Guru ( sa, गुरु,
IAST: ''guru;''
Pali
Pali () is a Middle Indo-Aryan liturgical language native to the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist ''Pāli Canon'' or '' Tipiṭaka'' as well as the sacred language of '' Theravāda'' Buddh ...
'': garu'') is a
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
term for a "
mentor
Mentorship is the influence, guidance, or direction given by a mentor. A mentor is someone who teaches or gives help and advice to a less experienced and often younger person. In an organizational setting, a mentor influences the personal and p ...
,
guide
A guide is a person who leads travelers, sportspeople, or tourists through unknown or unfamiliar locations. The term can also be applied to a person who leads others to more abstract goals such as knowledge or wisdom.
Travel and recreation
Ex ...
,
expert, or master" of certain knowledge or field. In pan-
Indian traditions, a guru is more than a teacher: traditionally, the guru is a reverential figure to the disciple (or ''
shisya'' in Sanskrit, literally ''seeker
f knowledge or truth''
F, or f, is the sixth letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is ''ef'' (pronounced ), and the plural is ''efs''.
His ...
or student, with the guru serving as a "counselor, who helps mold values, shares
experiential knowledge Experiential knowledge is knowledge gained through experience, as opposed to a priori (before experience) knowledge: it can also be contrasted both with propositional (textbook) knowledge, and with practical knowledge.
Experiential knowledge is c ...
as much as
literal knowledge, an
exemplar in life, an inspirational source and who helps in the spiritual evolution of a student".
[ Whatever language it is written in, ]Judith Simmer-Brown
Judith Simmer-Brown is a Distinguished Professor of Contemplative and Religious Studies Emerita at Naropa University. She has expertise in Tibetan Buddhism, Women and Buddhism, Buddhist-Christian dialogue, Western Buddhism and Contemplative Educ ...
explains that a tantric spiritual text is often codified in an obscure twilight language
Twilight language is a rendering of the Sanskrit term ' (written also ', ', '; , THL ''gongpé ké'') or of their modern Indic equivalents (especially in Bengali, Odia, Assamese, Maithili, Hindi, Nepali, Braj Bhasha and Khariboli).
As popula ...
so that it cannot be understood by anyone without the verbal explanation of a qualified teacher, the guru. A guru is also one's spiritual guide, who helps one to discover the same potentialities that the ''guru'' has already realized.
The oldest references to the concept of ''guru'' are found in the earliest Vedic
upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''.
The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...
texts of Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
.[ The ''guru'', and '']gurukula
A or ( sa, गुरुकुल, gurukul) is a type of education system in ancient India with ('students' or 'disciples') living near or with the guru, in the same house. The guru-shishya tradition is a sacred one in Hinduism and possibly ...
'' – a school run by ''guru'', were an established tradition in India by the 1st millennium BCE
The 1st millennium BC, also known as the last millennium BC, was the period of time lasting from the years 1000 BC to 1 BC (10th to 1st centuries BC; in astronomy: JD – ). It encompasses the Iron Age in the Old World and sees the transition ...
, and these helped compose and transmit the various Vedas
upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''.
The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute th ...
, the Upanishads
The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , ...
, texts of various schools of Hindu philosophy
Hindu philosophy encompasses the philosophies, world views and teachings of Hinduism that emerged in Ancient India which include six systems ('' shad-darśana'') – Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.Andrew Nicholson ( ...
, and post-Vedic Shastras
''Shastra'' (, IAST: , ) is a Sanskrit word that means "precept, rules, manual, compendium, book or treatise" in a general sense.Monier Williams, Monier Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Article on 'zAstra'' The wo ...
ranging from spiritual knowledge to various arts.[ By about mid 1st millennium CE, archaeological and epigraphical evidence suggest numerous larger institutions of ''gurus'' existed in India, some near ]Hindu temples
A Hindu temple, or ''mandir'' or ''koil'' in Indian languages, is a house, seat and body of divinity for Hindus. It is a structure designed to bring human beings and gods together through worship, sacrifice, and devotion.; Quote: "The Hin ...
, where guru-shishya tradition helped preserve, create and transmit various fields of knowledge.[ These gurus led broad ranges of studies including ]Hindu scriptures
Hindu texts are manuscripts and voluminous historical literature which are related to any of the diverse traditions within Hinduism. A few of these texts are shared across these traditions and they are broadly considered Hindu scriptures. These ...
, Buddhist texts, grammar
In linguistics, the grammar of a natural language is its set of structural constraints on speakers' or writers' composition of clauses, phrases, and words. The term can also refer to the study of such constraints, a field that includes domain ...
, philosophy, martial arts, music
Music is generally defined as the art of arranging sound to create some combination of form, harmony, melody, rhythm or otherwise expressive content. Exact definitions of music vary considerably around the world, though it is an aspe ...
and painting
Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface (called the "matrix" or "support"). The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, and ai ...
.[
The tradition of the guru is also found in ]Jainism
Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle bein ...
, referring to a spiritual preceptor, a role typically served by a Jain ascetic.[Jeffery D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, IB Tauris, , pages 110, 196][ In ]Sikhism
Sikhism (), also known as Sikhi ( pa, ਸਿੱਖੀ ', , from pa, ਸਿੱਖ, lit=disciple', 'seeker', or 'learner, translit=Sikh, label=none),''Sikhism'' (commonly known as ''Sikhī'') originated from the word ''Sikh'', which comes fro ...
, the ''guru'' tradition has played a key role since its founding in the 15th century, its founder is referred to as Guru Nanak
Gurū Nānak (15 April 1469 – 22 September 1539; Gurmukhi: ਗੁਰੂ ਨਾਨਕ; pronunciation: , ), also referred to as ('father Nānak'), was the founder of Sikhism and is the first of the ten Sikh Gurus. His birth is celebrated w ...
, and its scripture as Guru Granth Sahib
The Guru Granth Sahib ( pa, ਗੁਰੂ ਗ੍ਰੰਥ ਸਾਹਿਬ, ) is the central holy religious scripture of Sikhism, regarded by Sikhs as the final, sovereign and Guru Maneyo Granth, eternal Guru following the lineage of the Sikh gur ...
.[ The guru concept has thrived in ]Vajrayāna
Vajrayāna ( sa, वज्रयान, "thunderbolt vehicle", "diamond vehicle", or "indestructible vehicle"), along with Mantrayāna, Guhyamantrayāna, Tantrayāna, Secret Mantra, Tantric Buddhism, and Esoteric Buddhism, are names referring t ...
