took place.
Native Americans in animation
* ''
Pinocchio
Pinocchio ( , ) is a fictional character and the protagonist of the children's novel ''The Adventures of Pinocchio'' (1883) by Italian writer Carlo Collodi of Florence, Tuscany. Pinocchio was carved by a woodcarver named Geppetto in a Tuscan vil ...
'' (1940): ''Pinocchio'' is a 1940 animated film produced by
Walt Disney
Walter Elias Disney (; December 5, 1901December 15, 1966) was an American animator, film producer and entrepreneur. A pioneer of the American animation industry, he introduced several developments in the production of cartoons. As a film p ...
. During the Pleasure Island scene, characters gather in Tobacco Road, and there are six racist caricatures of Native American Chiefs wearing headdresses, smoking peace pipes, and throwing out free cigars to the crowd.
* ''
Peter Pan
Peter Pan is a fictional character created by List of Scottish novelists, Scottish novelist and playwright J. M. Barrie. A free-spirited and mischievous young boy who can fly and Puer aeternus, never grows up, Peter Pan spends his never-ending ...
'' (1953): ''Peter Pan'' is a 1953 animated film produced by
Walt Disney
Walter Elias Disney (; December 5, 1901December 15, 1966) was an American animator, film producer and entrepreneur. A pioneer of the American animation industry, he introduced several developments in the production of cartoons. As a film p ...
. A major scene in ''Peter Pan'' involves the Darling children,
Wendy
Wendy is a given name now generally given to girls in English-speaking countries.
In Britain, Wendy appeared as a masculine name in a parish record in 1615. It was also used as a surname in Britain from at least the 17th century. Its popularity ...
,
John
John is a common English name and surname:
* John (given name)
* John (surname)
John may also refer to:
New Testament
Works
* Gospel of John, a title often shortened to John
* First Epistle of John, often shortened to 1 John
* Secon ...
and
Michael Darling, the
Lost Boys and
Peter Pan
Peter Pan is a fictional character created by List of Scottish novelists, Scottish novelist and playwright J. M. Barrie. A free-spirited and mischievous young boy who can fly and Puer aeternus, never grows up, Peter Pan spends his never-ending ...
celebrating at the Indian camp after Peter rescues
Tiger Lily, the daughter of the chief, from
Captain Hook
Captain James Hook is a fictional character and the main antagonist of J. M. Barrie's 1904 play ''Peter Pan; or, the Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up'' and its various adaptations, in which he is Peter Pan's archenemy. The character is a pirate captain ...
and
Mr. Smee
Mr. Smee is a fictional character who serves as Captain Hook's boatswain in J. M. Barrie's 1904 play ''Peter Pan, or the Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up'' and 1911 novel ''Peter and Wendy''.
History
Mr. Smee seems an oddly genial man for a pirate; Ba ...
. This scene features the song,
"What Makes the Red Man Red?" that features racist caricatures of Native Americans.
* ''
An American Tail: Fievel Goes West'' (1991): Is an animated film by Phil Nibbelink and Simon Wells with producer Steven Spielberg for Amblin Entertainment by Universal Studios. While Tiger is lost in the desert, he is ambushed by a Native American mice tribe who captures Tiger and mistakes him for a god. Later on, Fievel gets caught by a hawk and the Native American mice shoot it down and Fievel falls down and reunites with Tiger.
* ''
Pocahontas
Pocahontas (, ; born Amonute, known as Matoaka, 1596 – March 1617) was a Native American woman, belonging to the Powhatan people, notable for her association with the colonial settlement at Jamestown, Virginia. She was the daughter of ...
'' (1995): ''Pocahontas'' is a 1995 Disney animated film. In this film, John Smith, while on the a voyage to Jamestown encounters
Pocahontas
Pocahontas (, ; born Amonute, known as Matoaka, 1596 – March 1617) was a Native American woman, belonging to the Powhatan people, notable for her association with the colonial settlement at Jamestown, Virginia. She was the daughter of ...
and the
Powhatan
The Powhatan people (; also spelled Powatan) may refer to any of the indigenous Algonquian people that are traditionally from eastern Virginia. All of the Powhatan groups descend from the Powhatan Confederacy. In some instances, The Powhatan ...
tribe. Conflict between the European settlers and Native Americans ensues, as tension ramps up between the two groups over land. Before a battle between the two groups begins, Pocahontas saves the life of John Smith and prevents the war. Though presented as historical, the story is highly fictionalized. Critics of Disney's ''Pocahontas'' say that it presents the idea that the only good native is one that helps white people. It is argued that Pocahontas is portrayed as a princess for protecting John Smith while the other native people are presented as savages.
* ''
An American Tail: The Treasure of Manhattan Island'' (1998): Is an animated film Directed by Larry Latham by Universal Studios Home Video. Fievel and Tony discover that an ancient treasure lies underneath Manhattan in an abandoned Subway where they meet a Native American mice tribe called Lenape where they meet a girl mouse Cholena. The sachem mouse, Chief Wulisso, decides to send his daughter Cholena, to the surface to see if they have "changed their ways.
* ''
Brother Bear
''Brother Bear'' is a 2003 American animated musical fantasy comedy-drama film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and released by Walt Disney Pictures. The 44th Disney animated feature film, it was directed by Aaron Blaise and Robert Wa ...
'' (2003): ''Brother Bear'' is a 2003 animated film produced by Disney that follows the story of an
Inuit
Inuit (; iu, ᐃᓄᐃᑦ 'the people', singular: Inuk, , dual: Inuuk, ) are a group of culturally similar indigenous peoples inhabiting the Arctic and subarctic regions of Greenland, Labrador, Quebec, Nunavut, the Northwest Territories ...
boy named Kenai as he pursues the bear that killed his older brother, Sitka. However, his vengeance against the bear angers the Spirits. As punishment, the Spirits transform Kenai into a bear. In order to be human again, Kenai must travel to a mountain where the Northern lights touch the earth.
