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Haitian Vodou is an African diasporic religion that developed in
Haiti Haiti (; ht, Ayiti ; French: ), officially the Republic of Haiti (); ) and formerly known as Hayti, is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea, east of Cuba and Jamaica, and ...
between the 16th and 19th centuries. It arose through a process of
syncretism Syncretism () is the practice of combining different beliefs and various school of thought, schools of thought. Syncretism involves the merging or religious assimilation, assimilation of several originally discrete traditions, especially in t ...
between several traditional religions of
West West or Occident is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from east and is the direction in which the Sunset, Sun sets on the Earth. Etymology The word "west" is a Germanic languages, German ...
and
Central Africa Central Africa is a subregion of the African continent comprising various countries according to different definitions. Angola, Burundi, the Central African Republic, Chad, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Republic of the Congo, ...
and
Roman Catholicism The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwide . It is am ...
. There is no central authority in control of the religion and much diversity exists among practitioners, who are known as Vodouists, Vodouisants, or Serviteurs. Vodou revolves around spirits known as '' lwa.'' Typically deriving their names and attributes from traditional West and Central African divinities, they are equated with Roman Catholic saints. The lwa divide up into different groups, the ''nanchon'' ("nations"), most notably the
Rada The Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA; ) is a drama school in London, England, that provides vocational conservatoire training for theatre, film, television, and radio. It is based in the Bloomsbury area of Central London, close to the Senat ...
and the Petwo. Various myths and stories are told about these lwa, which are regarded as subservient to a transcendent creator deity, Bondye. This
theology Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the ...
has been labelled both monotheistic and
polytheistic Polytheism is the belief in multiple deities, which are usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, along with their own religious sects and rituals. Polytheism is a type of theism. Within theism, it contrasts with monotheism, the ...
. An initiatory tradition, Vodouists usually meet to venerate the lwa in an ''ounfò'' (temple), run by an ''
oungan Oungan (also written as ''houngan'') is the term for a male priest in Haitian Vodou (a female priest is known as a (''mambo''). The term is derived from Gbe languages (Fon, Ewe, Adja, Phla, Gen, Maxi and Gun). The word hounnongan means chief p ...
'' (priest) or '' manbo'' (priestess). A central ritual involves practitioners drumming, singing, and dancing to encourage a lwa to possess one of their members and thus communicate with them. Offerings to the lwa include fruit, liquor, and sacrificed animals. Offerings are also given to the spirits of the dead. Several forms of
divination Divination (from Latin ''divinare'', 'to foresee, to foretell, to predict, to prophesy') is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic, standardized process or ritual. Used in various forms throughout histor ...
are utilized to decipher messages from the lwa. Healing rituals and the preparation of herbal remedies and talismans also play a prominent role. Vodou developed among
Afro-Haitian Afro-Haitians or Black Haitians are Haitians who trace their full or partial ancestry to Sub-Saharan Africa. They form the largest racial group in Haiti and together with other Afro-Caribbean groups, the largest racial group in the region. Th ...
communities amid the
Atlantic slave trade The Atlantic slave trade, transatlantic slave trade, or Euro-American slave trade involved the transportation by slave traders of enslaved African people, mainly to the Americas. The slave trade regularly used the triangular trade route and i ...
of the 16th to 19th centuries. Its structure arose from the blending of the traditional religions of those enslaved West and Central Africans, among them
Yoruba The Yoruba people (, , ) are a West African ethnic group that mainly inhabit parts of Nigeria, Benin, and Togo. The areas of these countries primarily inhabited by Yoruba are often collectively referred to as Yorubaland. The Yoruba constitute ...
, Fon, and
Kongo Congo or The Congo may refer to either of two countries that border the Congo River in central Africa: * Democratic Republic of the Congo, the larger country to the southeast, capital Kinshasa, formerly known as Zaire, sometimes referred to a ...
, who had been brought to the island of
Hispaniola Hispaniola (, also ; es, La Española; Latin and french: Hispaniola; ht, Ispayola; tnq, Ayiti or Quisqueya) is an island in the Caribbean that is part of the Greater Antilles. Hispaniola is the most populous island in the West Indies, and th ...
. There, it absorbed influences from the culture of the French colonialists who controlled the colony of
Saint-Domingue Saint-Domingue () was a French colony in the western portion of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, in the area of modern-day Haiti, from 1659 to 1804. The name derives from the Spanish main city in the island, Santo Domingo, which came to refer ...
, most notably Roman Catholicism but also
Freemasonry Freemasonry or Masonry refers to fraternal organisations that trace their origins to the local guilds of stonemasons that, from the end of the 13th century, regulated the qualifications of stonemasons and their interaction with authorities ...
. Many Vodouists were involved in the
Haitian Revolution The Haitian Revolution (french: révolution haïtienne ; ht, revolisyon ayisyen) was a successful insurrection by slave revolt, self-liberated slaves against French colonial rule in Saint-Domingue, now the sovereign state of Haiti. The revolt ...
of 1791 to 1801 which overthrew the French colonial government, abolished slavery, and transformed Saint-Domingue into the republic of Haiti. The Roman Catholic Church left for several decades following the Revolution, allowing Vodou to become Haiti's dominant religion. In the 20th century, growing emigration spread Vodou abroad. The late 20th century saw growing links between Vodou and related traditions in West Africa and the Americas, such as Cuban
Santería Santería (), also known as Regla de Ocha, Regla Lucumí, or Lucumí, is an African diaspora religions, African diasporic religion that developed in Cuba during the late 19th century. It arose through a process of syncretism between the tradit ...
and Brazilian Candomblé, while some practitioners influenced by the
Négritude ''Négritude'' (from French "Nègre" and "-itude" to denote a condition that can be translated as "Blackness") is a framework of critique and literary theory, developed mainly by francophone intellectuals, writers, and politicians of the African ...
movement have sought to remove Roman Catholic influences. Most Haitians practice both Vodou and Roman Catholicism, seeing no contradiction in pursuing the two different systems simultaneously. Smaller Vodouist communities exist elsewhere, especially among the
Haitian diaspora in the United States Haitian may refer to: Relating to Haiti * ''Haitian'', an adjective referring to something of, from, or related to Haiti ** Haitian Creole, a French-Creole based ** Haitian French, variant of the French language ** Haitians, an ethnic group * ...
. Both in Haiti and abroad Vodou has spread beyond its Afro-Haitian origins and is practiced by individuals of various ethnicities. Vodou has faced much criticism through its history, having repeatedly been described as one of the world's most misunderstood religions.


Definitions and terminology

Vodou is a religion. More specifically it has been characterised as Haiti's "national religion" and as an
Afro-Haitian Afro-Haitians or Black Haitians are Haitians who trace their full or partial ancestry to Sub-Saharan Africa. They form the largest racial group in Haiti and together with other Afro-Caribbean groups, the largest racial group in the region. Th ...
religion, as well as a "traditional religion" and a "
folk religion In religious studies and folkloristics, folk religion, popular religion, traditional religion or vernacular religion comprises various forms and expressions of religion that are distinct from the official doctrines and practices of organized re ...
." Its main structure derives from the
African traditional religions The traditional beliefs and practices of African people are highly diverse beliefs that include various ethnic religions.Encyclopedia of African Religion (Sage, 2009) Molefi Kete Asante Generally, these traditions are oral rather than scriptura ...
of West and Central Africa which were brought to Haiti by enslaved Africans between the 16th and 19th centuries. On the island, these African religions mixed with the iconography of European-derived traditions such as
Roman Catholicism The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwide . It is am ...
and
Freemasonry Freemasonry or Masonry refers to fraternal organisations that trace their origins to the local guilds of stonemasons that, from the end of the 13th century, regulated the qualifications of stonemasons and their interaction with authorities ...
, taking the form of Vodou around the mid-18th century. In combining varied influences, Vodou has often been described as
syncretic Syncretism () is the practice of combining different beliefs and various schools of thought. Syncretism involves the merging or assimilation of several originally discrete traditions, especially in the theology and mythology of religion, thu ...
, or a "symbiosis", a religion exhibiting diverse cultural influences. Despite its older influences, Vodou represented "a new religion", "a creolized New World system", one that differs in many ways from African traditional religions. One of the most complex of the African diasporic traditions, the scholar
Leslie Desmangles Leslie G Desmangles is an author and college professor focusing his research on Haiti and religion. Leslie G. Desmangles was born in Port-au-Prince (Haiti) on September 28, 1941. Professor Desmangles graduated from Eastern University in 1964 with ...
called it an "African-derived tradition", Ina J. Fandrich termed it a "neo-African religion", and Markel Thylefors called it an "Afro-Latin American religion". Owing to their shared origins in West African traditional religion, Vodou has been characterized as a "sister religion" of Cuban
Santería Santería (), also known as Regla de Ocha, Regla Lucumí, or Lucumí, is an African diaspora religions, African diasporic religion that developed in Cuba during the late 19th century. It arose through a process of syncretism between the tradit ...
and Brazilian Candomblé. In
English English usually refers to: * English language * English people English may also refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England ** English national ide ...
, Vodou's practitioners are termed ''Vodouists'', or—in French and
Haitian Creole Haitian Creole (; ht, kreyòl ayisyen, links=no, ; french: créole haïtien, links=no, ), commonly referred to as simply ''Creole'', or ''Kreyòl'' in the Creole language, is a French-based creole language spoken by 10–12million people wor ...
— or ''Vodouyizan''. Another term for adherents is ''sèvitè'' (, "devotees"), reflecting their self-description as people who ("serve the "), the supernatural beings that play a central role in Vodou. Lacking any central institutional authority, Vodou has no single leader. It thus has no
orthodoxy Orthodoxy (from Greek: ) is adherence to correct or accepted creeds, especially in religion. Orthodoxy within Christianity refers to acceptance of the doctrines defined by various creeds and ecumenical councils in Antiquity, but different Churc ...
, no central liturgy, nor a formal creed. Developing over the course of several centuries, it has changed over time. It displays variation at both the regional and local level—including variation between Haiti and the Haitian diaspora—as well as among different congregations. It is practiced domestically, by families on their land, but also by congregations meeting communally, with the latter termed "temple Vodou". In Haitian culture, religions are not generally deemed totally autonomous, with many Haitians practicing both Vodou and Roman Catholicism. Vodouists usually regard themselves as Roman Catholics. In Haiti, Vodouists have also practiced
Mormonism Mormonism is the religious tradition and theology of the Latter Day Saint movement of Restorationist Christianity started by Joseph Smith in Western New York in the 1820s and 1830s. As a label, Mormonism has been applied to various aspects of t ...
and Freemasonry, while abroad they have involved themselves in Santería and
modern Paganism Modern paganism, also known as contemporary paganism and neopaganism, is a term for a religion or family of religions influenced by the various historical pre-Christian beliefs of pre-modern peoples in Europe and adjacent areas of North Afric ...
. Vodou has also absorbed elements from other contexts; in Cuba, some Vodouists have adopted elements from
Spiritism Spiritism (French: ''spiritisme''; Portuguese: ''espiritismo'') is a spiritualist, religious, and philosophical doctrine established in France in the 1850s by the French teacher, educational writer, and translator Hippolyte Léon Denizard Riva ...
. Influenced by the
Négritude ''Négritude'' (from French "Nègre" and "-itude" to denote a condition that can be translated as "Blackness") is a framework of critique and literary theory, developed mainly by francophone intellectuals, writers, and politicians of the African ...
movement, other Vodouists have sought to remove Roman Catholic and other European influences from their practice of Vodou. The ritual language used in Vodou is termed ''langaj''. Many of these terms—including the word ''Vodou'' itself—derive from the
Fon language Fon (, ) is spoken in Benin, Nigeria, Togo, Ghana and Gabon by approximately 1.7 million speakers, and is the language of the Fon people. Like the other Gbe languages, Fon is an isolating language with an SVO basic word order. Cultural and le ...
of West Africa. First recorded in the 1658 ''
Doctrina Christiana The ''Doctrina Christiana'' ( eng, Christian Doctrine) was an early book on the catechism of the Catholic Church, written in 1593 by Fray Juan de Plasencia, and is believed to be one of the earliest printed books in the Philippines. Title ...
'', the Fon word was used in the West African kingdom of Dahomey to signify a spirit or deity. In Haitian Creole, ''Vodou'' came to designate a specific style of dance and drumming, before outsiders to the religion adopted it as a generic term for much Afro-Haitian religion. The word ''Vodou'' now encompasses "a variety of Haiti's African-derived religious traditions and practices", incorporating "a bundle of practices that practitioners themselves do not aggregate". ''Vodou'' is thus a term primarily used by scholars and outsiders to the religion; many practitioners describe their belief system with the term , which especially denotes a moral philosophy and ethical code regarding how to live and to serve the spirits. ''Vodou'' is the common spelling for the religion among scholars, in official Haitian Creole orthography, and by the
United States Library of Congress The Library of Congress (LOC) is the research library that officially serves the United States Congress and is the ''de facto'' national library of the United States. It is the oldest federal cultural institution in the country. The library is ...
. Some scholars use the spellings ''Vodoun'' or ''Vodun'', while in French the spellings or also appear. The spelling ''Voodoo'', once common, is now generally avoided by practitioners and scholars when referring to the Haitian religion. This is both to avoid confusion with
Louisiana Voodoo Louisiana Voodoo (french: Vaudou louisianais, es, Vudú de Luisiana), also known as New Orleans Voodoo, is an African diasporic religion which originated in Louisiana, now in the southern United States. It arose through a process of syncreti ...
, a related but distinct tradition, and to distinguish it from the negative connotations that the term ''Voodoo'' has in Western
popular culture Popular culture (also called mass culture or pop culture) is generally recognized by members of a society as a set of practices, beliefs, artistic output (also known as, popular art or mass art) and objects that are dominant or prevalent in a ...
.