Buddhism, where the tantric guru is considered a figure to worship and whose instructions should never be violated.[
]
Definition and etymology
The word ' (Sanskrit: ), a noun, connotes "teacher" in Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
, but in ancient Indian traditions it has contextual meanings with significance beyond what teacher means in English.[Joel Mlecko (1982)]
The Guru in Hindu Tradition
Numen, Volume 29, Fasc. 1, pages 33-61 The ''guru'' is more than someone who teaches specific type of knowledge, and includes in its scope someone who is also a "counselor, a sort of parent of mind (''Citta
''Citta'' (Pali and Sanskrit: चित्त; pronounced ''chitta''; IAST: ''citta)'' is one of three overlapping terms used in the '' nikaya'' to refer to the mind, the others being '' manas'' and '' viññāṇa''. Each is sometimes used i ...
'') and Self ('' Atman''), who helps mold values (Yamas
The Yamas ( sa, यम, translit=Yama), and their complement, the Niyamas, represent a series of "right living" or ethical rules within Yoga philosophy. It means "reining in" or "control". These are restraints for proper conduct as given in the ...
and Niyamas
The Niyamas ( sa, नियम, translit=Niyama) are positive duties or observances. In Indian traditions, particularly Yoga, niyamas and their complement, Yamas, are recommended activities and habits for healthy living, spiritual enlightenment ...
) and experiential knowledge as much as specific knowledge, an exemplar in life, an inspirational source and who reveals the meaning of life."[ The word has the same meaning in other languages derived from or borrowing words from Sanskrit, such as ]Hindi
Hindi ( Devanāgarī: or , ), or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi (Devanagari: ), is an Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in the Hindi Belt region encompassing parts of northern, central, eastern, and western India. Hindi has been ...
, Marathi
Marathi may refer to:
*Marathi people, an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group of Maharashtra, India
*Marathi language, the Indo-Aryan language spoken by the Marathi people
*Palaiosouda, also known as Marathi, a small island in Greece
See also
*
* ...
, Punjabi, Tamil
Tamil may refer to:
* Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia
**Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils
**Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia
* Tamil language, nativ ...
, Telugu
Telugu may refer to:
* Telugu language, a major Dravidian language of India
*Telugu people, an ethno-linguistic group of India
* Telugu script, used to write the Telugu language
** Telugu (Unicode block), a block of Telugu characters in Unicode
S ...
, Kannada
Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
, Malayalam
Malayalam (; , ) is a Dravidian languages, Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry (union territory), Puducherry (Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of 2 ...
, Odia, Bengali
Bengali or Bengalee, or Bengalese may refer to:
*something of, from, or related to Bengal, a large region in South Asia
* Bengalis, an ethnic and linguistic group of the region
* Bengali language, the language they speak
** Bengali alphabet, the w ...
, Gujarati
Gujarati may refer to:
* something of, from, or related to Gujarat, a state of India
* Gujarati people, the major ethnic group of Gujarat
* Gujarati language, the Indo-Aryan language spoken by them
* Gujarati languages, the Western Indo-Aryan sub ...
and Nepali. The Malayalam term Acharyan or Asan
Asan () is a city in South Chungcheong Province, South Korea. It borders the Seoul Capital Area to the north. Asan has a population of approximately 300,000.
Asan is known for its many hot springs and is a city of spas.
Asan has grown into th ...
is derived from the Sanskrit word Acharya
In Indian religions and society, an ''acharya'' (Sanskrit: आचार्य, IAST: ; Pali: ''ācariya'') is a preceptor and expert instructor in matters such as religion, or any other subject. An acharya is a highly learned person with a ...
.
As a noun the word means the imparter of knowledge (''jñāna
In Indian philosophy and religions, ' ( sa, ज्ञान}, ) is "knowledge".
The idea of ''jñāna'' centers on a cognitive event which is recognized when experienced. It is knowledge inseparable from the total experience of reality, especial ...
''; also Pali
Pali () is a Middle Indo-Aryan liturgical language native to the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist ''Pāli Canon'' or '' Tipiṭaka'' as well as the sacred language of '' Theravāda'' Buddh ...
: ''ñāna''). As an adjective, it means 'heavy,' or 'weighty,' in the sense of "heavy with knowledge," heavy with spiritual wisdom,[ Lipner, Julius J.,''Their Religious Beliefs and Practices'' p.192, Routledge (UK), ] "heavy with spiritual weight,"[Cornille, C. ''The Guru in Indian Catholicism'' (1991) p.207. Peeters Publishers ] "heavy with the good qualities of scriptures and realization,"[Hopkins, Jeffrey ''Reflections on Reality'' (2002) p. 72. University of California Press. ] or "heavy with a wealth of knowledge."[Varene, Jean. ''Yoga and the Hindu Tradition'' (1977). p.226. University of Chicago Press. ] The word has its roots in the Sanskrit ''gri'' (to invoke, or to praise), and may have a connection to the word ''gur'', meaning 'to raise, lift up, or to make an effort'.
Sanskrit ''guru'' is cognate with Latin ''gravis'' 'heavy; grave, weighty, serious' and Greek βαρύς ''barus'' 'heavy'. All three derive from the Proto-Indo-European root
The roots of the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) are basic parts of words that carry a lexical meaning, so-called morphemes. PIE roots usually have verbal meaning like "to eat" or "to run". Roots never occurred alone in the lan ...
''*gʷerə-'', specifically from the zero-grade form *''gʷr̥ə-''.
Female equivalent of gurus are called gurvis. The wife of the guru is the ''guru patni'' or ''guru ma''. The guru's son is ''guru putra'', while the guru's daughter is the ''guru putri''.
Darkness and light
A popular etymological theory considers the term "guru" to be based on the syllables ''gu'' () and ''ru'' (), which it claims stands for darkness and "light that dispels it", respectively. The guru is seen as the one who "dispels the darkness of ignorance."[ Krishnamurti, J. ''The Awakening of Intelligence.'' (1987) p.139. HarperCollins. ]
Reender Kranenborg Reender Kranenborg (born 1942-2020) is a former editor of the magazine ''Religious Movement in the Netherlands'' published by the institute of religious studies of the Free University in Amsterdam.