* Animated fantasy series ''
Avatar: The Last Airbender
''Avatar: The Last Airbender'' (abbreviated as ''ATLA''), also known as ''Avatar: The Legend of Aang'' in some regions or simply ''Avatar'', is an American anime-influenced animated television series created by Michael Dante DiMartino and ...
'' (2005-2008) features several Native American inspired cultures and characters.
* The
Camp Lazlo
''Camp Lazlo'' is an American animated television series created by Joe Murray for Cartoon Network. The series follows Lazlo, an anthropomorphic spider monkey that goes to a camp called "Camp Kidney", a Boy Scout-like summer camp in Pimpleback M ...
episode “Lumpus vs. the Volcano” has Lazlo, Raj, Clam and Slinkman dress up as Native Americans to escape from the volcano itself, which, as a result, turns into a chicken pot pie, Lumpus’ favorite food. Deputy Doodle Doo is the mascot for his own chicken pot pie company.
* The
My Little Pony: Friendship is Magic episode “Over a Barrel” has Native American ponies, as well as a character named Little Strongheart, a brown cow-like pony
* ''
Molly of Denali
''Molly of Denali'' (stylized as ''MOLLY of DENALI'') is an animated children's television series produced by Atomic Cartoons in association with WGBH Kids, created by Dorothea Gillim and Kathy Waugh for PBS Kids and CBC Kids. '' (2019): ''Molly of Denali'' is an animated series following the adventures of Molly, a 10-year-old
Alaska Native
Alaska Natives (also known as Alaskan Natives, Native Alaskans, Indigenous Alaskans, Aboriginal Alaskans or First Alaskans) are the indigenous peoples of Alaska and include Iñupiat, Yupik, Aleut, Eyak, Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, and a numbe ...
, her friends Tooey and Trini, and her dog Suki. ''Molly of Denali'' is the first nationally distributed children's to feature an Alaska Native as the main character and protagonist.
Whitewashing of Native American characters
Whitewashing in film
Whitewashing is a casting practice in the film industry in which white actors are cast in non-white roles. As defined by Merriam-Webster, to whitewash is "to alter...in a way that favors, features, or caters to white people: such as...casting a ...
refers to the historic phenomenon stemming from the early 1900s where white actors have been cast for roles not meant for them. Instead of hiring someone that fits the intended race/ethnicity of the character, a white person is traditionally given that role. This is not unique to one racial or minority group; from Black, to Asian, and to Native American, many marginalized groups in America have felt the effects of whitewashing in the film industry.
Whitewashing is two-pronged in effect, for not only does it impede Native American representation in film, but it also forces them into stereotypical roles. The tropes of the savage Native American or the Native American at the mercy of white people have long been recycled for years. This allows Hollywood, a predominantly white industry from top to bottom, to continue to gatekeep access to coveted film roles. In 2017, roughly 70% of the characters in the top Hollywood releases for that year were white. That year, roughly 60% of the US population was white, showing a disproportionate representation of white people in Hollywood. This also reinforces many of the stereotypes many people possess regarding Native Americans, because there hasn't been a significant culture change as yet regarding how Native Americans are portrayed in mainstream American media. Furthermore, white actors have never faced a shortage of roles available to them in Hollywood, while Native Americans and other marginalized groups continue to experience this.
Examples
* In ''
The Legend of Walks Far Woman
'' The Legend of Walks Far Woman'' is a 1982 American television film starring Raquel Welch and Bradford Dillman. It aired on NBC.
Plot
An Indian woman kills her husband after he is violent towards her. She is banished from her tribe.
Cast
*Raque ...
'' (1982)'','' actress Raquel Welch played a Sioux warrior who killed her husband and was banished from her tribe. Welch played the role despite being half Bolivian and half white.
* In ''
Outrageous Fortune'' (1987), white comedian George Carlin appropriates Native culture in his role as Frank Madras, a scout.
* ''
X-Men Origins: Wolverine'' (2009) Lynn Collins plays the (Blackfoot/Niitsítapi) character
Silver Fox.
* In
''The Last Airbender'' (2010),
M. Night Shyamalan adaptation of the animated series ''
Avatar: The Last Airbender
''Avatar: The Last Airbender'' (abbreviated as ''ATLA''), also known as ''Avatar: The Legend of Aang'' in some regions or simply ''Avatar'', is an American anime-influenced animated television series created by Michael Dante DiMartino and ...
'' several Asian and Native American characters were played by white actors.
* While
Johnny Depp
John Christopher Depp II (born June 9, 1963) is an American actor and musician. He is the recipient of multiple accolades, including a Golden Globe Award and a Screen Actors Guild Award, in addition to nominations for three Academy Award ...
's portrayal of
Tonto
Tonto is a fictional character; he is the Native American (either Comanche or Potawatomi) companion of the Lone Ranger, a popular American Western character created by George W. Trendle and Fran Striker. Tonto has appeared in radio and tele ...
in
Disney
The Walt Disney Company, commonly known as Disney (), is an American multinational mass media and entertainment conglomerate headquartered at the Walt Disney Studios complex in Burbank, California. Disney was originally founded on October ...
's ''
The Lone Ranger
The Lone Ranger is a fictional masked former Texas Ranger who fought outlaws in the American Old West with his Native American friend Tonto. The character has been called an enduring icon of American culture.
He first appeared in 1933 in ...
'' (2013) has been accepted in Comanche groups, critics argue that Depp engaged in “
redface
Redface is the wearing of makeup to darken or redden skin tone, or feathers, warpaint, etc. by non-Natives to impersonate a Native American or Indigenous Canadian person, or to in some other way perpetuate stereotypes of Indigenous peoples of C ...
” and casting him over Native actors was a racist decision.
*
''Pan'' (2015) cast white actor
Rooney Mara
Patricia Rooney Mara ( ; born April 17, 1985) is an American actress. She has received various accolades, including a Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actress, in addition to nominations for two Academy Awards, a British Academy Film Award, ...
as
Tiger Lily, the Native American princess from
Peter Pan
Peter Pan is a fictional character created by List of Scottish novelists, Scottish novelist and playwright J. M. Barrie. A free-spirited and mischievous young boy who can fly and Puer aeternus, never grows up, Peter Pan spends his never-ending ...