Beliefs


Bondye and the lwa

Teaching the existence of single supreme God, Vodou has been described as monotheistic. Believed to have created the universe, this entity is called ''Bondye'' or ''Bonié'', a term deriving from the French ''Bon Dieu'' ("Good God"). Another term used is the ''Gran Mèt'', which derives from Freemasonry. For Vodouists, Bondye is seen as the ultimate source of power, deemed responsible for maintaining universal order. Bondye is also regarded as remote and transcendent, not involving itself in human affairs; there is thus little point in approaching it directly. Haitians will frequently use the phrase ''si Bondye vle'' ("if Bondye wishes"), suggesting a belief that all things occur in accordance with this divinity's will. While Vodouists often equate Bondye with the Christian God, Vodou does not incorporate belief in a powerful antagonist that opposes the supreme being akin to the Christian notion of
Satan Satan,, ; grc, ὁ σατανᾶς or , ; ar, شيطانالخَنَّاس , also known as Devil in Christianity, the Devil, and sometimes also called Lucifer in Christianity, is an non-physical entity, entity in the Abrahamic religions ...
. Vodou has also been characterized as
polytheistic Polytheism is the belief in multiple deities, which are usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, along with their own religious sects and rituals. Polytheism is a type of theism. Within theism, it contrasts with monotheism, the ...
. It teaches the existence of beings known as the lwa (or ''loa)'', a term varyingly translated into English as "spirits", "gods", or "
geniuses Genius is a characteristic of original and exceptional insight in the performance of some art or endeavor that surpasses expectations, sets new standards for future works, establishes better methods of operation, or remains outside the capabiliti ...
". These lwa are also known as the ''mystères'', ''anges'', ''saints'', and ''les invisibles'', and are sometimes equated with the
angel In various theistic religious traditions an angel is a supernatural spiritual being who serves God. Abrahamic religions often depict angels as benevolent celestial intermediaries between God (or Heaven) and humanity. Other roles include ...
s of Christian cosmology. Vodou teaches that there are over a thousand lwa. The lwa can offer help, protection, and counsel to humans, in return for ritual service. They are regarded as the intermediaries of Bondye, and as having wisdom that is useful for humans, although they are not seen as moral exemplars which practitioners should imitate. Each lwa has its own personality, and is associated with specific colors, days of the week, and objects. The lwa can be either loyal or capricious in their dealings with their devotees; Vodouists believe that the lwa are easily offended, for instance if offered food that they dislike. When angered, the lwa are believed to remove their protection from their devotees, or to inflict misfortune, illness, or madness on an individual. Although there are exceptions, most lwa names derive from the Fon and Yoruba languages. New lwa are nevertheless added; practitioners believe that some Vodou priests and priestesses became lwa after death, or that certain
talisman A talisman is any object ascribed with religious or magical powers intended to protect, heal, or harm individuals for whom they are made. Talismans are often portable objects carried on someone in a variety of ways, but can also be installed perm ...
s become lwa. Vodouists often refer to the lwa residing in "Guinea", but this is not intended as a precise geographical location, but a generalized understanding of Africa as the ancestral land. Many lwa are also understood to live under the water, at the bottom of the sea or in rivers. Vodouists believe that the lwa communicate with humans through dreams and through the possession of human beings.


The nanchon

The lwa are divided into ''nanchon'' or "nations". This classificatory system derives from the way in which enslaved West Africans were divided into "nations" upon their arrival in Haiti, usually based on their African port of departure rather than their ethno-cultural identity. The term ''fanmi'' (family) is sometimes used synonymously with "nation" or alternatively as a sub-division of the latter category. It is often claimed that there are 17 nanchon, of which the Rada and the Petwo are the largest and most dominant. The Rada derive their name from
Arada Arada may refer to: Geography * Arada, Chad, a town and subprefecture in the department of Biltine in eastern Chad * Arada (Addis Ababa), one of the 10 subcities of Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia * Arada, Honduras, a municipality in the Ho ...
, a city in the Dahomey kingdom of West Africa. The Rada lwa are usually regarded as ''dous'' or ''doux'', meaning that they are sweet-tempered. The Petwo lwa are conversely seen as ''lwa chaud'' (''lwa cho''), indicating that they can be forceful or violent and are associated with fire; they are generally regarded as being socially transgressive and subversive. The Rada lwa are seen as being 'cool'; the Petwo lwa as 'hot'. The Rada lwa are generally regarded as righteous, whereas their Petwo counterparts are thought of as being more morally ambiguous, associated with issues like money. The Petwo lwa derive from various backgrounds, including Creole, Kongo, and Dahomeyan. Many lwa exist ''andezo'' or ''en deux eaux'', meaning that they are "in two waters" and are served in both Rada and Petwo rituals.
Papa Legba Papa Legba is a lwa in Haitian Vodou, Winti and Louisiana Voodoo, who serves as the intermediary between the lwa and humanity. He stands at a spiritual crossroads and gives (or denies) permission to speak with the spirits of Guineé, and is bel ...
, also known as Legba, is the first lwa saluted during ceremonies. He is depicted as a feeble old man wearing rags and using a crutch. Papa Legba is regarded as the protector of gates and fences and thus of the home, as well as of roads, paths, and crossroads. The second lwa that are usually greeted are the Marasa or sacred twins. In Vodou, every nation has its own Marasa, reflecting a belief that twins have special powers. Agwe, also known as Agwe-taroyo, is associated with aquatic life, and protector of ships and fishermen. Agwe is believed to rule the sea with his consort,
La Sirène Mami Wata (Mammy Water), or La Sirene, is a water spirit venerated in West, Central, and Southern Africa and in the African diaspora in the Americas. Mami Wata spirits are usually female but are sometimes male., p. 1. Attributes Appearance T ...
. She is a
mermaid In folklore, a mermaid is an aquatic creature with the head and upper body of a female human and the tail of a fish. Mermaids appear in the folklore of many cultures worldwide, including Europe, Asia, and Africa. Mermaids are sometimes asso ...
or
siren Siren or sirens may refer to: Common meanings * Siren (alarm), a loud acoustic alarm used to alert people to emergencies * Siren (mythology), an enchanting but dangerous monster in Greek mythology Places * Siren (town), Wisconsin * Siren, Wisc ...
, and is sometimes described as Èzili of the Waters because she is believed to bring good luck and wealth from the sea. Èzili Freda or Erzuli Freda is the lwa of love and luxury, personifying feminine beauty and grace.
Ezili Dantor Ezilí Dantor or Erzulie Dantó is the main loa (or ''lwa'') or senior spirit of the Petro family in Haitian Vodou. Ezili Danto, or Ezili Danto', is the "manifestation of Erzulie, the divinity of love,". It is said that Ezili Danto has a dark co ...
is a lwa who takes the form of a peasant woman.
Zaka ZAKA ( he, זק"א, abbreviation for ''Zihuy Korbanot Ason'', , literally: "Disaster Victim Identification") is a series of voluntary community emergency response teams in Israel, each operating in a police district (two in the Central Distr ...
(or ''Azaka'') is the lwa of crops and agriculture, usually addressed as "Papa" or "Cousin". His consort is the female lwa Kouzinn.
Loco Loco or El Loco may refer to: Places United States * Loco, Georgia, an unincorporated community * Loco, Oklahoma, a village * Loco, Texas, an unincorporated community * Loco Mountain (Labinero, Montana), a mountain peak of the Crazy Mountains ...
is the lwa of vegetation, and because he is seen to give healing properties to various plant species is considered the lwa of healing too.
Ogou Ogou is a prefecture located in the Plateaux Region of Togo. The prefecture seat is located in Atakpamé Atakpamé is the fifth largest city in Togo by population (84,979 inhabitants in 2006), located in the Plateaux Region of Togo. It is an ...
is a warrior lwa, associated with weapons. Sogbo is a lwa associated with lightning, while his companion, Bade, is associated with the wind. Danbala (or ''Damballa'') is a serpent lwa and is associated with water, being believed to frequent rivers, springs, and marshes; he is one of the most popular deities within the pantheon. Danbala and his consort Ayida-Weddo (or Ayida Wedo) are often depicted as a pair of intertwining snakes. The Simbi are understood as the guardians of fountains and marshes. Usually seen as a fanmi rather than a nanchon, the gede (also ghede or guédé) are associated with the realm of the dead. The head of the family is Baron Samedi ("Baron Saturday"). His consort is Gran Brigit; she has authority over cemeteries and is regarded as the mother of many of the other gede. When the gede are believed to have arrived at a Vodou ceremony they are usually greeted with joy because they bring merriment. Those possessed by the gede at these ceremonies are known for making sexual innuendos; the gede's symbol is an erect penis, while the banda dance associated with them involves sexual-style thrusting. Most lwa are associated with specific Roman Catholic saints. For instance, Azaka, the lwa of agriculture, is associated with Saint Isidore the farmer. Similarly, because he is understood as the "key" to the spirit world, Papa Legba is typically associated with
Saint Peter Saint Peter; he, שמעון בר יונה, Šimʿōn bar Yōnāh; ar, سِمعَان بُطرُس, translit=Simʿa̅n Buṭrus; grc-gre, Πέτρος, Petros; cop, Ⲡⲉⲧⲣⲟⲥ, Petros; lat, Petrus; ar, شمعون الصفـا, Sham'un ...
, who is visually depicted holding keys in traditional Roman Catholic imagery. The lwa of love and luxury, Èzili Freda, is associated with
Mater Dolorosa Our Lady of Sorrows ( la, Beata Maria Virgo Perdolens), Our Lady of Dolours, the Sorrowful Mother or Mother of Sorrows ( la, Mater Dolorosa, link=no), and Our Lady of Piety, Our Lady of the Seven Sorrows or Our Lady of the Seven Dolours are names ...
. Danbala, who is a serpent, is often equated with
Saint Patrick Saint Patrick ( la, Patricius; ga, Pádraig ; cy, Padrig) was a fifth-century Romano-British Christian missionary and bishop in Ireland. Known as the "Apostle of Ireland", he is the primary patron saint of Ireland, the other patron saints be ...
, who is traditionally depicted in a scene with snakes; alternatively he is often associated with
Moses Moses hbo, מֹשֶׁה, Mōše; also known as Moshe or Moshe Rabbeinu (Mishnaic Hebrew: מֹשֶׁה רַבֵּינוּ, ); syr, ܡܘܫܐ, Mūše; ar, موسى, Mūsā; grc, Mωϋσῆς, Mōÿsēs () is considered the most important pro ...
, whose staff turned into snakes. The Marasa, or sacred twins, are typically equated with the twin saints Cosmos and Damian. Scholars like
Leslie Desmangles Leslie G Desmangles is an author and college professor focusing his research on Haiti and religion. Leslie G. Desmangles was born in Port-au-Prince (Haiti) on September 28, 1941. Professor Desmangles graduated from Eastern University in 1964 with ...
have argued that Vodouists originally adopted the Roman Catholic saints to conceal lwa worship when the latter was illegal during the colonial period. Observing Vodou in the latter part of the 20th century, Donald J. Cosentino argued that it was no longer the case that the use of the Roman Catholic saints was merely a ruse, but rather reflected the genuine devotional expression of many Vodouists.
Chromolithograph Chromolithography is a method for making multi-colour printmaking, prints. This type of colour printing stemmed from the process of lithography, and includes all types of lithography that are printed in colour. When chromolithography is used to ...
ic prints of the saints have been popular among Vodouists since being invented in the mid-19th century, while images of the saints are commonly applied to the ''drapo'' flags used in Vodou ritual, and are also commonly painted on the walls of temples in Port-au-Prince.