He received his PhD in the theological faculty a ...
disagrees, stating that darkness and light have nothing to do with the word ''guru''. He describes this as a folk etymology.
Joel Mlecko states, "''Gu'' means ignorance, and ''Ru'' means dispeller," with ''guru'' meaning the one who "dispels ignorance, all kinds of ignorance", ranging from spiritual to skills such as dancing, music, sports and others.[Joel Mlecko (1982)]
The Guru in Hindu Tradition
Numen, Volume 29, Fasc. 1, page 33-34 Karen Pechelis states that, in the popular parlance, the "dispeller of darkness, one who points the way" definition for ''guru'' is common in the Indian tradition.
In ''Western Esotericism and the Science of Religion'', Pierre Riffard makes a distinction between "occult" and "scientific" etymologies, citing as an example of the former the etymology of 'guru' in which the derivation is presented as ''gu'' ("darkness") and ''ru'' ('to push away'); the latter he exemplifies by "guru" with the meaning of 'heavy'.[Riffard, Pierre A. in ''Western Esotericism and the Science of Religion'' Faivre A. & Hanegraaff W. (Eds.) Peeters Publishers( 1988), ]
In Hinduism
The ''Guru'' is an ancient and central figure in the traditions of Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
.[ The ultimate liberation, contentment, freedom in the form of ]moksha
''Moksha'' (; sa, मोक्ष, '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'' and ''mukti'', is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, enlightenment, liberation, and release. In its soteriologic ...
and inner perfection is considered achievable in the Hindu belief by two means: with the help of ''guru'', and with evolution through the process of karma
Karma (; sa, कर्म}, ; pi, kamma, italic=yes) in Sanskrit means an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptivel ...
including rebirth in some schools of Hindu philosophy
Hindu philosophy encompasses the philosophies, world views and teachings of Hinduism that emerged in Ancient India which include six systems ('' shad-darśana'') – Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.Andrew Nicholson ( ...
.[ At an individual level in Hinduism, the Guru is many things, including being a teacher of skills, a counselor, one who helps in the birth of mind and realization of one's Self ( Atma), who instills values and experiential knowledge, an exemplar, an inspiration and who helps guide a student's ('' śiṣya'') spiritual development.][ At a social and religious level, the Guru helps continue the religion and Hindu way of life.][ Guru thus has a historic, reverential and an important role in the Hindu culture.][
]
Scriptures
The word ''Guru'' is mentioned in the earliest layer of Vedic
upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''.
The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...
texts. The hymn 4.5.6 of Rigveda, for example, states Joel Mlecko, describes the guru as, "the source and inspirer of the knowledge of the Self, the essence of reality," for one who seeks.
The Upanishad
The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , ...
s, that is the later layers of the Vedic text, mention ''guru''. Chandogya Upanishad, in chapter 4.4 for example, declares that it is only through ''guru'' that one attains the knowledge that matters, the insights that lead to Self-knowledge.[ The ]Katha Upanisad
The ''Katha Upanishad'' (Sanskrit: कठोपनिषद् or कठ उपनिषद्) (') is one of the ''mukhya'' (primary) Upanishads, embedded in the last eight short sections of the ' school of the Krishna Yajurveda.Paul Deussen. ...
, in verse 1.2.8 declares the guru as indispensable to the acquisition of knowledge.[English Translation: Joel Mlecko (1982)]
The Guru in Hindu Tradition
Numen, Volume 29, Fasc. 1, pages 35-36 In chapter 3 of Taittiriya Upanishad
The Taittirīya Upanishad (Devanagari: तैत्तिरीय उपनिषद्) is a Vedic era Sanskrit text, embedded as three chapters (''adhyāya'') of the Yajurveda. It is a ''mukhya'' (primary, principal) Upanishad, and likely co ...
, human knowledge is described as that which connects the teacher and the student through the medium of exposition, just like a child is the connecting link between the father and the mother through the medium of procreation. In the Taittiriya Upanishad, the ''guru'' then urges a student, states Mlecko, to "struggle, discover and experience the Truth, which is the source, stay and end of the universe."[
The ancient tradition of reverence for the ''guru'' in Hindu scriptures is apparent in 6.23 of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, which equates the need of reverence and devotion for ''guru'' to be the same as for god,][Joel Mlecko (1982)]
The Guru in Hindu Tradition
Numen, Volume 29, Fasc. 1, page 37
The Bhagavad Gita is a dialogue where Krishna
Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is one ...
speaks to Arjuna of the role of a guru, and similarly emphasizes in verse 4.34 that those who know their subject well are eager for good students, and the student can learn from such a ''guru'' through reverence, service, effort and the process of inquiry.[Christopher Key Chapple (Editor) and Winthrop Sargeant (Translator), The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, , page 234]
Capabilities, role and methods for helping a student
The 8th century Hindu text ''Upadesasahasri'' of the Advaita Vedanta
''Advaita Vedanta'' (; sa, अद्वैत वेदान्त, ) is a Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience, and the oldest extant tradition of the orthodox Hindu school Vedānta. The term ''Advaita'' ( ...
philosopher Adi Shankara
Adi Shankara ("first Shankara," to distinguish him from other Shankaras)(8th cent. CE), also called Adi Shankaracharya ( sa, आदि शङ्कर, आदि शङ्कराचार्य, Ādi Śaṅkarācāryaḥ, lit=First Shanka ...
discusses the role of the guru in assessing and guiding students. In Chapter 1, he states that teacher is the pilot as the student walks in the journey of knowledge, he is the raft as the student rows. The text describes the need, role and characteristics of a teacher, as follows,
Adi Shankara presents a series of examples wherein he asserts that the best way to guide a student is not to give immediate answers, but posit dialogue-driven questions that enable the student to discover and understand the answer.
Gurukula and the guru-shishya tradition
Traditionally, the ''Guru'' would live a simple married life, and accept ''shishya'' (student, Sanskrit: शिष्य) where he lived. A person would begin a life of study in the Gurukula
A or ( sa, गुरुकुल, gurukul) is a type of education system in ancient India with ('students' or 'disciples') living near or with the guru, in the same house. The guru-shishya tradition is a sacred one in Hinduism and possibly ...