.
Documentaries
* ''
Broken Rainbow'' (1985): ''Broken Rainbow'' details the forced relocation of the members of the Navajo tribe from Black Mesa, Arizona after the 1974 Navajo-Hopi Land Settlement Act. Many Navajo families were separated during this period of displacement in the U.S. government's attempt to ameliorate perceived issues between the Hopi and Navajo tribes. This documentary underscores several issues that indigenous communities across the United States face today; the growing desire to acquire indigenous lands for capitalist ventures. At stake are mining rights, land boundaries, and extraction for uranium, gas, oil, and other raw materials. Directed by Victoria Mudd, it won the Academy Award for Best Documentary in 1986. The cast includes the voice narrations of Martin Sheen, Buffy Sainte-Marie, Burgess Meredith, and others.
* ''
Imagining Indians'' (1992): ''Imagining Indians'' is a 1992 documentary film produced and directed by Native American filmmaker, Victor Masayesva Jr. (
Hopi
The Hopi are a Native American ethnic group who primarily live on the Hopi Reservation in northeastern Arizona, United States. As of the 2010 census, there are 19,338 Hopi in the country. The Hopi Tribe is a sovereign nation within the Unite ...
). The documentary attempts to reveal the misrepresentation of Indigenous culture and tradition in Classical Hollywood films through interviews with different Native actors and extras from various tribes throughout the United States. It stars Shirley Atene, Karmen Clifford, Marvin Clifford, and others. The cast is entirely Native American, pulling indigenous people from the Amazon, Montana, Arizona, and other places. It is considered one of Masayesva's more provocative pieces of cinema, as it delves into the complexities surrounding white perception of Native American culture and identity. The film also touches upon the invasive nature of Hollywood in terms of filming on reservations. Director Masayesva said that
The Dark Wind
''The Dark Wind'' is the fifth crime fiction novel in the Joe Leaphorn / Jim Chee Navajo Tribal Police series by Tony Hillerman, published in 1982. It is the second of the novels to feature Officer Jim Chee.
Now working from Tuba City, Sgt. Chee ...
(1991) intruded on his village to film when he was younger, and he felt the duty to share stories like these with the outside world.
* ''
The Canary Effect'' (2006): ''The Canary Effect'' is an examination of the effects of the United States and its policies on Indigenous communities. Some of these policies include forced schooling of children outside Native American communities, mass killings, forced female sterilisation, and more. It was directed by Robin Davey, a British musician, and Yellow Thunder Woman, who hails from the Yankton Sioux and Rosebud Sioux reservations of South Dakota. Both of them are members of the LA pop group
The Bastard Fairies. The film first premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival in New York, and in 2006 it won the Stanley Kubrick Award at the Traverse City Film Festival in Michigan. The cast includes Charles Abourezk and Ward Churchill, author, former professor, and one of the leaders of the
American Indian Movement of Colorado The American Indian Movement of Colorado (Colorado AIM), also called AIM-International Confederation of Autonomous Chapters, is a breakaway group from the American Indian Movement.
It was founded by thirteen AIM chapters in 1993 at a meeting in Den ...
since the 1980s.
* ''
Reel Injun
''Reel Injun'' is a 2009 Canadian documentary film directed by Cree filmmaker Neil Diamond, Catherine Bainbridge, and Jeremiah Hayes that explores the portrayal of Native Americans in film. ''Reel Injun'' is illustrated with excerpts from clas ...
'' (2009): ''Reel Injun'' is a 2009 Canadian documentary film directed by
Cree
The Cree ( cr, néhinaw, script=Latn, , etc.; french: link=no, Cri) are a Indigenous peoples of the Americas, North American Indigenous people. They live primarily in Canada, where they form one of the country's largest First Nations in Canada ...
filmmaker Neil Diamond, Catherine Bainbridge, and Jeremiah Hayes that explores the portrayal of Native Americans in film. Reel Injun is illustrated with excerpts from classic and contemporary portrayals of Native people in Hollywood films and interviews with filmmakers, actors and film historians, while director Diamond travels across the United States to visit iconic locations in motion picture as well as American Indian history. The documentary chronicles the journey of Native Americans in film over roughly a century, with particular attention on the transition from the silent era of Hollywood to today. It utilises clips from different eras of film, and Diamond meets with famous filmmakers such as Clint Eastwood to learn more about the transformation of the Native American image onscreen. Other cameos include
Robbie Robertson
Jaime Royal "Robbie" Robertson, OC (born July 5, 1943), is a Canadian musician. He is best known for his work as lead guitarist and songwriter for the Band, and for his career as a solo recording artist. With the deaths of Richard Manuel in ...
(soundtrack composer), Graham Greene (Native American actor),
Wes Studi
Wesley Studi ( chr, ᏪᏌ ᏍᏚᏗ; born December 17, 1947) is a Native American (Cherokee Nation) actor and film producer. He has garnered critical acclaim and awards throughout his career, particularly for his portrayal of Native Americans ...
(Native American actor), Jim Jarmusch (filmmaker), Chris Eyre (filmmaker),
Jesse Wente
Jesse Wente is a First Nations Canadian arts journalist and chairperson of the Canada Council for the Arts. He is an Ojibwe member of Serpent River First Nation.
Background
Jesse Wente was born in Toronto, Ontario in 1974. His maternal grandmoth ...
(Native Canadian critic and program director), and Angela Aleiss (scholar and author). Diamond heads to famous locations such as Monument Valley, where many Westerns were filmed, and South Dakota's Black Hills, the home of several notable Native Americans.
*''
Inventing the Indian
''Inventing the Indian'' is a 2012 BBC documentary first broadcast on 28 October on BBC 4, exploring the stereotypical view of Native Americans in the United States in cinema and literature.
Presented by Rich Hall and Dallas Goldtooth, a Native ...