Soul

Vodou holds that Bondye created humanity in his image, fashioning humans out of water and clay. It teaches the existence of a spirit or soul, the ''espri'', which is divided in two parts. One of these is the ''ti bonnanj'' ('' ti bon ange'' or "little good angel"), and it is understood as the conscience that allows an individual to engage in self-reflection and self-criticism. The other part is the ''gwo bonnanj'' ('' gros bon ange'' or "big good angel") and this constitutes the psyche, source of memory, intelligence, and personhood. These are both believed to reside within an individual's head. Vodouists believe that the gwo bonnanj can leave the head and go travelling while a person is sleeping. Vodouists believe that every individual is intrinsically connected to a specific lwa. This lwa is their ''mèt tèt'' (master of the head). They believe that this lwa informs the individual's personality. Vodou holds that the identity of a person's tutelary lwa can be identified through divination or through consulting lwa when they possess other humans. Some of the religion's priests and priestesses are deemed to have "the gift of eyes", in that they can directly see what an individual's tutelary lwa is. At bodily death, the gwo bonnanj join the Ginen, or ancestral spirits, while the ti bonnanj proceeds to the afterlife to face judgement before Bondye. This idea of judgement before Bondye is more common in urban areas, having been influenced by Roman Catholicism, while in the Haitian mountains it is more common for Vodouists to believe that the ti bonnanj dissolves into the navel of the earth nine days after death. It is believed that the gwo bonnanj stays in Ginen for a year and a day before being absorbed into the family of the Gede. Ginen is often identified as being located beneath the sea, under the earth, or above the sky. Vodouists hold that the spirits of dead humans are different from the gede, who are regarded as lwa. Vodouists believe that the dead continue to participate in human affairs, requiring sacrifices. It does not teach the existence of any afterlife realm akin to the Christian ideas of
heaven Heaven or the heavens, is a common religious cosmological or transcendent supernatural place where beings such as deities, angels, souls, saints, or venerated ancestors are said to originate, be enthroned, or reside. According to the belie ...
and
hell In religion and folklore, hell is a location in the afterlife in which evil souls are subjected to punitive suffering, most often through torture, as eternal punishment after death. Religions with a linear divine history often depict hell ...
. Rather, in Vodou the spirits of the dead are believed to often complain that their own realm is cold and damp and that they suffer from hunger.


Morality, ethics, and gender roles

Vodou permeates every aspect of its adherent's lives. The ethical standards it promotes correspond to its sense of the cosmological order. A belief in the interdependence of things plays a role in Vodou approaches to ethical issues. Serving the lwa is central to Vodou and its moral codes reflect the reciprocal relationship that practitioners have with these spirits, with a responsible relationship with the lwa ensuring that virtue is maintained. Vodou also reinforces family ties; respect for the elderly is a key value, with the
extended family An extended family is a family that extends beyond the nuclear family of parents and their children to include aunts, uncles, grandparents, cousins or other relatives, all living nearby or in the same household. Particular forms include the stem ...
being of importance in Haitian society. Vodou does not promote a dualistic belief in a firm division between good and evil. It offers no prescriptive code of ethics; rather than being rule-based, Vodou morality is deemed contextual to the situation. Vodou reflects people's everyday concerns, focusing on techniques for mitigating illness and misfortune; doing what one needs to in order to survive is considered a high ethic. Among Vodouists, a moral person is regarded as someone who lives in tune with their character and that of their tutelary lwa. In general, acts that reinforce Bondye's power are deemed good; those that undermine it are seen as bad. ''Maji'', meaning the use of supernatural powers for self-serving and malevolent ends, are usually regarded as being bad. The term is quite flexible; it is usually used to denigrate other Vodouists, although some practitioners have used it as a self-descriptor in reference to petwo rites. Vodou promotes a belief in
destiny Destiny, sometimes referred to as fate (from Latin ''fatum'' "decree, prediction, destiny, fate"), is a predetermined course of events. It may be conceived as a predetermined future, whether in general or of an individual. Fate Although often ...
, although individuals are still deemed to have freedom of choice. This view of destiny has been interpreted as encouraging a
fatalistic Fatalism is a family of related philosophical doctrines that stress the subjugation of all events or actions to fate or destiny, and is commonly associated with the consequent attitude of resignation in the face of future events which are thou ...
outlook among practitioners, something that the religion's critics, especially from Christian backgrounds, have argued has discouraged Vodouists from improving their society. This has been extended into an argument that Vodou is responsible for Haiti's poverty, an argument that in turn has been accused of being rooted in European colonial prejudices towards Africans and overlooking the complex historical and environmental factors impacting Haiti. Vodou has been described as reflecting
misogynistic Misogyny () is hatred of, contempt for, or prejudice against women. It is a form of sexism that is used to keep women at a lower social status than men, thus maintaining the societal roles of patriarchy. Misogyny has been widely practiced fo ...
elements of Haitian culture while at the same time empowering women to a greater extent than in many religions by allowing them to become priestesses. As social and spiritual leaders, women can also lay claim to moral authority in Vodou. Some practitioners state that the lwa determined their sexual orientation, turning them homosexual; various priests are homosexual, and the lwa Èzili is seen as the patron of ''masisi'' (gay men).


Practices

Mostly revolving around interactions with the lwa, Vodou ceremonies make use of song, drumming, dance, prayer, possession, and animal sacrifice. Practitioners gather together for ''sèvices'' (services) in which they commune with the lwa. Ceremonies for a particular lwa often coincide with the feast day of the Roman Catholic saint that that lwa is associated with. The mastery of ritual forms is considered imperative in Vodou. The purpose of ritual is to ''echofe'' (heat things up), thus bringing about change whether that be to remove barriers or to facilitate healing. Secrecy is important in Vodou. It is an initiatory tradition, operating through a system of graded induction or initiation. When an individual agrees to serve a lwa, it is deemed a lifelong commitment. Vodou has a strong oral culture, and its teachings are primarily disseminated through oral transmission. Texts began appearing in the mid-twentieth century, at which point they were utilised by Vodouists. Métraux described Vodou as "a practical and utilitarian religion".