(the household of the ''Guru''). The process of acceptance included proffering firewood and sometimes a gift to the guru, signifying that the student wants to live with, work and help the ''guru'' in maintaining the ''gurukul'', and as an expression of a desire for education in return over several years.[ At the Gurukul, the working student would study the basic traditional vedic sciences and various practical skills-oriented sastras][Stella Kramrisch (1958), Traditions of the Indian Craftsman, The Journal of American Folklore, Volume 71, Number 281, Traditional India: Structure and Change (Jul. - Sep., 1958), pages 224-230] along with the religious texts contained within the Vedas
upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''.
The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute th ...
and Upanishads
The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , ...
.[Samuel Parker (1987), Artistic practice and education in India: A historical overview, Journal of Aesthetic Education, pages 123-141] The education stage of a youth with a ''guru'' was referred to as Brahmacharya, and in some parts of India this followed the Upanayana
''Upanayana'' ( sa, उपनयनम्, lit=initiation, translit=Upanāyanam) is a Hindu educational sacrament, one of the traditional saṃskāras or rites of passage that marked the acceptance of a student by a preceptor, such as a ''guru'' ...
or Vidyarambha rites of passage.[PV Kane]
Samskara, Chapter VII
History of Dharmasastras, Vol II, Part I, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, pages 268-287
The gurukul would be a hut in a forest, or it was, in some cases, a monastery, called a ''matha'' or '' ashram'' or ''sampradaya
''Sampradaya'' ( sa, सम्प्रदाय; ), in Indian origin religions, namely Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, can be translated as 'tradition', 'spiritual lineage', 'sect', or 'religious system'. To ensure continuity and ...
'' in different parts of India.[Hartmut Scharfe (2002), ''From Temple schools to Universities'', in Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, , pages 173-174] These had a lineage of gurus, who would study and focus on certain schools of Hindu philosophy or trade,[ and these were known as guru-shishya '' parampara'' (teacher-student tradition).][Tamara Sears (2014), Worldly Gurus and Spiritual Kings: Architecture and Asceticism in Medieval India, Yale University Press, , pages 12-23, 27-28, 73-75, 187-230] This ''guru''-driven tradition included arts such as sculpture, poetry and music.[Stella Kramrisch (1994), Exploring India's Sacred Art (Editor: Barbara Miller), Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 59-66]
Inscriptions from 4th century CE suggest the existence of ''gurukuls'' around Hindu temple
A Hindu temple, or ''mandir'' or ''koil'' in Indian languages, is a house, seat and body of divinity for Hindus. It is a structure designed to bring human beings and gods together through worship, sacrifice, and devotion.; Quote: "The Hin ...
s, called ''Ghatikas'' or ''Mathas'', where the Vedas
upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''.
The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute th ...
were studied. In south India, 9th century Vedic schools attached to Hindu temples were called ''Calai'' or ''Salai'', and these provided free boarding and lodging to students and scholars. Archaeological and epigraphical evidence suggests that ancient and medieval era gurukuls near Hindu temples offered wide range of studies, ranging from Hindu scriptures to Buddhist texts, grammar, philosophy, martial arts, music and painting.[Hartmut Scharfe (2002), ''From Temple schools to Universities'', in Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, , page 176-182][George Michell (1988), The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms, University of Chicago Press, , pages 58-60]
The ''Guru (teacher) Shishya (disciple) parampara'' or guru parampara, occurs where the ''knowledge'' (in any field) is passed down through the succeeding generations. It is the traditional, residential form of education, where the Shishya remains and learns with his Guru as a family member. The fields of study in traditional guru-sisya parampara were diverse, ranging from Hindu philosophy
Hindu philosophy encompasses the philosophies, world views and teachings of Hinduism that emerged in Ancient India which include six systems ('' shad-darśana'') – Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.Andrew Nicholson ( ...
, martial arts, music, dance to various Vedanga
The Vedanga ( sa, वेदाङ्ग ', "limbs of the Veda") are six auxiliary disciplines of Hinduism that developed in ancient times and have been connected with the study of the Vedas:James Lochtefeld (2002), "Vedanga" in The Illustrated Enc ...
s.
Gender and caste
The Hindu texts offer a conflicting view of whether access to ''guru'' and education was limited to men and to certain ''varna
Varna may refer to:
Places Europe
*Varna, Bulgaria, a city in Bulgaria
**Varna Province
**Varna Municipality
** Gulf of Varna
**Lake Varna
**Varna Necropolis
*Vahrn, or Varna, a municipality in Italy
*Varniai, a city in Lithuania
* Varna (Šaba ...
'' (castes).Kotha Satchidanda Murthy
Kotta Satchidananda Murty (1924-2011) was an Indian philosopher and professor. Murty served as the Professor of Philosophy, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam and Vice-Chancellor of Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati in the state of Andhra Pra ...
(1993), Vedic Hermeneutics, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 14-17[ The Vedas and the Upanishads never mention any restrictions based either on gender or on ''varna''.][ The Yajurveda and Atharvaveda texts state that knowledge is for everyone, and offer examples of women and people from all segments of society who are ''guru'' and participated in vedic studies.][ The Upanishads assert that one's birth does not determine one's eligibility for spiritual knowledge, only one's effort and sincerity matters.][
In theory, the early Dharma-sutras and Dharma-sastras, such as Paraskara Grhyasutra, Gautama Smriti and Yajnavalkya smriti, state all four varnas are eligible to all fields of knowledge; while verses of Manusmriti state that Vedic study is available only to men of three varnas, unavailable to Shudra and women.]Arvind Sharma
Arvind Sharma is the Birks Professor of Comparative Religion at McGill University. Sharma's works focus on Hinduism, philosophy of religion. In editing books his works include ''Our Religions'' and ''Women in World Religions,'' ''Feminism in W ...
(2000), Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, , pages 147-158 In practice, state Stella Kramrisch and others, the guru tradition and availability of education extended to all segments of ancient and medieval society.[ Lise McKean states the ''guru'' concept has been prevalent over the range of class and caste backgrounds, and the disciples a guru attracts come from both genders and a range of classes and castes. During the bhakti movement of Hinduism, which started in about mid 1st millennium CE, the ''gurus'' included women and members of all ''varna''.
]
Attributes
The Advayataraka Upanishad states that the true teacher is a master in the field of knowledge, well-versed in the Veda
upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''.
The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...
s, is free from envy, knows yoga
Yoga (; sa, योग, lit=yoke' or 'union ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India and aim to control (yoke) and still the mind, recognizing a detached witness-consci ...