'' (2012): ''Inventing the Indian'' is a 2012 BBC documentary, initially broadcast on October 28, 2012, that explores the stereotypical view of Native Americans in the United States in cinema and literature.
Directed by Chris Cottam, the documentary is presented by
Rich Hall
Richard Travis Hall (born June 10, 1954) is an American comedian, writer, documentary maker and musician, first coming to prominence as a sketch comedian in the 1980s. He wrote and performed for a range of American networks, in series such as ...
, an American comedian. The cast also includes Dave Bald Eagle, Ailema Benally, and Milton Bianis. Hall attempts to dismantle some of the pervasive stereotypes that beleaguer the Native American community to this day by heading to indigenous areas in Arizona, South Dakota, and other places as well. He examines the way Native Americans have been portrayed on screen in films such as
Soldier Blue
''Soldier Blue'' is a 1970 American Revisionist Western film directed by Ralph Nelson and starring Candice Bergen, Peter Strauss, and Donald Pleasence. Adapted by John Gay from the novel ''Arrow in the Sun'' by T.V. Olsen, it is inspired by eve ...
and
A Man Called Horse, while also looking at literary representations of indigenous peoples, in books like
The Last of the Mohicans
''The Last of the Mohicans: A Narrative of 1757'' is a historical romance written by James Fenimore Cooper in 1826.
It is the second book of the '' Leatherstocking Tales'' pentalogy and the best known to contemporary audiences. '' The Pathfinde ...
and
Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee
''Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West'' is a 1970 non-fiction book by American writer Dee Brown that covers the history of Native Americans in the American West in the late nineteenth century. The book expres ...
.
[
]
Prominent Native American actors
File:Dark Cloud - Elijah Tahamont.jpg, Dark Cloud
is an action role-playing video game developed by Level-5 and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation 2. Originally intended as a launch title for the system in March 2000, the game was eventually released in Japan in De ...
(1855–1918), Native American film actor
File:Red Wing 1914.jpg, Lillian Margaret St. Cyr (1873–1964), Native American film actress
File:CareweEdwin.jpg, Edwin Carewe
Edwin Carewe (March 3, 1883 – January 22, 1940) was an American motion picture director, actor, producer, and screenwriter. His birth name was Jay John Fox; he was born in Gainesville, Texas.
Career
After brief studies at the Universities of ...
(1883–1940), the most prolific Native American director of feature films in Hollywood history
File:Chief Luther Standing Bear.png, Luther Standing Bear
Luther Standing Bear (Óta Kté or "Plenty Kill," also known as Matȟó Nážiŋ or "Standing Bear", 1868 - 1939) was a Sicangu and Oglala Lakota author, educator, philosopher, and actor. He worked to preserve Lakota culture and sovereignty, and ...
(1868–1939), Native American film actor
Dark Cloud
is an action role-playing video game developed by Level-5 and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation 2. Originally intended as a launch title for the system in March 2000, the game was eventually released in Japan in De ...
, also known as Elijah Tahamont, was an Algonquin
Algonquin or Algonquian—and the variation Algonki(a)n—may refer to:
Languages and peoples
*Algonquian languages, a large subfamily of Native American languages in a wide swath of eastern North America from Canada to Virginia
**Algonquin la ...
chief
Chief may refer to:
Title or rank
Military and law enforcement
* Chief master sergeant, the ninth, and highest, enlisted rank in the U.S. Air Force and U.S. Space Force
* Chief of police, the head of a police department
* Chief of the boa ...
born in St. Francis Indian Village, Quebec, Canada who lived from 1861–1918. He starred in films such as ''What Am I Bid?
''What Am I Bid?'' is a 1919 American silent romance film directed by Robert Z. Leonard and starring Mae Murray, Ralph Graves and Willard Louis.Ankerich p.78
Cast
* Mae Murray as Betty Yarnell
* Ralph Graves as Ralph McGibbon
* Willard Louis a ...
'' (1919), ''The Woman Untamed'' (1920), ''The Birth of a Nation
''The Birth of a Nation'', originally called ''The Clansman'', is a 1915 American silent epic drama film directed by D. W. Griffith and starring Lillian Gish. The screenplay is adapted from Thomas Dixon Jr.'s 1905 novel and play ''The Cla ...
'' (1915), and ''The Dishonoured Metal'' (1914).
Red Wing was born in 1884 to a Winnebago mother and French Canadian/ Sauk father on the Winnebago Reservation
The Winnebago Reservation of the Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska is located in Thurston County, Nebraska, United States. The tribal council offices are located in the town of Winnebago. The villages of Emerson, south of First Street, as well as Thu ...
in Nebraska. Early in her career, she starred in many small film roles. She was best known for starring in one of Hollywood's first feature Westerns, '' The Squaw Man'' (1914). She was married to James Young Deer
James Young Deer (April 1, 1876 – April 6, 1946), also known as J. Younger Johnson or Jim Young Deer, was actually born James Young Johnson in Washington, D.C. Although he was identified in the early Hollywood trade paper Moving Picture World as ...
, another indigenous actor and director.
Edwin Carewe
Edwin Carewe (March 3, 1883 – January 22, 1940) was an American motion picture director, actor, producer, and screenwriter. His birth name was Jay John Fox; he was born in Gainesville, Texas.
Career
After brief studies at the Universities of ...
, also known as Jay John Fox, was born in Gainesville, Texas
Gainesville is a city in and the county seat of Cooke County, Texas, United States. Its population was 16,002 at the 2010 census. It is part of the Texoma region and is an important Agri-business center.
History
Founded in 1850, the city of Gain ...
, in 1883 to a white father and Chickasaw
The Chickasaw ( ) are an indigenous people of the Southeastern Woodlands. Their traditional territory was in the Southeastern United States of Mississippi, Alabama, and Tennessee as well in southwestern Kentucky. Their language is classified as ...
mother. An actor early in his career, Carewe started directing Hollywood films in 1914 during the silent era. Some of his films include ''Ramona'' (1928), ''Evangeline'' (1929), ''Resurrection'' (1927), and ''Joanna'' (1925).