''Oungan'' and ''Manbo''

Male priests are referred to as an ''
oungan Oungan (also written as ''houngan'') is the term for a male priest in Haitian Vodou (a female priest is known as a (''mambo''). The term is derived from Gbe languages (Fon, Ewe, Adja, Phla, Gen, Maxi and Gun). The word hounnongan means chief p ...
'', alternatively spelled ''houngan'' or ''hungan'', or a ''prèt Vodou'' ("Vodou priest"). Priestesses are termed '' manbo'', alternatively spelled ''mambo''. Oungan numerically dominate in rural Haiti, while there is a more equitable balance of priests and priestesses in urban areas. The oungan and manbo are tasked with organising liturgies, preparing initiations, offering consultations with clients using divination, and preparing remedies for the sick. There is no priestly hierarchy, with oungan and manbo being largely self-sufficient. In many cases, the role is hereditary. Historical evidence suggests that the role of the oungan and manbo intensified over the course of the 20th century. As a result, "temple Vodou" is now more common in rural areas of Haiti than it was in historical periods. Vodou teaches that the lwa call an individual to become an oungan or manbo, and if the latter refuses then misfortune may befall them. A prospective oungan or manbo must normally rise through the other roles in a Vodou congregation before undergoing an apprenticeship with a pre-existing oungan or manbo lasting several months or years. After this apprenticeship, they undergo an initiation ceremony, the details of which are kept secret from non-initiates. Other oungan and manbo do not undergo any apprenticeship, but claim that they have gained their training directly from the lwa. Their authenticity is often challenged, and they are referred to as ''hungan-macoutte'', a term bearing some disparaging connotations. Becoming an oungan or manbo is expensive, often requiring the purchase of ritual paraphernalia and land on which to build a temple. To finance this, many save up for a long time. Vodouists believe that the oungan's role is modelled on the lwa Loco; in Vodou mythology, he was the first oungan and his consort Ayizan the first manbo. The oungan and manbo are expected to display the power of
second sight Extrasensory perception or ESP, also called sixth sense, is a claimed paranormal ability pertaining to reception of information not gained through the recognized physical senses, but sensed with the mind. The term was adopted by Duke Universit ...
, something that is regarded as a gift from the creator deity that can be revealed to the individual through visions or dreams. Many priests and priestesses are often attributed fantastical powers in stories told about them, such as that they could spend several days underwater. Priests and priestess also bolster their status with claims that they have received spiritual revelations from the lwa, sometimes via visits to the lwa's own abode. There is often bitter competition between different oungan and manbo. Their main income derives from healing the sick, supplemented with payments received for overseeing initiations and selling talismans and amulets. In many cases, these oungan and manbo become wealthier than their clients. Oungan and manbo are generally powerful and well-respected members of Haitian society. Being an oungan or manbo provides an individual with both social status and material profit, although the fame and reputation of individual priests and priestesses can vary widely. Respected Vodou priests and priestesses are often literate in a society where semi-literacy and illiteracy are common. They can recite from printed sacred texts and write letters for illiterate members of their community. Owing to their prominence in a community, the oungan and manbo can effectively become political leaders, or otherwise exert an influence on local politics. Some oungan and manbo have linked themselves closely with professional politicians, for instance during the reign of the Duvaliers.


The Ounfò

A Vodou temple is called an '' ounfò'', varyingly spelled ''hounfò'', ''hounfort'', or ''humfo''. An alternative term is ''gangan'', although the connotations of this term vary regionally in Haiti. Most communal Vodou activities center around this ounfò, forming what is called "temple Vodou". The size and shape of ounfòs vary, from basic shacks to more lavish structures, the latter being more common in Port-au-Prince than elsewhere in Haiti; their designs are dependent on the resources and tastes of the oungan or manbo running them. Each ounfò being autonomous, they have their own unique customs. The main ceremonial room within the ounfò is the ''peristil'' or ''peristyle'', understood as a microcosmic representation of the cosmos. In the peristil, brightly painted posts hold up the roof; the central post is the ''poto mitan'' or ''poteau mitan'', which is used as a pivot during ritual dances and serves as the "passage of the spirits" by which the lwa enter the room during ceremonies. It is around this central post that offerings, including both vèvè and animal sacrifices, are made. However, in the Haitian diaspora many Vodouists perform their rites in basements, where no poto mitan are available. The peristil typically has an earthen floor, allowing libations to the lwa to drain directly into the soil, although where this is not possible, libations are instead poured into an enamel basin. Some peristil include seating around the walls. Adjacent rooms in the ounfò include the ''caye-mystéres'', which is also known as the ''bagi'', ''badji'', or ''sobadji''. This is where stonework altars, known as ''pè'', stand against the wall or are arranged in tiers. The caye-mystéres is also used to store clothing associated with the possessing lwa that is placed onto the individual experiencing possession during the rituals in the peristil. Many pè also have a sink sacred to the lwa Danbala-Wedo. If space is available, the ounfò may also have a room set aside for the patron lwa of that temple. Many ounfòs have a room known as the ''djévo'' in which the initiate is confined during their initiatory ceremony. Every ounfò usually has a room or corner of a room devoted to Erzuli Freda. Some ounfò will also have additional rooms in which the oungan or manbo lives. The area around the ounfò often contains sacred objects, such as a pool of water for Danbala, a black cross for Baron Samedi, and a ''pince'' (iron bar) embedded in a
brazier A brazier () is a container used to burn charcoal or other solid fuel for cooking, heating or cultural rituals. It often takes the form of a metal box or bowl with feet. Its elevation helps circulate air, feeding oxygen to the fire. Braziers h ...
for Criminel. Sacred trees, known as ''arbres-reposoirs'', sometimes mark the external boundary of the ounfò, and are encircled by stone-work edging. Hanging from these trees can be found ''macounte'' straw sacks, strips of material, and animal skulls. Various animals, particularly birds but also some mammal species such as goats, are sometimes kept within the perimeter of the ounfò for use as sacrifices.


The congregation

Forming a spiritual community of practitioners, those who congregate at the ounfò are known as the ''pititt-caye'' (children of the house). They worship under the authority of an oungan or manbo, below whom is ranked the ''ounsi'', individuals who make a lifetime commitment to serving the lwa. Members of either sex can join the ounsi, although the majority are female. The ounsi have many duties, such as cleaning the peristil, sacrificing animals, and taking part in the dances at which they must be prepared to be possessed by a lwa. The oungan and manbo oversee initiatory ceremonies whereby people become ounsi, oversee their training, and act as their counsellor, healer, and protector. In turn, the ounsi are expected to be obedient to their oungan or manbo. One of the ounsi becomes the ''hungenikon'' or ''reine-chanterelle'', the mistress of the choir. This individual is responsible for overseeing the liturgical singing and shaking the chacha rattle which is used to control the rhythm during ceremonies. They are aided by the ''hungenikon-la-place'', ''commandant general de la place'', or
quartermaster Quartermaster is a military term, the meaning of which depends on the country and service. In land armies, a quartermaster is generally a relatively senior soldier who supervises stores or barracks and distributes supplies and provisions. In m ...
, who is charged with overseeing offerings and keeping order during the ceremonies. Another figure is ''le confiance'' (the confidant), the ounsi who oversees the ounfò's administrative functions. The initiates of a particular priest/priestess form "families." A priest becomes the ''papa'' ("father") while the priestess becomes the ''manman'' ("mother") to the initiate; the initiate becomes their initiator's ''pitit'' (spiritual child). Those who share an initiator refer to themselves as "brother" and "sister." In rural areas especially, a congregation may consist of an extended family. In other examples, particularly in urban areas, an ounfò can act as an initiatory family. Individuals may join a particular ounfò because it exists in their locality or because their family are already members. Alternatively, it may be that the ounfò places particular focus on a lwa whom they are devoted to, or that they are impressed by the oungan or manbo who runs the ounfò in question, perhaps having been treated by them. Congregants often form a ''sosyete soutyen'' (''société soutien,'' support society), through which subscriptions are paid to help maintain the ounfò and organize the major religious feasts. In rural Haiti, it is often the patriarch of an extended family who serves as the priest for said family. Families, particularly in rural areas, often believe that through their ''zansèt'' (ancestors) they are tied to a ''premye mèt bitasyon'' (original founder); their descent from this figure is seen as giving them their inheritance both of the land and of familial spirits.


Initiation

Vodou is hierarchical and includes a series of initiations. There are typically four levels of initiation, the fourth of which makes someone an Houngan or mambo. The initial initiation rite is known as the ''kanzo''; this term also describes the initiate themselves. There is much variation in what these initiation ceremonies entail, and the details are kept secret. Vodou entails practitioners being encouraged to undertake stages of initiation into a state of mind called ''konesans'' (conaissance or knowledge). Successive initiations are required to move through the various ''konesans'', and it is in these konesans that priestly power is believed to reside. Initiation is generally expensive, complex, and requires significant preparation. Prospective initiates are for instance required to memorise many songs and learn the characteristics of various lwa. Vodouists believe the lwa may encourage an individual towards initiation, bringing misfortune upon them if they refuse. Initiation will often be preceded by bathing in special preparations. The first part of the initiation rite is known as the ''kouche'', ''coucher'', or ''huño'', and is marked by salutations and offerings to the lwa. It begins with the ''chire ayizan'', a ceremony in which palm leaves are frayed and then worn by the initiate. Sometimes the ''bat ge'' or ''batter guerre'' ("beating war") is performed instead, designed to beat away the old. During the rite, the initiate comes to be regarded as the child of a particular lwa, their ''mèt tèt''. This is followed by a period of seclusion within the ''djèvo'' known as the ''kouche''. A deliberately uncomfortable experience, it involves the initiate sleeping on a mat on the floor, often with a stone for a pillow. They wear a white tunic, and a specific salt-free diet is followed. It includes a ''lav tèt'' or ''lave tèt'' ("head washing") to prepare the initiate for having the lwa enter and reside in their head. Voudoists believe that one of the two parts of the human soul, the gwo bonnanj, is removed from the initiate's head, thus making space for the lwa to enter and reside there. The initiation ceremony requires the preparation of ''pot tèts'' (head pots), usually white porcelain cups with a lid in which a range of items are placed, including hair, food, herbs, and oils. These are then regarded as a home for the spirits. After the period of seclusion in the djèvo, the new initiate is brought out and presented to the congregation; they are now referred to as ''ounsi lave tèt''. When the new initiate is presented to the rest of the community, they carry their ''pot tèt'' on their head, before placing it on the altar. The final stage of the process involves the initiate being given an ason rattle. The initiation process is seen to have ended when the new initiate is first possessed by a lwa. Initiation is seen as creating a bond between a devotee and their tutelary lwa, and the former will often take on a new name that alludes to the name of their lwa.