, lives a simple life that of a yogi, has realized the knowledge of the '' Atman'' (Self). Some scriptures and gurus have warned against false teachers, and have recommended that the spiritual seeker test the guru before accepting him. Swami Vivekananda said that there are many incompetent gurus, and that a true guru should understand the spirit of the scriptures, have a pure character and be free from sin, and should be selfless, without desire for money and fame.
According to the Indologist Georg Feuerstein
Georg Feuerstein (27 May 1947 – 25 August 2012) was a German Indologist specializing in the philosophy and practice of Yoga. Feuerstein authored over 30 books on mysticism, Yoga, Tantra, and Hinduism. He translated, among other traditional texts ...
, in some traditions of Hinduism, when one reaches the state of Self-knowledge, one's own Self becomes the ''guru''.[ Feuerstein, Georg Dr. ''Encyclopedic dictionary of yoga'' Published by Paragon House 1st edition (1990) ] In Tantra, states Feuerstein, the guru is the "ferry who leads one across the ocean of existence."[Georg Feuerstein (1998), Tantra: The Path of Ecstasy, Shambhala Publications, , pages 85-87] A true ''guru'' guides and counsels a student's spiritual development because, states ''Yoga-Bija'', endless logic and grammar leads to confusion, and not contentment.[ However, various Hindu texts caution prudence and diligence in finding the right ''guru'', and avoiding the wrong ones.][Georg Feuerstein (1998), Tantra: The Path of Ecstasy, Shambhala Publications, , pages 91-94] For example, in ''Kula-Arnava'' text states the following guidance:
A true guru is, asserts ''Kula-Arnava'', one who lives the simple virtuous life he preaches, is stable and firm in his knowledge, master yogi with the knowledge of Self ('' Atma Gyaan'') and Brahman
In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' ( sa, ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality in the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part X ...
(ultimate reality).[ The guru is one who initiates, transmits, guides, illuminates, debates and corrects a student in the journey of knowledge and of self-realization.][Georg Feuerstein (2011), The Deeper Dimension of Yoga: Theory and Practice, Shambhala Publications, , pages 127-131] The attribute of the successful guru is to help make the disciple into another guru, one who transcends him, and becomes a ''guru'' unto himself, driven by inner spirituality and principles.[
]
In modern Hinduism
In modern neo-Hinduism, Kranenborg states ''guru'' may refer to entirely different concepts, such as a ''spiritual advisor'', or someone who performs traditional rituals outside a temple, or an ''enlightened master'' in the field of tantra or yoga or eastern arts who derives his authority from his experience, or a reference by a group of devotees of a sect to someone considered a god-like ''Avatar
Avatar (, ; ), is a concept within Hinduism that in Sanskrit literally means "descent". It signifies the material appearance or incarnation of a powerful deity, goddess or spirit on Earth. The relative verb to "alight, to make one's appeara ...
'' by the sect.
The tradition of reverence for ''guru'' continues in several denominations within modern Hinduism, but rather than being considered as a prophet, the guru is seen as a person who points the way to spirituality, oneness of being, and meaning in life.
In Buddhism
In some forms of Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religions, Indian religion or Indian philosophy#Buddhist philosophy, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha. ...
, states Rita Gross, the concept of Guru is of supreme importance. Guru is called as Garu in Pali. The Guru is the teacher, who teaches the spiritual and religious knowledge. Guru can be anyone who teach this knowledge and not generally need to be Acariya
In Indian religions and society, an ''acharya'' (Sanskrit: आचार्य, IAST: ; Pali: ''ācariya'') is a preceptor and expert instructor in matters such as religion, or any other subject. An acharya is a highly learned person with a t ...
or Upajjhaya
Upadhyaya is a Brahmin name from Sanskrit ''upādhyāya'' "teacher" (from ''upa'' ‘with, under’ + ''adhyāya'' ‘studying’).https://www.ancestry.ca/name-origin?surname=Upadhyay
Notable people
*Amar Upadhyay, Indian model, film and telev ...
. Guru can also be a personal teacher. Buddha is called as Lokagaru, meaning "the teacher of the world".
In Vajrayana
Vajrayāna ( sa, वज्रयान, "thunderbolt vehicle", "diamond vehicle", or "indestructible vehicle"), along with Mantrayāna, Guhyamantrayāna, Tantrayāna, Secret Mantra, Tantric Buddhism, and Esoteric Buddhism, are names referring t ...
Buddhism's Tantric teachings, the rituals require the guidance of a guru.[ The guru is considered essential and to the Buddhist devotee, the guru is the "enlightened teacher and ritual master", states Stephen Berkwitz.][Stephen Berkwitz (2009), South Asian Buddhism: A Survey, Routledge, , pages 130-133] The guru is known as the ''vajra
The Vajra () is a legendary and ritual weapon, symbolising the properties of a diamond (indestructibility) and a thunderbolt (irresistible force).
The vajra is a type of club with a ribbed spherical head. The ribs may meet in a ball-shap ...
guru'' (literally "diamond guru"). Initiations or ritual empowerments are necessary before the student is permitted to practice a particular tantra
Tantra (; sa, तन्त्र, lit=loom, weave, warp) are the esoteric traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism that developed on the Indian subcontinent from the middle of the 1st millennium CE onwards. The term ''tantra'', in the Indian ...
, in Vajrayana Buddhist sects found in Tibet and South Asia.[ The tantras state that the guru is equivalent to Buddha, states Berkwitz, and is a figure to worship and whose instructions should never be violated.][William Johnston (2013), Encyclopedia of Monasticism, Routledge, , page 371]
There are Four Kinds of Lama (Guru) or spiritual teacher (Tib. lama nampa shyi) in Tibetan Buddhism
Tibetan Buddhism (also referred to as Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Lamaism, Lamaistic Buddhism, Himalayan Buddhism, and Northern Buddhism) is the form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet and Bhutan, where it is the dominant religion. It is also in majo ...
:
# gangzak gyüpé lama — the individual teacher who is the holder of the lineage
# gyalwa ka yi lama — the teacher which is the word of the buddhas
# nangwa da yi lama — the symbolic teacher of all appearances
# rigpa dön gyi lama — the absolute teacher, which is rigpa
In Dzogchen, ''rigpa'' (; Skt. vidyā; "knowledge") is knowledge of the ground. The opposite of ''rigpa'' is ''ma rigpa'' ('' avidyā'', ignorance). A practitioner who has attained the state of ''rigpa'' and is able to rest there continuously ...