Luther Standing Bear
Luther Standing Bear (Óta Kté or "Plenty Kill," also known as Matȟó Nážiŋ or "Standing Bear", 1868 - 1939) was a Sicangu and Oglala Lakota author, educator, philosopher, and actor. He worked to preserve Lakota culture and sovereignty, and ...
, also known as Ota K'Te (Plenty Kill), was born on the Pine Ridge Reservation
The Pine Ridge Indian Reservation ( lkt, Wazí Aháŋhaŋ Oyáŋke), also called Pine Ridge Agency, is an Oglala Lakota Indian reservation located entirely within the U.S. state of South Dakota. Originally included within the territory of the Grea ...
in South Dakota and lived from 1868–1939. He is an Oglala Lakota
The Oglala (pronounced , meaning "to scatter one's own" in Lakota language) are one of the seven subtribes of the Lakota people who, along with the Dakota people, Dakota, make up the Sioux, Očhéthi Šakówiŋ (Seven Council Fires). A majority ...
writer and actor who started acting in 1912. Some of his filmography includes ''White Oak
The genus ''Quercus'' contains about 500 species, some of which are listed here. The genus, as is the case with many large genera, is divided into subgenera and sections. Traditionally, the genus ''Quercus'' was divided into the two subgenera '' ...
'' (1921), ''Cyclone of the Saddle
''Cyclone of the Saddle'' is a 1935 American Western film directed by Elmer Clifton, starring Rex Lease, Janet Chandler, Bobby Nelson, and Yakima Canutt.
Cast
* Rex Lease as Andy Thomas
* Janet Chandler as Sue
* Bobby Nelson as Dick
* Yakima C ...
'' (1935), and ''Union Pacific
The Union Pacific Railroad , legally Union Pacific Railroad Company and often called simply Union Pacific, is a freight-hauling railroad that operates 8,300 locomotives over routes in 23 U.S. states west of Chicago and New Orleans. Union Paci ...
'' (1939).
James Young Deer
James Young Deer (April 1, 1876 – April 6, 1946), also known as J. Younger Johnson or Jim Young Deer, was actually born James Young Johnson in Washington, D.C. Although he was identified in the early Hollywood trade paper Moving Picture World as ...
was born James Young Johnson in Washington D.C. in 1876. He hails from the Nanticoke people
The Nanticoke people are a Native American Algonquian people, whose traditional homelands are in Chesapeake Bay and Delaware. Today they live in the Northeastern United States and Canada, especially Delaware; in Ontario; and in Oklahoma.
Th ...
of Delaware, and worked both as a director and actor. Some of his films include ''The Stranger'' (1920), ''The Great Secret
"The Great Secret" is a science fiction story written by L. Ron Hubbard. It was originally published in April, 1943 in the pulp fiction magazine ''Science Fiction Stories''.
Plot introduction
The story revolves around Fanner Marston who as a slav ...
'' (1917), and ''Lieutenant Daring RN and the Water Rats'' (1924). From 1911–1914, James Young Deer was Head of Production/general manager for the Pathé Frères
Pathé or Pathé Frères (, styled as PATHÉ!) is the name of various French businesses that were founded and originally run by the Pathé Brothers of France starting in 1896. In the early 1900s, Pathé became the world's largest film equipme ...
West Coast Studio located in Edendale, California. He was married to Native American actress Red Wing and died in 1946.
Wes Studi
Wesley Studi ( chr, ᏪᏌ ᏍᏚᏗ; born December 17, 1947) is a Native American (Cherokee Nation) actor and film producer. He has garnered critical acclaim and awards throughout his career, particularly for his portrayal of Native Americans ...
, born in 1947 in Oklahoma, is a Cherokee
The Cherokee (; chr, ᎠᏂᏴᏫᏯᎢ, translit=Aniyvwiyaʔi or Anigiduwagi, or chr, ᏣᎳᎩ, links=no, translit=Tsalagi) are one of the indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands of the United States. Prior to the 18th century, t ...
actor and professional horse trainer known for starring in over 80 films. Some of his work includes ''Dances with Wolves
''Dances with Wolves'' is a 1990 American epic western film starring, directed, and produced by Kevin Costner in his feature directorial debut. It is a film adaptation of the 1988 novel ''Dances with Wolves'' by Michael Blake that tells the s ...
'' (1990), ''The Last of the Mohicans
''The Last of the Mohicans: A Narrative of 1757'' is a historical romance written by James Fenimore Cooper in 1826.
It is the second book of the '' Leatherstocking Tales'' pentalogy and the best known to contemporary audiences. '' The Pathfinde ...
'' (1992), and ''Avatar
Avatar (, ; ), is a concept within Hinduism that in Sanskrit literally means "descent". It signifies the material appearance or incarnation of a powerful deity, goddess or spirit on Earth. The relative verb to "alight, to make one's appearanc ...
'' (2009). He is credited with bringing versatile and masterful performances into Hollywood which have helped to dismantle some of the stereotypes surrounding Native Americans within the industry. In 2019, Studi received the Governors Award, an honorary award that commemorates the lifetime performance of an actor each year. Studi is just the second actor to receive an award for performances in film, following Ben Johnson in 1972.
Born in South Dakota, Russell Means
Russell Charles Means (November 10, 1939 – October 22, 2012) was an Oglala Lakota activist for the rights of Native Americans, libertarian political activist, actor, musician, and writer. He became a prominent member of the American Ind ...
was an Oglala Lakota Dakota
Dakota may refer to:
* Dakota people, a sub-tribe of the Sioux
** Dakota language, their language
Dakota may also refer to:
Places United States
* Dakota, Georgia, an unincorporated community
* Dakota, Illinois, a town
* Dakota, Minnesota, a ...
Native American who lived from 1939–2012. Means was the first director of the American Indian Movement
The American Indian Movement (AIM) is a Native American grassroots movement which was founded in Minneapolis, Minnesota in July 1968, initially centered in urban areas in order to address systemic issues of poverty, discrimination, and police ...