Shrines and altars

The creation of sacred works is important in Vodou. Votive objects used in Haiti are typically made from industrial materials, including iron, plastic, sequins, china, tinsel, and plaster. An altar, or pè, will often contain images (typically
lithographs Lithography () is a planographic method of printing originally based on the immiscibility of oil and water. The printing is from a stone (lithographic limestone) or a metal plate with a smooth surface. It was invented in 1796 by the German a ...
) of Roman Catholic saints. Since developing in the mid-nineteenth century,
chromolithography Chromolithography is a method for making multi-colour prints. This type of colour printing stemmed from the process of lithography, and includes all types of lithography that are printed in colour. When chromolithography is used to reproduce ph ...
has also had an impact on Vodou imagery, facilitating the widespread availability of images of the Roman Catholic saints who are equated with the lwa. Various Vodouists have made use of varied available materials in constructing their shrines. Cosentino encountered a shrine in Port-au-Prince where Baron Samedi was represented by a plastic statue of
Santa Claus Santa Claus, also known as Father Christmas, Saint Nicholas, Saint Nick, Kris Kringle, or simply Santa, is a Legend, legendary figure originating in Western Christianity, Western Christian culture who is said to Christmas gift-bringer, bring ...
wearing a black sombrero, and in another by a statue of ''
Star Wars ''Star Wars'' is an American epic film, epic space opera multimedia franchise created by George Lucas, which began with the Star Wars (film), eponymous 1977 film and quickly became a worldwide popular culture, pop-culture Cultural impact of S ...
''-character
Darth Vader Darth Vader is a fictional character in the ''Star Wars'' franchise. The character is the central antagonist of the original trilogy and, as Anakin Skywalker, is one of the main protagonists in the prequel trilogy. ''Star Wars'' creator George ...
. In Port-au-Prince, it is common for Vodouists to include human skulls on their altar for the gedes. Many practitioners will also have an altar devoted to their ancestors in their home, to which they direct offerings. Various spaces other than the temple are used for Vodou ritual. Cemeteries are seen as places where spirits reside, making them suitable for certain rituals, especially to approach the spirits of the dead. In rural Haiti, cemeteries are often family owned and play a key role in family rituals. Crossroads are also ritual locations, selected as they are believed to be points of access to the spirit world. Other spaces used for Vodou rituals include Christian churches, rivers, the sea, fields, and markets. Certain trees are regarded as having spirits resident in them and are used as natural altars. Different species of tree are associated with different lwa; Oyu is for linked with mango trees, and Danbala with
bougainvillea ''Bougainvillea'' ( , ) is a genus of thorny ornamental vines, bushes, and trees belonging to the four o' clock family, Nyctaginaceae. It is native to eastern South America, found from Brazil, west to Peru, and south to southern Argentina. ...
. Selected trees in Haiti have had metal items affixed to them, serving as shrines to Ogou, who is associated with both iron and the roads. Spaces for ritual also appear in the homes of many Vodouists. These may vary from complex altars to more simple variants including only images of saints alongside candles and a
rosary The Rosary (; la, , in the sense of "crown of roses" or "garland of roses"), also known as the Dominican Rosary, or simply the Rosary, refers to a set of prayers used primarily in the Catholic Church, and to the physical string of knots or b ...
. Drawings known as ''
vèvè A ''veve'' (also spelled ''vèvè'' or ''vevè'') is a religious symbol commonly used in different branches of Vodun throughout the African diaspora, such as Haitian Vodou and Louisiana Voodoo. The ''veve'' acts as a "beacon" for the '' loa'', ...
'' are sketched onto the floor of the peristil using cornmeal, ash, coffee grounds, or powdered eggshells; these are central to Vodou ritual. Usually arranged symmetrically around the poteau-mitan, these designs sometimes incorporate letters; their purpose is to summon lwa. Inside the peristil, practitioners also unfurl ceremonial flags known as '' drapo'' (flags) at the start of a ceremony. Often made of silk or velvet and decorated with shiny objects such as sequins, the drapo often feature either the vèvè of specific lwa they are dedicated to or depictions of the associated Roman Catholic saint. These drapo are understood as points of entry through which the lwa can enter the peristil. A ''batèms'' (baptism) is a ritual used to make an object a vessel for the lwa. Objects consecrated for ritual use are believed to contain a spiritual essence or power called ''nanm''. The ''ason'' (also written as ''asson'') is a sacred rattle used in summoning the lwa. It consists of an empty, dried gourd covered in beads and snake vertebra. Prior to being used in ritual it requires consecration. It is a symbol of the priesthood; assuming the duties of a manbo or oungan is referred to as "taking the ''ason''." Another type of sacred object are the "thunder stones", often prehistoric axe-heads, which are associated with specific lwa and kept in oil to preserve their power.


Offerings and animal sacrifice

Feeding the lwa is of great importance in Vodou, with rites often termed ''manje lwa'' ("feeding the lwa"). Offering food and drink to the lwa is the most common ritual within the religion, conducted both communally and in the home. An oungan or manbo will also organize an annual feast for their congregation in which animal sacrifices to various lwa will be made. The choice of food and drink offered varies depending on the lwa in question, with different lwa believed to favour different foodstuffs. Danbala for instance requires white foods, especially eggs. Foods offered to Legba, whether meat, tubers, or vegetables, need to be grilled on a fire. The lwa of the Ogu and Nago nations prefer raw rum or
clairin Clairin (, , ht, Kleren) is a distilled alcoholic spirit made from sugarcane produced in Haiti, that undergoes the same distillation process as rhum. There are between 500 and 600 micro-distilleries in Haiti, compared to fewer than 50 in total ...
as an offering. A ''manje sèk'' (dry meal) is an offering of grains, fruit, and vegetables that often precedes a simple ceremony; it takes its name from the absence of blood. Species used for sacrifice include chickens, goats, and bulls, with pigs often favored for petwo lwa. The animal may be washed, dressed in the color of the specific lwa, and marked with food or water. Often, the animal's throat will be cut and the blood collected in a calabash. Chickens are often killed by the pulling off of their heads; their limbs may be broken beforehand. The organs are removed and placed on the altar or vèvè. The flesh will be cooked and placed on the altar, subsequently often being buried. Maya Deren wrote that: "The intent and emphasis of sacrifice is not upon the death of the animal, it is upon the transfusion of its life to the lwa; for the understanding is that flesh and blood are of the essence of life and vigor, and these will restore the divine energy of the god." Because Agwé is believed to reside in the sea, rituals devoted to him often take place beside a large body of water such as a lake, river, or sea. His devotees sometimes sail out to Trois Ilets, drumming and singing, where they throw a white sheep overboard as a sacrifice to him. The food is typically offered when it is cool; it remains there for a while before humans can then eat it. The food is often placed within a ''kwi'', a calabash shell bowl. Once selected, the food is placed on special
calabash Calabash (; ''Lagenaria siceraria''), also known as bottle gourd, white-flowered gourd, long melon, birdhouse gourd, New Guinea bean, Tasmania bean, and opo squash, is a vine grown for its fruit. It can be either harvested young to be consumed ...
es known as ''assiettes de Guinée'' which are located on the altar. Offerings not consumed by the celebrants are then often buried or left at a crossroads. Libations might be poured into the ground. Vodouists believe that the lwa then consume the essence of the food. Certain foods are also offered in the belief that they are intrinsically virtuous, such as grilled maize, peanuts, and cassava. These are sometimes sprinkled over animals that are about to be sacrificed or piled upon the ''vèvè'' designs on the floor of the ''peristil''.


The ''Dans''

Vodou's nocturnal gatherings are often referred to as the ''dans'' ("dance"), reflecting the prominent role that dancing has in such ceremonies. Their purpose is to invite a lwa to enter the ritual space and possess one of the worshippers, through whom they can communicate with the congregation. The success of this procedure is predicated on mastering the different ritual actions and on getting the aesthetic right to please the lwa. The proceedings can last for the entirety of the night. The dancing takes place counterclockwise around the poto mitan. On arriving, the congregation typically disperse along the perimeter of the peristil. The ritual often begins with Roman Catholic prayers and hymns; these are often led by a figure known as the ''prèt savann'', although not all ounfò have anyone in this role. This is followed by the shaking of the ''ason'' rattle to summon the lwa. Two Haitian Creole songs, the Priyè Deyò ("Outside Prayers"), may then be sung, lasting from 45 minutes to an hour. The main lwa are then saluted, individually, in a specific order. Legba always comes first, as he is believed to open the way for the others. Each lwa may be offered either three or seven songs, which are specific to them. The rites employed to call down the lwa vary depending on the nation in question. During large-scale ceremonies, the lwa are invited to appear through the drawing of patterns, known as ''vèvè'', on the ground using cornmeal. Also used to call down the spirits is a process of drumming, singing, prayers, and dances. Libations and offerings of food are made to the lwa, which includes animal sacrifices. The order and protocol for welcoming the lwa is referred to as ''regleman''. A symbol of the religion, the drum is perhaps the most sacred item in Vodou. Vodouists believe that ritual drums contain an etheric force, the ''nanm'', and a spirit called ''ountò''. Specific ceremonies accompany the construction of a drum so that it is considered suitable for use in Vodou ritual. In the ''bay manje tanbou'' ("feeding of the drum") ritual, offerings are given to the drum itself. Reflecting its status, when Vodouists enter the peristil they customarily bow before the drums. Different types of drum are used, sometimes reserved for rituals devoted to specific lwa; petwo rites for instance involve two types of drum, whereas rada rituals require three. In Vodou ritual, drummers are called ''tanbouryes'' (''tambouriers''), and becoming one requires a lengthy apprenticeship. The drumming style, choice of rhythm, and composition of the orchestra differs depending on which nation of lwa are being invoked. The drum rhythms typically generate a ''kase'' ("break"), which the master drummer will initiate to oppose the main rhythm being played by the rest of the drummers. This is seen as having a destabilizing effect on the dancers and helping to facilitate their possession. The drumming is typically accompanied by singing, usually in Haitian Creole. These songs are often structured around a call and response, with a soloist singing a line and the chorus responding with either the same line or an abbreviated version. The soloist is the ''oundjenikon'', who maintains the rhythm with a rattle. Lyrically simple and repetitive, these songs are invocations to summon a lwa. As well as drumming, dancing plays a major role in ritual, with the drumming providing the rhythm for the dance. The dances are simple, lacking complex choreography, and usually involve the dancers moving counterclockwise around the poto mitan. Specific dance movements can indicate the lwa or their nation being summoned; dances for Agwe for instance imitate swimming motions. Vodouists believe that the lwa renew themselves through the vitality of the dancers.