, the true nature of mind
In various Buddhist traditions, there are equivalent words for ''guru'', which include ''Shastri'' (teacher), ''Kalyana Mitra'' (friendly guide, Pali: Kalyāṇa-mittatā
' (Pali; Skt.: '; CHN: 善知識) is a Buddhist concept of "admirable friendship" within Buddhist community life, applicable to both monastic and householder relationships. One involved in such a relationship is known as a "good friend", "vir ...
), ''Acarya'' (master), and ''Vajra-Acarya'' (hierophant).[Alex Wayman (1997), Untying the Knots in Buddhism: Selected Essays, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 206, 205-219] The ''guru'' is literally understood as "weighty", states Alex Wayman, and it refers to the Buddhist tendency to increase the weight of canons and scriptures with their spiritual studies.[ In Mahayana Buddhism, a term for Buddha is Bhaisajya guru, which refers to "medicine guru", or "a doctor who cures suffering with the medicine of his teachings".
]
In Jainism
''Guru'' is the spiritual preceptor in Jainism
Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle bein ...
, and typically a role served by Jain ascetics
Jain monasticism refers to the order of monks and nuns in the Jain community and can be divided into two major denominations: the ''Digambara'' and the '' Śvētāmbara''. The monastic practices of the two major sects vary greatly, but the m ...
.[Christopher Partridge (2013), Introduction to World Religions, Augsburg Fortress, , page 252] The ''guru'' is one of three fundamental ''tattva'' (categories), the other two being ''dharma'' (teachings) and ''deva'' (divinity
Divinity or the divine are things that are either related to, devoted to, or proceeding from a deity.[divine< ...](_blank)
).[ The ''guru-tattva'' is what leads a lay person to the other two ''tattva''.][John Cort (2011), Jains in the World : Religious Values and Ideology in India, Oxford University Press, , page 100] In some communities of the Śvētāmbara
The Śvētāmbara (; ''śvētapaṭa''; also spelled ''Shwethambara'', ''Svetambar'', ''Shvetambara'' or ''Swetambar'') is one of the two main branches of Jainism, the other being the ''Digambara''. Śvētāmbara means "white-clad", and refers ...
sect of Jainism, a traditional system of ''guru-disciple'' lineage exists.
The ''guru'' is revered in Jainism ritually
A ritual is a sequence of activities involving gestures, words, actions, or objects, performed according to a set sequence. Rituals may be prescribed by the traditions of a community, including a religious community. Rituals are characterized, b ...
with ''Guru-vandan'' or ''Guru-upashti'', where respect and offerings are made to the ''guru'', and the ''guru'' sprinkles a small amount of ''vaskep'' (a scented powder mixture of sandalwood, saffron, and camphor) on the devotee's head with a mantra or blessings.
In Sikhism
In Sikhism, ''Guru'' (Gurmukhi: ਗੁਰੂ ''gurū'') is the source of all knowledge which is Almighty. In Chopai Sahib, Guru Gobind Singh states about who is the Guru:[Translation 1]
Sri Dasam Granth Sahib
, Verses 384-385, page 22
Translation 2
/ref>
The Sikh gurus were fundamental to the Sikh religion, however the concept in Sikhism differs from other usages. Sikhism
Sikhism (), also known as Sikhi ( pa, ਸਿੱਖੀ ', , from pa, ਸਿੱਖ, lit=disciple', 'seeker', or 'learner, translit=Sikh, label=none),''Sikhism'' (commonly known as ''Sikhī'') originated from the word ''Sikh'', which comes fro ...
is derived from the Sanskrit word ''shishya'', or disciple and is all about the relationship between the teacher and a student. The concept of Guru in Sikhism
Sikhism (), also known as Sikhi ( pa, ਸਿੱਖੀ ', , from pa, ਸਿੱਖ, lit=disciple', 'seeker', or 'learner, translit=Sikh, label=none),''Sikhism'' (commonly known as ''Sikhī'') originated from the word ''Sikh'', which comes fro ...
stands on two pillars i.e. Miri-Piri. 'Piri' means spiritual authority and 'Miri' means temporal authority. Traditionally, the concept of Guru is considered central in Sikhism, and its main scripture is prefixed as a ''Guru'', called Guru Granth Sahib
The Guru Granth Sahib ( pa, ਗੁਰੂ ਗ੍ਰੰਥ ਸਾਹਿਬ, ) is the central holy religious scripture of Sikhism, regarded by Sikhs as the final, sovereign and Guru Maneyo Granth, eternal Guru following the lineage of the Sikh gur ...
, the words therein called ''Gurbani
Gurbani ( pa, ਗੁਰਬਾਣੀ) is a Sikh term, very commonly used by Sikhs to refer to various compositions by the Sikh Gurus and other writers of Guru Granth Sahib. In general, hymns in the central text of the Sikhs, the Guru Granth Sahi ...
''.[HS Singha & Satwant Kaur, "Sikhism, A Complete Introduction", Hemkunt Press, , pages 21-29, 54-55]
In Western culture
As an alternative to established religions in the West, some people in Europe and the US looked to spiritual guides and gurus from India and other countries. Gurus from many denominations traveled to Western Europe and the US and established followings.
In particular during the 1960s and 1970s many gurus acquired groups of young followers in Western Europe and the US. According to the American sociologist David G. Bromley this was partially due to the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act
The Chinese Exclusion Act was a United States federal law signed by President Chester A. Arthur on May 6, 1882, prohibiting all immigration of Chinese laborers for 10 years. The law excluded merchants, teachers, students, travelers, and diplo ...
in 1965 which permitted Asian gurus entrance to the US.[ Bromley, David G., Ph.D. & ]Anson Shupe
Anson D. Shupe, Jr. (21 January 1948 – 4 May 2015) was an American sociologist noted for his studies of religious groups and their countermovements, family violence and clergy misconduct. He was affiliated with the New Cult Awareness Network, ...