, which was originally created to fight poverty and police brutality
Police brutality is the excessive and unwarranted use of force by law enforcement against an individual or a group. It is an extreme form of police misconduct and is a civil rights violation. Police brutality includes, but is not limited to, ...
amongst American indigenous communities. He fought for the rights of indigenous people worldwide, and is known for giving a televised speech in 2000 where he said he prefers the label 'Indian' to 'Native American' because everyone born in the United States should be considered a Native American. He also ran an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1987 as a member of the Libertarian party
Active parties by country
Defunct parties by country
Organizations associated with Libertarian parties
See also
* Liberal parties by country
* List of libertarian organizations
* Lists of political parties
Lists of political part ...
. He has starred in films such as ''The Last of the Mohicans
''The Last of the Mohicans: A Narrative of 1757'' is a historical romance written by James Fenimore Cooper in 1826.
It is the second book of the '' Leatherstocking Tales'' pentalogy and the best known to contemporary audiences. '' The Pathfinde ...
'' (1992), ''Natural Born Killers
''Natural Born Killers'' is a 1994 American crime film directed by Oliver Stone and starring Woody Harrelson, Juliette Lewis, Robert Downey Jr., Tommy Lee Jones, and Tom Sizemore. The film tells the story of two victims of traumatic childho ...
'' (1994) and ''Pocahontas
Pocahontas (, ; born Amonute, known as Matoaka, 1596 – March 1617) was a Native American woman, belonging to the Powhatan people, notable for her association with the colonial settlement at Jamestown, Virginia. She was the daughter of ...
'' (1995).
Will Sampson
William Sampson Jr. (September 27, 1933 – June 3, 1987) was a Muscogee painter, actor, and rodeo performer. He is best known for his performance as the apparent deaf and mute Chief Bromden, the title role in '' One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest ...
, from Oklahoma, was a member of the Creek Nation
The Muscogee Nation, or Muscogee (Creek) Nation, is a federally recognized Native American tribe based in the U.S. state of Oklahoma. The nation descends from the historic Muscogee Confederacy, a large group of indigenous peoples of the South ...
who lived from 1933–1987. He received his big acting break with the role "Chief" Bromden in '' One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest'' (1975), one of only three films to win the Big Five Academy Awards. Sampson was also known for starring in films such as ''The Outlaw Josey Wales
''The Outlaw Josey Wales'' is a 1976 American Revisionist Western film set during and after the American Civil War. It was directed by and starred Clint Eastwood (as Josey Wales), with Chief Dan George, Sondra Locke, Sam Bottoms, and Geraldin ...
'' (1976), ''Orca
The orca or killer whale (''Orcinus orca'') is a toothed whale belonging to the oceanic dolphin family, of which it is the largest member. It is the only Extant taxon, extant species in the genus ''Orcinus'' and is recognizable by its black ...
'' (1977), and ''The White Buffalo
''The White Buffalo'' is a 1977 fantasy Western film directed by J. Lee Thompson and starring Charles Bronson, Kim Novak, Jack Warden, Slim Pickens and Will Sampson.
Plot
Wild Bill Hickok is haunted by his dreams of a giant white buffal ...
'' (1977). After dying in 1987, he was buried on the reservation that he grew up on.
Floyd Westerman
Floyd Westerman, also known as ''Kanghi Duta'' ("Red Crow" in Dakota) (August 17, 1936 – December 13, 2007), was a Dakota Sioux musician, political activist, and actor. After establishing a career as a country music singer, later in his life h ...
, who also went by 'Red Crow', was a Dakota Sioux actor, activist and musician born in 1936 on the Lake Traverse Indian Reservation
The Lake Traverse Indian Reservation is the homeland of the federally recognized Sisseton Wahpeton Oyate, a branch of the Santee Dakota group of Native Americans. Most of the reservation covers parts of five counties in northeastern South Dakota ...
in Roberts County, South Dakota. He starred in ''Dances with Wolves'' (1990), ''Dharma & Greg
''Dharma & Greg'' is an American television sitcom that originally aired on ABC from September 24, 1997, until April 30, 2002, for 119 episodes over five seasons.
The show starred Jenna Elfman and Thomas Gibson as Dharma and Greg Montgomery, a ...
'' (1997), and ''Hidalgo
Hidalgo may refer to:
People
* Hidalgo (nobility), members of the Spanish nobility
* Hidalgo (surname)
Places
Mexico
* Hidalgo (state), in central Mexico
* Hidalgo, Coahuila, a town in the north Mexican state of Coahuila
* Hidalgo, Nuevo Le ...
'' (1994). Outside of film, Westerman has used his musical talents to bring greater awareness to issues facing indigenous people in the United States. He collaborated with artists such as Sting
Sting may refer to:
* Stinger or sting, a structure of an animal to inject venom, or the injury produced by a stinger
* Irritating hairs or prickles of a stinging plant, or the plant itself
Fictional characters and entities
* Sting (Middle-eart ...
, Willie Nelson
Willie Hugh Nelson (born April 29, 1933) is an American country musician. The critical success of the album ''Shotgun Willie'' (1973), combined with the critical and commercial success of ''Red Headed Stranger'' (1975) and '' Stardust'' (197 ...
, and Don Henley
Donald Hugh Henley (born July 22, 1947) is an American musician and a founding member of the rock band Eagles. He is the drummer and one of the lead singers for the Eagles. Henley sang the lead vocals on Eagles hits such as "Witchy Woman", "Despe ...
to achieve such goals. He was also an ambassador for the International Indian Treaty Council
The International Indian Treaty Council (IITC) is an organization of Indigenous Peoples from North, Central, South America, the Caribbean and the Pacific working for the Sovereignty and Self-Determination of Indigenous Peoples and the recognition ...
, a multinational organization striving for the self-determination and autonomy of indigenous peoples across the world. He died in 2007.
Visual sovereignty
Visual sovereignty is a way of looking at indigenous sovereignty outside of legal parameters defined by Seneca scholar Michelle H. Raheja as "a way of reimagining Native-centered articulations of self-representation and autonomy that engage the powerful ideologies of mass media," to take back the right to tell their own stories. Scholar Julia Boyd
Julia Boyd is a British non-fiction author.