Spirit possession

Spirit possession constitutes an important element of Vodou, being at the heart of many of its rituals. The person being possessed is referred to as the ''chwal'' (horse); the act of possession is called "mounting a horse". Vodou teaches that a lwa can possess an individual regardless of gender; both male and female lwa can possess either men or women. Although children are often present at these ceremonies, they are rarely possessed as it is considered too dangerous. While the specific drums and songs used are designed to encourage a specific lwa to possess someone, sometimes an unexpected lwa appears and takes possession instead. In some instances a succession of lwa possess the same individual, one after the other. The trance of possession is known as the ''kriz lwa''. Vodouists believe that during this process, the lwa enters the head of the chwal and displaces their gwo bon anj. This displacement is believed to cause the chwal to tremble and convulse; Maya Deren described a look of "anguish, ordeal and blind terror" on the faces of those as they became possessed. Because their consciousness has been removed from their head during the possession, Vodouists believe that the chwal will have no memory of what occurs during the incident. The length of the possession varies, often lasting a few hours but sometimes several days. It may end with the chwal collapsing in a semi-conscious state; they are typically left physically exhausted. Some individuals attending the dance will put a certain item, often wax, in their hair or headgear to prevent possession. Once the lwa possesses an individual, the congregation greet it with a burst of song and dance. The chwal will typically bow before the officiating priest or priestess and prostrate before the poto mitan. The chwal is often escorted into an adjacent room where they are dressed in clothing associated with the possessing lwa. Alternatively, the clothes are brought out and they are dressed in the peristil itself. Once the chwal has been dressed, congregants kiss the floor before them. These costumes and props help the chwal take on the appearance of the lwa. Many ounfò have a large wooden phallus on hand which is used by those possessed by Ghede lwa during their dances. The chwal takes on the behavior and expressions of the possessing lwa; their performance can be very theatrical. Those believing themselves possessed by the serpent Danbala, for instance, often slither on the floor, dart out their tongue, and climb the posts of the peristil. Those possessed by Zaka, lwa of agriculture, will dress as a peasant in a straw hat with a clay pipe and will often speak in a rustic accent. The chwal will often then join in with the dances, dancing with anyone whom they wish to, or sometimes eating and drinking. Sometimes the lwa, through the chwal, will engage in financial transactions with members of the congregation, for instance by selling them food that has been given as an offering or lending them money. Possession facilitates direct communication between the lwa and its followers; through the chwal, the lwa communicates with their devotees, offering counsel, chastisement, blessings, warnings about the future, and healing. Lwa possession has a healing function, with the possessed individual expected to reveal possible cures to the ailments of those assembled. Clothing that the chwal touches is regarded as bringing luck. The lwa may also offer advice to the individual they are possessing; because the latter is not believed to retain any memory of the events, it is expected that other members of the congregation will pass along the lwa's message. In some instances, practitioners have reported being possessed at other times of ordinary life, such as when someone is in the middle of the market, or when they are asleep.


Divination

A common form of divination employed by oungan and manbo is to invoke a lwa into a pitcher, where it will then be asked questions. The casting of shells is also used in some ounfo. A form of divination associated especially with Petwo lwa is the use of a '' gembo'' shell, sometimes with a mirror attached to one side and affixed at both ends to string. The string is twirled and the directions of the shell used to interpret the responses of the lwa. Playing cards will also often be used for divination. Other types of divination used by Vodouists include studying leaves, coffee grounds or cinders in a glass, or looking into a candle flame.


Healing and harming

Healing plays an important role in Vodou. A client will approach the manbo or oungan complaining of illness or misfortune and the latter will use
divination Divination (from Latin ''divinare'', 'to foresee, to foretell, to predict, to prophesy') is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic, standardized process or ritual. Used in various forms throughout histor ...
to determine the cause and select a remedy. Manbo and oungan typically have a wide knowledge of plants and their uses in healing. To heal, they often prescribe baths, water infused with various ingredients. In Haiti, there are also "herb doctors" who offer herbal remedies for various ailments; separate from the oungan and manbo, they have a more limited range in the problems that they deal with. Manbo and oungan often provide talismans, called ''pwen'' (points) or ''travay'' (work). Certain talismans, appearing as wrapped bundles, are called ''pakèt'' or ''pakèt kongo''. They may also produce powders for a specific purpose, such as to attract good luck or aid seduction. In Haiti, oungan or manbo may advise their clients to seek assistance from medical professionals, while the latter may also send their patients to see an oungan or manbo. Amid the spread of the
HIV The human immunodeficiency viruses (HIV) are two species of ''Lentivirus'' (a subgroup of retrovirus) that infect humans. Over time, they cause acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), a condition in which progressive failure of the immune ...
/
AIDS Human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) is a spectrum of conditions caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), a retrovirus. Following initial infection an individual m ...
virus in Haiti during the late twentieth century, health care professionals raised concerns that Vodou was contributing to the spread of the disease, both by sanctioning sexual activity among a range of partners and by having individuals consult oungan and manbo for medical advice rather than doctors. By the early 21st century, various
NGO A non-governmental organization (NGO) or non-governmental organisation (see spelling differences) is an organization that generally is formed independent from government. They are typically nonprofit entities, and many of them are active in h ...
s and other groups were working on bringing Vodou officiants into the broader campaign against HIV/AIDS. Vodou teaches that supernatural factors cause or exacerbate many problems. It holds that humans can cause supernatural harm to others, either unintentionally or deliberately, in the latter case exerting power over a person through possession of hair or nail clippings belonging to them. Vodouists also often believe that supernatural harm can be caused by other entities. The ''lougawou'' (
werewolf In folklore, a werewolf (), or occasionally lycanthrope (; ; uk, Вовкулака, Vovkulaka), is an individual that can shapeshift into a wolf (or, especially in modern film, a therianthropic hybrid wolf-like creature), either purposely or ...
) is a human, usually female, who transforms into an animals and drains blood from sleeping victims, while members of the Bizango secret society are feared for their reputed ability to transform into dogs, in which form they walk the streets at night. An individual who turns to the lwa to harm others is a ''choché'', or a ''bòkò'' or ''bokor'', although this latter term can also refer to an oungan generally. They are described as someone who ''sert des deux mains'' ("serves with both hands"), or is ''travaillant des deux mains'' ("working with both hands"). These practitioners employ ''baka'', malevolent spirits sometimes in animal form. Bòko are also believed to work with ''lwa achte'' ("bought lwa"), because the good lwa have rejected them as unworthy. Their rituals are often linked with petwo rites, and are similar to Jamaican
obeah Obeah, or Obayi, is an ancestrally inherited tradition of Akan witches of Ghana, Ivory Coast, and Togo and their descendants in the African diaspora of the Caribbean. Inheritors of the tradition are referred to as "obayifo" (Akan/Ghana-region ...
. According to Haitian popular belief, these bòkò engage in ''anvwamò'' or ''expeditions'', setting the dead against an individual to cause the latter's the sudden illness and death. In Haitian religion, it is commonly believed that an object can be imbued with supernatural qualities, making it a ''wanga'', which then generates misfortune and illness. In Haiti, there is much suspicion and censure toward those suspected of being bòkò, as well as fears regarding groups of these sorcerers. The curses of the bòkò are believed to be countered by the actions of the oungan and manbo, who can revert the curse through an exorcism that incorporates invocations of protective lwa, massages, and baths. In Haiti, some oungan and manbo have been accused of actively working with bòkò, organizing for the latter to curse individuals so that they can financially profit from removing these curses.


Funerals and the dead

Vodou features complex funerary customs. Following an individual's death, the ''desounen'' ritual frees the gwo bonnanj from their body and disconnects them from their tutelary lwa. The corpse is then bathed in a herbal infusion by an individual termed the ''benyè'', who gives the dead person messages to take with them. A wake, the ''veye'', follows. The body is then buried in the cemetery, often according to Roman Catholic custom. Haitian cemeteries are often marked by large crosses, symbols of Baron Samedi. In northern Haiti, an additional rite takes place at the ounfò on the day of the funeral, the ''kase kanari'' (breaking of the clay pot). In this, a jar is washed in substances including kleren, placed within a trench dug into the peristil floor, and then smashed. The trench is then refilled. The night after the funeral, the ''novena'' takes place at the home of the deceased, involving Roman Catholic prayers; a mass for them is held a year after death. Vodouists believe that the practitioner's spirit dwells at the bottom of a lake or river for a year and a day. A year and a day after death, the ''wete mò nan dlo'' ("extracting the dead from the waters of the abyss") ritual may take place, in which the deceased's gwo bonnanj is reclaimed from the realm of the dead and placed into a clay jar or bottle called the ''govi''. Now ensconced in the world of the living, the gwo bonnanj of this ancestor is deemed capable of assisting its descendants and guiding them with its wisdom. Practitioners sometimes believe that failing to conduct this ritual can result in misfortune, illness, and death for the family of the deceased. Offering then given to this dead spirit are termed ''manje mò''. Vodouists fear the dead's ability to harm the living; it is believed that the deceased may for instance punish their living relatives if the latter fail to mourn them appropriately. Another belief about the dead is one of the most sensationalized aspects of Haitian religion, belief in zombis. Many Vodouists believe that a bòkò can cause a person's death and then seize their ti bon ange, leaving the victim pliant and willing to obey their commands. Most commonly, it is thought the spirit becomes a zombi, in other cases it is thought the body does. Haitians generally do not fear zombis, but rather fear becoming one themselves.


Festival and Pilgrimage

On the saints' days of the Roman Catholic calendar, Vodouists often hold "birthday parties" for the lwa associated with the saint whose day it is. During these, special altars for the lwa being celebrated may be made, and their preferred food will be prepared. Devotions to the gede are particularly common around the days of the dead, All Saints (1 November) and All Souls (2 November). Honoring the dead, these celebrations largely take place in the cemeteries of Port-au-Prince. At this festival, those devoted to the Gede spirits dress in a manner linking in with the Gede's associations with death. This includes wearing black and purple clothing, funeral frock coats, black veils, top hats, and sunglasses. The build-up to
Easter Easter,Traditional names for the feast in English are "Easter Day", as in the '' Book of Common Prayer''; "Easter Sunday", used by James Ussher''The Whole Works of the Most Rev. James Ussher, Volume 4'') and Samuel Pepys''The Diary of Samuel ...
sees
Rara Rara is a form of festival music that originated in Haiti that is used for street processions, typically during Easter Week. The music centers on a set of cylindrical bamboo trumpets called vaksin, but also features drums, maracas, güiras or g ...
bands, largely consisting of peasants and the urban poor, process through the streets. Each Rara band is considered to be under the patronage of a particular ''lwa'', being in a contract with them that typically lasts for seven years. Some Rara leaders claim that a lwa specifically instructed them to form their band. An ''oungan'' will typically be part of the Rara band and will oversee their religious obligations, for instance performing rituals during their procession, or providing members with a ''benyen'' protective bath before they perform.
Pilgrimage A pilgrimage is a journey, often into an unknown or foreign place, where a person goes in search of new or expanded meaning about their self, others, nature, or a higher good, through the experience. It can lead to a personal transformation, aft ...
is a part of Haitian religious culture. In late July, Vodouist pilgrims visit Plaine du Nord near Bwa Caiman, where according to legend the Haitian Revolution began. There, sacrifices are made and pilgrims immerse themselves in the ''twou'' (mud pits). The pilgrims often mass before the Church of Saint Jacques, with Saint Jacques perceived as being the lwa Ogou. Another pilgrimage site is Saint d'Eau, a mountain associated with the lwa Èzili Dantò. Pilgrims visit a site outside the town of Ville-Bonheur where Èzili is claimed to have once appeared; there, they bathe under waterfalls. Haitian pilgrims commonly wear coloured ropes around their head or waist while undertaking their pilgrimage. The scholars of religion Terry Rey and Karen Richman argued that this may derive from a Congolese custom, ''kanga'' ("to tie"), during which sacred objects were ritually bound with rope.