, Ph.D., ''Public Reaction against New Religious Movements'' article that appeared in ''Cults and new religious movements: a report of the Committee on Psychiatry and Religion of the American Psychiatric Association'', edited by Marc Galanter, M.D., (1989) According to the Dutch Indologist Albertina Nugteren, the repeal was only one of several factors and a minor one compared with the two most important causes for the surge of all things 'Eastern': the post-war cross-cultural mobility and the general dissatisfaction with established Western values.[ Nugteren, Albertina (Tineke) Dr. (Associate professor in the phenomenology and history of Indian religions at the faculty of theology at the ]university of Tilburg
Tilburg University is a public research university specializing in the social and behavioral sciences, economics, law, business sciences, theology and humanities, located in Tilburg in the southern part of the Netherlands.
Tilburg University has ...
)''Tantric Influences in Western Esotericism'', article that appeared at a 1997 CESNUR
CESNUR (Centro Studi sulle Nuove Religioni, "Center for Studies on New Religions"), is a non-profit organization based in Turin, Italy that studies new religious movements and opposes the anti-cult movement. It was established in 1988 by Massimo ...
conference and that was published in the book ''New Religions in a Postmodern World'' edited by Mikael Rothstein
Mikael Rothstein (born 8 May 1961) is an associate professor of religious history at the University of Copenhagen in Copenhagen, Denmark.
Rothstein earned his PhD in 1993 and became a Lector at the University of Copenhagen in 2001.Bente Clausen ...
and Reender Kranenborg RENNER Studies in New religions Aarhus University press, (2003)
In the Western world
The Western world, also known as the West, primarily refers to the various nations and states in the regions of Europe, North America, and Oceania. , the term is sometimes used in a derogatory way to refer to individuals who have allegedly exploited their followers' naiveté, particularly in certain cults
In modern English, ''cult'' is usually a pejorative term for a social group that is defined by its unusual religious, spiritual, or philosophical beliefs and rituals, or its common interest in a particular personality, object, or goal. This s ...
or groups in the fields of hippie, new religious movement
A new religious movement (NRM), also known as alternative spirituality or a new religion, is a religious or spiritual group that has modern origins and is peripheral to its society's dominant religious culture. NRMs can be novel in origin or th ...
s, self-help, and tantra
Tantra (; sa, तन्त्र, lit=loom, weave, warp) are the esoteric traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism that developed on the Indian subcontinent from the middle of the 1st millennium CE onwards. The term ''tantra'', in the Indian ...
.
According to the professor in sociology
Sociology is a social science that focuses on society, human social behavior, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and aspects of culture associated with everyday life. It uses various methods of empirical investigation an ...
Stephen A. Kent at the University of Alberta
The University of Alberta, also known as U of A or UAlberta, is a Public university, public research university located in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. It was founded in 1908 by Alexander Cameron Rutherford,"A Gentleman of Strathcona – Alexande ...
and Kranenborg (1974), one of the reasons why in the 1970s young people including hippies turned to gurus was because they found that drugs had opened for them the existence of the transcendental or because they wanted to get ''high'' without drugs.[Kranenborg, Reender (Dutch language) ''Zelfverwerkelijking: oosterse religies binnen een westerse subkultuur'' (En: ]Self-realization
Self-realization is an expression used in Western psychology, philosophy, and spirituality; and in Indian religions. In the Western understanding, it is the "fulfillment by oneself of the possibilities of one's character or personality" ( ...
: eastern religions in a Western Sub-culture'', published by Kampen Kok (1974)''[ Kent, Stephen A. Dr. ''From slogans to mantras: social protest and ]religious conversion
Religious conversion is the adoption of a set of beliefs identified with one particular religious denomination to the exclusion of others. Thus "religious conversion" would describe the abandoning of adherence to one denomination and affiliatin ...
in the late Vietnam war
The Vietnam War (also known by other names) was a conflict in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam a ...
era'' Syracuse University press (2001) According to Kent, another reason why this happened so often in the US then, was because some anti-Vietnam War
The Vietnam War (also known by other names) was a conflict in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam a ...
protesters
A protest (also called a demonstration, remonstration or remonstrance) is a public expression of objection, disapproval or dissent towards an idea or action, typically a political one.
Protests can be thought of as acts of coopera ...
and political activists became worn out or disillusioned of the possibilities to change society through political means, and as an alternative turned to religious means. One example of such group was the Hare Krishna
Hare Krishna may refer to:
* International Society for Krishna Consciousness, a group commonly known as "Hare Krishnas" or the "Hare Krishna movement"
* Hare Krishna (mantra)
The Hare Krishna mantra, also referred to reverentially as the (" ...
movement (ISKCON) founded by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada in 1966, many of whose followers voluntarily accepted the demanding lifestyle of bhakti yoga
Bhakti yoga ( sa, भक्ति योग), also called Bhakti marga (, literally the path of '' Bhakti''), is a spiritual path or spiritual practice within Hinduism focused on loving devotion towards any personal deity.Karen Pechelis (2014) ...
on a full-time basis, in stark contrast to much of the popular culture of the time.
Some gurus and the groups they lead attract opposition from the Anti-Cult Movement
The anti-cult movement (abbreviated ACM, and also known as the countercult movement) consists of various governmental and non-governmental organizations and individuals that seek to raise awareness of cults, uncover coercive practices used to a ...
. According to Kranenborg (1984), Jesus Christ
Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label=Hebrew/Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other names and titles), was a first-century Jewish preacher and religious ...
fits the Hindu definition and characteristics of a guru.[Kranenborg, Reender (Dutch language) Een nieuw licht op de kerk? Bijdragen van nieuwe religieuze bewegingen voor de kerk van vandaag (En: A new perspective on the church? Contributions of new religious movements for today's church), the Hague Boekencentrum (1984) pp 93-99]
Environmental activists are sometimes called "gurus" or "prophets" for embodying a moral or spiritual authority and gathering followers. Examples of environmental gurus are John Muir
John Muir ( ; April 21, 1838December 24, 1914), also known as "John of the Mountains" and "Father of the National Parks", was an influential Scottish-American naturalist, author, environmental philosopher, botanist, zoologist, glaciologist ...
, Henry David Thoreau, Aldo Leopold, George Perkins Marsh
George Perkins Marsh (March 15, 1801July 23, 1882), an American diplomat and philologist, is considered by some to be America's first environmentalist and by recognizing the irreversible impact of man's actions on the earth, a precursor to the ...
, and David Attenborough. Abidin et al. wrote that environmental gurus "merge the boundaries" between spiritual and scientific authority.