''The Washington Post'' called ''Travellers in the Third Reich'' "riveting". It was awarded the 2018 Los Angeles Times Book Prize for History.
''The Times'' called ''A Village in the Third Reich'' a "fa ...
writes "White males have long dominated the film industry (. . .) Yet, Indian filmmakers have been on the rise in recent decades."
As an example of visual sovereignty, Igloolik Isuma Productions was the first Inuit
Inuit (; iu, ᐃᓄᐃᑦ 'the people', singular: Inuk, , dual: Inuuk, ) are a group of culturally similar indigenous peoples inhabiting the Arctic and subarctic regions of Greenland, Labrador, Quebec, Nunavut, the Northwest Territories ...
owned production company known for producing films such as '' Atanarjuat: The Fast Runner''. Isuma was formed in 1981 and created Inuit films in their native language Inuktitut. Isuma Productions also runs IsumaTV that hosts indigenous filmmakers. The Isuma Website states it hosts “over 7000 films and videos in 84 languages.” Isuma Productions continues to be a leader when it comes to visual sovereignty.
''Smoke Signals
The smoke signal is one of the oldest forms of long-distance communication. It is a form of visual communication used over a long distance. In general smoke signals are used to transmit news, signal danger, or to gather people to a common area ...
'' (1998): Native Filmmaker Chris Eyre wrote and directed the film ''Smoke Signals
The smoke signal is one of the oldest forms of long-distance communication. It is a form of visual communication used over a long distance. In general smoke signals are used to transmit news, signal danger, or to gather people to a common area ...
'', which has been selected for preservation in the National Film Registry
The National Film Registry (NFR) is the United States National Film Preservation Board's (NFPB) collection of films selected for preservation, each selected for its historical, cultural and aesthetic contributions since the NFPB’s inception i ...
for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". It is one of few films featuring Native American characters and directed by a Native filmmaker (along with Edwin Carewe
Edwin Carewe (March 3, 1883 – January 22, 1940) was an American motion picture director, actor, producer, and screenwriter. His birth name was Jay John Fox; he was born in Gainesville, Texas.
Career
After brief studies at the Universities of ...
's early films) that received theatrical distribution. ''Smoke Signals'' was written, directed, and acted in by Native Americans. Like Powwow Highway, it is also a road movie and buddy film that examines friendship, fatherhood, and the roles of tradition versus modernity in Indian Country.
Written and directed by Mi'kmaq filmmaker Jeff Barnaby
Jeff Barnaby (1976 – 13 October 2022) was a Canadian film director, writer, composer, and film editor. He is known for his horror films '' Rhymes for Young Ghouls'' and ''Blood Quantum''.
Early life
Barnaby was born on a Mi'kmaq reserve in L ...
, ''Rhymes for Young Ghouls
''Rhymes for Young Ghouls'' is a 2013 Canadian independent drama film and the feature-film debut of writer-director Jeff Barnaby. Set in 1976 on the fictional Red Crow Mi'kmaq reservation, it takes place in the context of the Canadian residenti ...
'' (2013) tells the story of Aila, played by Kawennáhere Devery Jacobs, as she goes up against Popper, an Indian agent and head of the nearby residential school. The reservation has been deeply affected by the residential school, partaking in the use of drugs and alcohol in order to forget the trauma inflicted by the school system. Rhymes for young ghouls is a revenge story against the Canadian residential school system and offers a path towards decolonization through educating people on the residential school system and opening up dialogue as a means to decolonization. Written and acted in by Natives, Rhymes for young ghouls exemplifies visual sovereignty.
Another Jeff Barnaby film, ''Blood Quantum
Blood quantum laws or Indian blood laws are laws in the United States that define Native American status by fractions of Native American ancestry. These laws were enacted by the federal government and state governments as a way to establ ...
'' (2019) is about a zombie apocalypse where only Mi’gmaq people are immune. Barnaby explores life in a post-colonial society through the lens of a zombie apocalypse where they must resist and fight against their oppressors and avoid extinction. Barnaby once again used a native cast to tell a native story showcasing visual sovereignty.
Written and directed by the Cree-Métis filmmaker Danis Goulet
Danis Goulet (born 1977) is a Cree-Métis film director and screenwriter from Canada,Chris Knight"Danis Goulet's film a first for New Zealand-Canada Indigenous co-operation" ''National Post'', June 26, 2020. whose debut feature film '' Night Raide ...
, '' Night Raiders'' (2021) takes place in a dystopian post-war North America where children are owned by the state. Night Raiders is in scathing commentary on Native residential schools and the kidnapping of children by the state to be placed in these schools. The film stars Elle-Máijá Tailfeathers, a Blackfoot and Sámi actress, as Niska and Brooklyn Letexier-Hart as Waseese.[Powster. “Night Raiders.” Night Raiders , Official Website , 08 October 2021, 8 Oct. 2021, https://www.nightraidersmovie.com/synopsis/.]
See also
* List of Native American actors
* List of films featuring colonialism
''Colonialism'' in the cinema has been the subject of many books and essays. Stereotyping, distortion, imagistic mistreatment, assimilationism and caricatural visions of colonies have been practiced in this type of cinema. With a few exceptions, s ...
* Karl May
Karl Friedrich May ( , ; 25 February 1842 – 30 March 1912) was a German author. He is best known for his 19th century novels of fictitious travels and adventures, set in the American Old West with Winnetou and Old Shatterhand as main pro ...
* Indian Wedding Blessing
A poem known variously as the "Indian Wedding Blessing", "Apache Blessing", "Apache Wedding Prayer", "Benediction of the Apaches", "Cherokee Wedding Blessing",[Native American Film and Video Festival The Native American Film and Video Festival was a noncompetitive showcase of film, video and audio productions. It was held biennially in New York City from 1997 to 2011. Each festival screened between 50 and 80 documentaries, short features and ani ...]