History


Before the Revolution

In 1492,
Christopher Columbus Christopher Columbus * lij, Cristoffa C(or)ombo * es, link=no, Cristóbal Colón * pt, Cristóvão Colombo * ca, Cristòfor (or ) * la, Christophorus Columbus. (; born between 25 August and 31 October 1451, died 20 May 1506) was a ...
' Spanish expedition established the first European colony on
Hispaniola Hispaniola (, also ; es, La Española; Latin and french: Hispaniola; ht, Ispayola; tnq, Ayiti or Quisqueya) is an island in the Caribbean that is part of the Greater Antilles. Hispaniola is the most populous island in the West Indies, and th ...
. A growing European presence decimated the island's indigenous population, which was probably
Taíno The Taíno were a historic Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean, indigenous people of the Caribbean whose culture has been continued today by Taíno descendant communities and Taíno revivalist communities. At the time of European contact in the ...
, both through introduced diseases and exploitation as laborers. The European colonists then turned to imported West African slaves as a new source of labor; Africans first arrived on Hispaniola circa 1512. Most of the enslaved were prisoners of war. Some were probably priests of traditional religions, helping to transport their rites to the Americas. Others may have practiced
Abrahamic religions The Abrahamic religions are a group of religions centered around worship of the God of Abraham. Abraham, a Hebrew patriarch, is extensively mentioned throughout Abrahamic religious scriptures such as the Bible and the Quran. Jewish tradition ...
. Some were probably Muslim, although Islam exerted little influence on Vodou, while others probably practiced traditional religions that had already absorbed Roman Catholic iconographic influences. By the late 16th century, French colonists were settling in western Hispaniola; Spain recognized French sovereignty over that part of the island, which became
Saint-Domingue Saint-Domingue () was a French colony in the western portion of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, in the area of modern-day Haiti, from 1659 to 1804. The name derives from the Spanish main city in the island, Santo Domingo, which came to refer ...
, in a series of treaties signed in 1697. Moving away from its previous
subsistence economy A subsistence economy is an economy directed to basic subsistence (the provision of food, clothing, shelter) rather than to the market. Henceforth, "subsistence" is understood as supporting oneself at a minimum level. Often, the subsistence econo ...
, in the 18th century Saint-Domingue refocused its economy around the mass export of indigo, coffee, sugar, and cocoa to Europe. To work the plantations, the French colonists sought labor from various sources, including a renewed emphasis on importing enslaved Africans; whereas there were twice as many Africans as Europeans in the colony in 1681, by 1790 there were eleven times as many Africans as Europeans. Ultimately, Saint-Domingue became the colony with the largest number of slaves in the Caribbean. The ''
Code Noir The (, ''Black code'') was a decree passed by the French King Louis XIV in 1685 defining the conditions of slavery in the French colonial empire. The decree restricted the activities of free people of color, mandated the conversion of all e ...
'' issued by
King Louis XIV Louis XIV (Louis Dieudonné; 5 September 16381 September 1715), also known as Louis the Great () or the Sun King (), was List of French monarchs, King of France from 14 May 1643 until his death in 1715. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the Li ...
in 1685 forbade the open practice of African religions on Saint-Domingue. This Code compelled slave-owners to have their slaves baptised and instructed as Roman Catholics; the fact that the process of enslavement led to these Africans becoming Christian was a key way in which the slave-owners sought to morally legitimate their actions. However, many slave-owners took little interest in having their slaves instructed in Roman Catholic teaching; they often did not want their slaves to spend time celebrating saints' days rather than laboring and were also concerned that black congregations could provide scope to foment revolt. Enslavement destroyed the social fabric of African traditional religions, which were typically rooted in ethnic and family membership. Although certain cultural assumptions about the nature of the universe would have been widely shared among the enslaved Africans, they came from diverse linguistic and ethno-cultural backgrounds and had to forge common cultural practices on Hispaniola. Gradually over the course of the 18th century, Vodou emerged as "a composite of various African ethnic traditions", merging diverse practices into a more cohesive form. These African religions had to be practiced secretly, with Roman Catholic iconography and rituals probably adopted so as to conceal the true identity of the deities that enslaved Africans were serving. This resulted in a system of correspondences between African spirits and Roman Catholic saints. Afro-Haitians adopted other aspects of French colonial culture; Vodou drew influence from European
grimoire A grimoire ( ) (also known as a "book of spells" or a "spellbook") is a textbook of magic, typically including instructions on how to create magical objects like talismans and amulets, how to perform magical spells, charms and divination, and ...
s, as well as European '' commedia'' performances. Also an influence was
Freemasonry Freemasonry or Masonry refers to fraternal organisations that trace their origins to the local guilds of stonemasons that, from the end of the 13th century, regulated the qualifications of stonemasons and their interaction with authorities ...
, after Masonic lodges were established across Saint-Domingue in the 18th century. Vodou rituals took place in secret, usually at night; one such rite was described during the 1790s by a white man,
Médéric Louis Élie Moreau de Saint-Méry Médéric Louis Élie Moreau de Saint-Méry (13 January 1750 – 28 January 1819), son of Bertrand-Médéric and Marie-Rose Moreau de Saint-Méry, was born in Fort-Royale, Martinique. He was a lawyer and writer with a career in public office in F ...
. Some enslaved Afro-Haitians escaped to form
Maroon Maroon ( US/ UK , Australia ) is a brownish crimson color that takes its name from the French word ''marron'', or chestnut. "Marron" is also one of the French translations for "brown". According to multiple dictionaries, there are var ...
groups, which often practiced Vodou in forms influenced by the ethno-cultural background of their leaders.


The Haitian Revolution and the 19th century

While scholars debate Vodou's role in the Haitian Revolution, in Haitian culture, the religion has long been presented as having had a vital role within it. Two of the revolution's early leaders, Boukman and Francois Mackandal, were reputed to be powerful houngans. According to legend, a Vodou ritual took place in Bois-Caïman on 14 August 1791 at which the participants swore to overthrow the slave owners. After this ritual they massacred whites living in the local area, sparking the Revolution. Although a popular tale in Haitian folklore, it has no historical evidence to support it. Amid growing rebellion, the French Emperor
Napoleon Bonaparte Napoleon Bonaparte ; it, Napoleone Bonaparte, ; co, Napulione Buonaparte. (born Napoleone Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French military commander and political leader who ...
ordered troops, led by
Charles Leclerc Charles Marc Hervé Perceval Leclerc (; born 16 October 1997) is a Monégasque racing driver, currently racing in Formula One for Scuderia Ferrari. He won the GP3 Series championship in 2016 and the FIA Formula 2 Championship in . Leclerc ma ...
, into the colony in 1801. In 1803 the French military conceded defeat and the rebel leader
Jean-Jacques Dessalines Jean-Jacques Dessalines (Haitian Creole: ''Jan-Jak Desalin''; ; 20 September 1758 – 17 October 1806) was a leader of the Haitian Revolution and the first ruler of an independent First Empire of Haiti, Haiti under the Constitution of Haiti, 1 ...
proclaimed Saint-Domingue to be a new republic named Haiti. After Dessalines died in 1806, Haiti split into two countries before reuniting in 1822. The Revolution broke up the large land-ownings and created a society of small subsistence farmers. Haitians largely began living in ''lakous'', or extended family compounds, which enabled the preservation of African-derived Creole religions. These lakous often had their own ''lwa rasin'' (root lwa), being intertwined with concepts of land and kinship. Many Roman Catholic missionaries had been killed during the Revolution, and after its victory Dessalines declared himself head of the Church in Haiti. In protest at these actions, the Roman Catholic Church cut ties with Haiti in 1805; this allowed Vodou to predominate in the country. Many churches left abandoned by Roman Catholic congregations were adopted for Vodou rites, continuing the syncretization between the different systems. At this point, with no new arrivals from Africa, Vodou began to stabilise, transforming from "a widely-scattered series of local cults" into "''a'' religion". The Roman Catholic Church re-established its formal presence in Haiti in 1860. Haiti's first three presidents sought to suppress Vodou, using police to break-up nocturnal rituals; they feared it as a source of rebellion. In 1847,
Faustin Soulouque Faustin-Élie Soulouque (15 August 1782 – 3 August 1867) was a Haitian politician and military commander who served as President of Haiti from 1847 to 1849 and Emperor of Haiti from 1849 to 1859. Soulouque was a general in the Haitian Army w ...
became president; he was sympathetic to Vodou and allowed it to be practiced more openly. In the Bizoton Affair of 1863, several Vodou practitioners were accused of ritually killing a child before eating it. Historical sources suggest that they may have been tortured prior to confessing to the crime, at which they were executed. The affair received much attention.


20th century to the present

The U.S. occupied Haiti between 1915 and 1934. This encouraged international interest in Vodou, catered for in the sensationalist writings of Faustin Wirkus,
William Seabrook William Buehler Seabrook (February 22, 1884 – September 20, 1945) was an American occultist, explorer, traveler, journalist and writer, born in Westminster, Maryland. He began his career as a reporter and City Editor of the ''Augusta Chronic ...
, and John Craige. Some practitioners arranged shows based on Vodou rituals to entertain holidaymakers, especially in Port-au-Prince. The period also saw growing rural to urban migration in Haiti, and the increasing influence of the Roman Catholic Church. During the first thirty years of the 20th century, thousands of Haitians migrated to Cuba to work in expanding sugar industry, settling primarily in eastern provinces. There, Vodou spread from beyond the ''Haitiano-Cubanos'' and was adopted by other Cubans, including those who practiced Santería. 1941 saw the launch of ''Operation Nettoyage'' (Operation Cleanup), a process backed by the Roman Catholic Church to expunge Vodou, resulting in the destruction of many ounfòs and Vodou paraphernalia. Violent responses from Vodouists led President
Élie Lescot Antoine Louis Léocardie Élie Lescot (December 9, 1883 – October 20, 1974) was the President of Haiti from May 15, 1941 to January 11, 1946. He was a member of the country's mixed-race elite. He used the political climate of World War II to s ...
to abandon the Operation. Meanwhile, during the occupation, the indigenist movement among Haiti's middle classes encouraged a more positive assessment of Vodou and peasant culture, a trend supported by the appearance of professional
ethnological Ethnology (from the grc-gre, ἔθνος, meaning 'nation') is an academic field that compares and analyzes the characteristics of different peoples and the relationships between them (compare cultural, social, or sociocultural anthropology). ...
research on the topic. The Church's influence in Haiti was curtailed by
François Duvalier François Duvalier (; 14 April 190721 April 1971), also known as Papa Doc, was a Haitian politician of French Martiniquan descent who served as the President of Haiti from 1957 to 1971. He was elected president in the 1957 general election on ...
, the President of Haiti from 1957 to 1971. Although he restored Roman Catholicism's role as the state religion, Duvalier was widely perceived as a champion of Vodou, calling it "the supreme factor of Haitian unity". He utilized it for his own purposes, encouraging rumors about his own powers of sorcery. Under his government, regional networks of oungans doubled as the country's ''chefs-de-sections'' (rural section chiefs). After his son,
Jean-Claude Duvalier Jean-Claude Duvalier (; 3 July 19514 October 2014), nicknamed "Baby Doc" ( ht, Bebe Dòk), was a Haitian politician who was the President of Haiti from 1971 until he was overthrown by a popular uprising in February 1986. He succeeded his father F ...
, was ousted from office in 1986, there were attacks on Vodouists perceived to have supported the Duvaliers, partly motivated by Protestant anti-Vodou campaigns; practitioners called this violence the "Dechoukaj" ('uprooting'). Two groups, the Zantray and
Bode Nasyonal Bode may refer to: People * Bode (surname) * Bode Miller (born 1977), American skier * Bode Sowande (born 1948), Nigerian writer and dramatist * Bode Thomas (1918–1953), Nigerian politician Geography * Böde, village in Zala County, Hungar ...
, were formed to defend the rights of Vodouists, holding rallies and demonstrations in Haiti. Haiti's 1987 constitution enshrined
freedom of religion Freedom of religion or religious liberty is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or community, in public or private, to manifest religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship, and observance. It also includes the freedom ...
, after which President
Jean-Bertrand Aristide Jean-Bertrand Aristide (born 15 July 1953) is a Haitian former Salesian priest and politician who became Haiti's first democratically elected president. A proponent of liberation theology, Aristide was appointed to a parish in Port-au-Prince in ...
granted Vodou official recognition in 2003, thus allowing Vodouists to officiate at civil ceremonies such as weddings and funerals. Since the 1990s, evangelical Protestantism has grown in Haiti, generating tensions with Vodouists; these Protestants regard Vodou as Satanic, and unlike the Roman Catholic authorities have generally refused to compromise with Vodouists. The
2010 Haiti earthquake A disaster, catastrophic Moment magnitude scale, magnitude 7.0 Mw earthquake struck Haiti at 16:53 local time (21:53 UTC) on Tuesday, 12 January 2010. The epicenter was near the town of Léogâne, Ouest (department), Ouest department, a ...
fuelled conversion from Vodou to Protestantism, with many Protestants, including the U.S.
televangelist Televangelism (wikt:tele-, tele- "distance" and "evangelism," meaning "Christian ministry, ministry," sometimes called teleministry) is the use of media, specifically radio and television, to communicate Christianity. Televangelists are minister ...
Pat Robertson Marion Gordon "Pat" Robertson (born March 22, 1930) is an American media mogul, religious broadcaster, political commentator, former presidential candidate, and former Southern Baptist minister. Robertson advocates a conservative Christian ...
, claiming that the earthquake was punishment for the sins of the Haitian population, including their practice of Vodou. Mob attacks on Vodouists followed in the wake of the earthquake, and again in the wake of the 2010 cholera outbreak. Haitian emigration began in 1957 as largely upper and middle-class Haitians fled Duvalier's government, and intensified after 1971 when many poorer Haitians also tried to escape abroad. Many of these migrants took Vodou with them. In the U.S., Vodou has attracted non-Haitians, especially African Americans and migrants from other parts of the Caribbean region. There, Vodou has syncretized with other religious systems such as Santería and
Espiritismo ''Espiritismo'' (Portuguese language, Portuguese and Spanish language, Spanish for "Spiritism") is a term used in Latin America and the Caribbean to refer to the folk religions, popular belief that Goodness and evil, good and evil spirits can af ...
. In the U.S., those seeking to revive Louisiana Voodoo during the latter part of the 20th century initiated practices that brought the religion closer to Haitian Vodou or Santería that Louisiana Voodoo appears to have been early in that century.


Demographics

It is difficult to determine how many Haitians practice Vodou, largely because the country has never had an accurate census and many Vodouists will not openly admit they practice the religion. It is nevertheless the majority religion of Haiti, for most Haitians practice both Vodou and Roman Catholicism. An often used joke about Haiti holds that the island's population is 85% Roman Catholic, 15% Protestant, and 100% Vodou. Even some of those who reject Vodou acknowledge its close associations with Haitian identity. In the mid-20th century Métraux noted that Vodou was practiced by the majority of peasants and urban proletariat in Haiti. An estimated 80% of Haitians practice Vodou; in 1992, Desmangles put the number of Haitian practitioners at six million. Not all take part in the religion at all times, but many will turn to the assistance of Vodou priests and priestesses when in times of need. Individuals learn about the religion through their involvement in its rituals, either domestically or at the temple, rather than through special classes. Children learn how to take part in the religion largely from observing adults. Vodou does not focus on proselytizing; according to Brown, it has "no pretensions to the universal." It has nevertheless spread beyond Haiti, including to other Caribbean islands such as the Dominican Republic, Cuba, and Puerto Rico, but also to France and to the United States. Major ounfòs exist in U.S. cities such as Miami, New York City, Washington, DC, Boston, and
Oakland, California Oakland is the largest city and the county seat of Alameda County, California, United States. A major West Coast of the United States, West Coast port, Oakland is the largest city in the East Bay region of the San Francisco Bay Area, the third ...
.


Reception

Various scholars describe Vodou as one of the world's most maligned and misunderstood religions. Its reputation is notorious; in broader Anglophone and Francophone society, it has been widely associated with
sorcery Sorcery may refer to: * Magic (supernatural), the application of beliefs, rituals or actions employed to subdue or manipulate natural or supernatural beings and forces ** Witchcraft, the practice of magical skills and abilities * Magic in fiction, ...
,
witchcraft Witchcraft traditionally means the use of magic or supernatural powers to harm others. A practitioner is a witch. In medieval and early modern Europe, where the term originated, accused witches were usually women who were believed to have us ...
, and
black magic Black magic, also known as dark magic, has traditionally referred to the use of supernatural powers or magic for evil and selfish purposes, specifically the seven magical arts prohibited by canon law, as expounded by Johannes Hartlieb in 145 ...
. In U.S. popular culture, for instance, Haitian Vodou is usually portrayed as destructive and malevolent, attitudes often linked with anti-black racism. Non-practitioners have often depicted Vodou in literature, theater, and film; in many cases, such as the films '' White Zombie'' (1932) and ''
London Voodoo ''London Voodoo'' is a 2004 British horror film written, produced, and directed by Robert Pratten; and starring Doug Cockle, and Sara Stewart. The film centers on an analyst who has relocated his family, only for his wife to become possessed ...
'' (2004), these promote sensationalist views of the religion. The lack of any central Vodou authority has hindered efforts to combat these negative representations. Humanity's relationship with the lwa has been a recurring theme in Haitian art, and the Vodou pantheon was a major topic for the mid-20th century artists of the "Haitian Renaissance." Art collectors began to take an interest in Vodou ritual paraphernalia in the late 1950s, and by the 1970s an established market for this material had emerged, with some material being commodified for sale abroad. Exhibits of Vodou ritual material have been displayed abroad; the
Fowler Museum The Fowler Museum at UCLA, commonly known as The Fowler, and formerly Museum of Cultural History and Fowler Museum of Cultural History, is a museum on the campus of the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) which explores art and material ...
's exhibit on "Sacred Arts of Haitian Vodou" for instance traveled the U.S. for three years in the 1990s. Vodou has appeared in Haitian literature, and has also influenced Haitian music, as with the
rock band A rock band or pop band is a small musical ensemble that performs rock music, pop music, or a related genre. A four-piece band is the most common configuration in rock and pop music. In the early years, the configuration was typically two guita ...
Boukman Eksperyans, while theatre troupes have performed simulated Vodou rituals for audiences outside Haiti. Documentaries focusing on Vodou have appeared—such as Maya Deren's 1985 film ''Divine Horsemen'' or Anne Lescot and Laurence Magloire's 2002 work ''Of Men and Gods''—which have in turn encouraged some viewers to take a practical interest in the religion.


See also

*
Haitian mythology Haitian Vodou is a syncretic mixture of Roman Catholic rituals developed during the French colonial period, based on traditional African beliefs, with roots in Dahomey, Kongo and Yoruba traditions, and folkloric influence from the indigenous ...
*
Haitian Vodou art Haitian Vodou art is art related to the Haitian Vodou religion. This religion has its roots in West African traditional religions brought to Haiti by slaves, but has assimilated elements from Europe and the Americas and continues to evolve. The mos ...
*
Voodoo in popular culture Voodoo in popular culture encompasses various representations of practices associated with different forms of voodoo, including Haitian Vodou and Louisiana Voodoo, and other elements attributed to African diaspora religions, with such representation ...


References


Notes


Citations


Sources

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *


Further reading

* Bellegarde-Smith and Claudine, Michel. ''Haitian Vodou: Spirit, Myth & Reality.'' Indiana University Press, 2006. * * * * * * * * McAlister, Elizabeth. 1998.
The Madonna of 115th St. Revisited: Vodou and Haitian Catholicism in the Age of Transnationalism.
" In S. Warner, ed., Gatherings in Diaspora. Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press. * * * *


External links

*
Living Vodou
''
Speaking of Faith ''On Being'' is a podcast and a former public radio program. Hosted by Krista Tippett, it examines what it calls the "animating questions at the center of human life: What does it mean to be human, and how do we want to live?" Radio program and ...
'' from
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. Audio an
transcript
February 4, 2010 {{Authority control Afro-Caribbean religion Afro-Haitian culture Afro-American religion Christianity and religious syncretism Religion in Haiti