* Indian burial ground trope
The Indian burial ground trope is frequently used to explain supernatural events and hauntings in American popular culture. The trope gained popularity in the 1980s, making multiple appearances in horror film and television after its debut in ' ...
* Plastic Shaman
* Pre-Code Hollywood
Pre-Code Hollywood was the brief era in the Cinema of the United States, American film industry between the widespread adoption of sound in film in 1929LaSalle (2002), p. 1. and the enforcement of the Motion Picture Production Code censorshi ...
* Spaghetti Western
The Spaghetti Western is a broad subgenre of Western films produced in Europe. It emerged in the mid-1960s in the wake of Sergio Leone's film-making style and international box-office success. The term was used by foreign critics because most o ...
* ''Reel Injun
''Reel Injun'' is a 2009 Canadian documentary film directed by Cree filmmaker Neil Diamond, Catherine Bainbridge, and Jeremiah Hayes that explores the portrayal of Native Americans in film. ''Reel Injun'' is illustrated with excerpts from clas ...
'', a documentary
* Native Americans in popular culture
The portrayal of Indigenous people of the Americas in popular culture has oscillated between the fascination with the noble savage who lives in harmony with nature, and the stereotype of the uncivilized Red Indian of the traditional Western ge ...
* Native Americans in children's literature
Native Americans have been featured in numerous works of children's literature. Some have been authored by non-Indigenous writers, while others have been written or contributed to by Indigenous authors.
Children’s literature about Native Ame ...
* Stereotypes about indigenous peoples of North America
Stereotypes of Indigenous peoples of Canada and the United States of America include many ethnic stereotypes found worldwide which include historical misrepresentations and the oversimplification of hundreds of Indigenous cultures. Negative stere ...
* 2022 Hollywood apology to Sacheen Littlefeather
Marie Louise Cruz (November 14, 1946 – October 2, 2022), better known as Sacheen Littlefeather, was an American actress, model, and activist on behalf of Native American civil rights.
Littlefeather represented Marlon Brando at the 45th Aca ...
References
Bibliography
* Aleiss, Angela.
Making the White Man's Indian. Native Americans and Hollywood Movies
' (Westport/CT and London: Praeger, 2005)
* Aleiss, Angela.
"A Race Divided: The Indian Westerns of John Ford," American Indian Culture & Research Journal
', 18 (2), Summer 1995, 25–34.
* Berkhofer, Richard.
The White Man's Indian. Images of the American Indian from Columbus to the Present.
' (New York: Random House, 1978).
* Brockman, Joshua
' (September 29, 2002).
* Bovey, Seth. "Dances with Stereotypes: Western FIlms and the Myth of the Noble Red."
South Dakota Review
' 7.2 (1993): 115–122.
* Churchill, Ward, Norbert Hill, and Mary Ann Hill. "Media Stereotyping and Native Response: An Historical Overview." ''The Indian Historian'' 11.4 (1978): 45–56, 63.
* Churchill, Ward.
Fantasies of the Master Race. Literature, Cinema, and the Colonization of the American Indians
' (San Francisco: City Light Books, 1998).
* Deloria, Vine. "Foreword/American Fantasy." In G.M. Bataille and C.L.S. Silet, eds. ''The Pretend Indians: Images of Native Americans in the Movies'' (Ann Arbor: Books on Demand, 1994), ix–xvi.
* Hilger, Michael. ''From Savage to Nobleman. Images of Native Americans in Film'' (Lanham/MD and London: Scarecrow Press, 1995).
* Kilpatrick, Jacquelyn
''Celluloid Indians. Native Americans in Film.''
(Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1999).
* Lutz, Hartmut. ''Approaches. Essays in Native North American Studies and Literatures'' (Augsburg: Wißner, 2002).
* Mihelich, John. "Smoke or Signals? American Popular Culture and the Challenge to Hegemonic Images of American Indians in Native American Film." Wicazso Sa Review 16.2 (2001), 129–137.
* Nelson, Andrew Patrick.
Still in the Saddle: The Hollywood Western, 1969-1980
' (Norman/OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2015): 81-111.
* Nolley, Ken. "John Ford and the Hollywood Indian."
Film and History
' 23.1–4 (1993): 39–49.
* O'Connor, John E. "The White Man's Indian. An Institutional Approach." In P.C. Rollins and John E. O'Connor, eds
''Hollywood's Indian: The Portrayal of the Native American in Film''
(Lexington/KY: University Press of Kentucky, 2003), 27–38.
* Price, John A. "The Stereotyping of North American Indians in Motion Pictures." In G.M. Bataille and C.L.S. Silet, eds. ''The Pretend Indians: Images of Native Americans in the Movies'' (Ann Arbor: Books on Demand, 1994), 75–91.
* Sandos, James, and Larry Burgess. "The Hollywood Indian versus Native Americans. ''Tell Them Willie Boy is Here'' (1969)." In P.C. Rollins and John E. O'Connor, eds
''Hollywood's Indian: The Portrayal of the Native American in Film
(Lexington/KY: University Press of Kentucky, 2003), 107–120.
Further reading
* Aleiss, Angela.
Hollywood's Native Americans: Stories of Identity and Resistance
' (Santa Barbara/CA: Praeger, 2022)
* '' Native Americans on Network TV'' (2013)
* Bird, Elizabeth, ed.
Dressing in Feathers. The Construction of the Indian in American Popular Culture
' (Boulder/CO and Oxford: Westview Press, 1996).
* Buscombe, Edward. Injuns!' Native Americans in the Movies'' (Bodmin: Reaktion Books, 2006).
* Smith, Andrew Brodie. ''Shooting Cowboys and Indians. Silent Western Films, American Culture, and the Birth of Hollywood" (Boulder/CO: University of Colorado, 2003).
*
*
*
*Liza Black. 2020. ''Picturing Indians: Native Americans in Film, 1941-1960''. University of Nebraska Press.https://www.lizablack.com
External links
* ttp://libguides.lib.msu.edu/content.php?pid=62444&sid=653036 List of films featuring Native Americans provided by Michigan State University
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