Viewpoints
Gurus and the Guru-shishya tradition have been criticized and assessed by secular scholars, theologians
Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the s ...
, anti-cultists, skeptics
Skepticism, also spelled scepticism, is a questioning attitude or doubt toward knowledge claims that are seen as mere belief or dogma. For example, if a person is skeptical about claims made by their government about an ongoing war then the pe ...
, and religious philosophers.
* Jiddu Krishnamurti, groomed to be a world spiritual teacher by the leadership of the Theosophical Society
The Theosophical Society, founded in 1875, is a worldwide body with the aim to advance the ideas of Theosophy in continuation of previous Theosophists, especially the Greek and Alexandrian Neo-Platonic philosophers dating back to 3rd century CE ...
in the early part of the 20th century, publicly renounced this role in 1929 while also denouncing the concept of gurus, spiritual leaders, and teachers, advocating instead the unmediated and direct investigation of reality
Reality is the sum or aggregate of all that is real or existent within a system, as opposed to that which is only imaginary. The term is also used to refer to the ontological status of things, indicating their existence. In physical terms, r ...
.
* U. G. Krishnamurti, o relation to Jiddu sometimes characterized as a "''spiritual anarchist''", denied both the value of gurus and the existence of any related worthwhile "teaching".
*Dr. David C. Lane proposes a checklist consisting of seven points to assess gurus in his book, ''Exposing Cults: When the Skeptical Mind Confronts the Mystical''.[ Lane, David C.]
Exposing Cults: When the Skeptical Mind Confronts the Mystical
(1984) One of his points is that spiritual teachers should have high standards of moral conduct and that followers of gurus should interpret the behavior of a spiritual teacher by following Ockham's razor and by using common sense
''Common Sense'' is a 47-page pamphlet written by Thomas Paine in 1775–1776 advocating independence from Great Britain to people in the Thirteen Colonies. Writing in clear and persuasive prose, Paine collected various moral and political arg ...
, and, should not naively use mystical explanations unnecessarily to explain immoral behavior. Another point Lane makes is that the bigger the claim a guru makes, such as the claim to be God, the bigger the chance is that the guru is unreliable. Dr. Lane's fifth point is that self-proclaimed gurus are likely to be more unreliable than gurus with a legitimate lineage.
*Highlighting what he sees as the difficulty in understanding the guru from Eastern tradition in Western society, Dr. Georg Feuerstein
Georg Feuerstein (27 May 1947 – 25 August 2012) was a German Indologist specializing in the philosophy and practice of Yoga. Feuerstein authored over 30 books on mysticism, Yoga, Tantra, and Hinduism. He translated, among other traditional texts ...
, a well-known German-American Indologist
Indology, also known as South Asian studies, is the academic study of the history and cultures, languages, and literature of the Indian subcontinent, and as such is a subset of Asian studies.
The term ''Indology'' (in German, ''Indologie'') is ...
, writes in the article
Understanding the Guru
' from his book ''The Deeper Dimension of Yoga: Theory and practice'': "The traditional role of the guru, or spiritual teacher, is not widely understood in the West, even by those professing to practice Yoga or some other Eastern tradition entailing discipleship. ..Spiritual teachers, by their very nature, swim against the stream of conventional values and pursuits. They are not interested in acquiring and accumulating material wealth or in competing in the marketplace, or in pleasing egos. They are not even about morality. Typically, their message is of a radical nature, asking that we live consciously, inspect our motives, transcend our egoic passions, overcome our intellectual blindness, live peacefully with our fellow humans, and, finally, realize the deepest core of human nature, the Spirit. For those wishing to devote their time and energy to the pursuit of conventional life, this kind of message is revolutionary, subversive, and profoundly disturbing".[ Feuerstein, Georg Dr. ''The Deeper Dimension of Yoga: Theory and Practice'', Shambhala Publications, released on (2003) ] In his ''Encyclopedic Dictionary of Yoga'' (1990), Dr. Feuerstein writes that the importation of ''yoga'' to the West has raised questions as to the appropriateness of spiritual discipleship and the legitimacy of spiritual authority.
*A British professor of psychiatry, Anthony Storr
Anthony Storr (18 May 1920 – 17 March 2001) was an English psychiatrist, psychoanalyst, and author.
Background and education
Born in London, Storr was educated at Winchester College, Christ's College, Cambridge, and Westminster Hospital. ...
, states in his book, ''Feet of Clay: A Study of Gurus'', that he confines the word guru (translated by him as "revered teacher") to persons who have "special knowledge" who tell, referring to their special knowledge, how other people should lead their lives. He argues that gurus share common character traits (e.g. being loners) and that some suffer from a mild form of schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by continuous or relapsing episodes of psychosis. Major symptoms include hallucinations (typically hearing voices), delusions, and disorganized thinking. Other symptoms include social wit ...
. He argues that gurus who are authoritarian, paranoid
Paranoia is an instinct or thought process that is believed to be heavily influenced by anxiety or fear, often to the point of delusion and irrationality. Paranoid thinking typically includes persecutory beliefs, or beliefs of conspiracy c ...
, eloquent
Eloquence is fluent, forcible, elegant or persuasive speaking.
Eloquence or eloquent may also refer to:
* ''Eloquence'' (Bill Evans album)
* ''Eloquence'' (Oscar Peterson album)
* ''Eloquence'' (Wolfgang Flür album)
* ''Eloquence'', Internet ...
, or who interfere in the private lives of their followers are the ones who are more likely to be unreliable and dangerous. Storr also refers to Eileen Barker's checklist to recognize false gurus. He contends that some so-called gurus claim special spiritual insights based on personal revelation, offering new ways of spiritual development and paths to salvation. Storr's criticism of gurus includes the possible risk that a guru may exploit his or her followers due to the authority that he or she may have over them, though Storr does acknowledge the existence of morally superior teachers who refrain from doing so. He holds the view that the idiosyncratic belief systems that some gurus promote were developed during a period of psychosis
Psychosis is a condition of the mind that results in difficulties determining what is real and what is not real. Symptoms may include delusions and hallucinations, among other features. Additional symptoms are incoherent speech and behavior ...
to make sense of their own minds and perceptions, and that these belief systems persist after the psychosis has gone. Storr notes that gurus generalize their experience to all people. Some of them believe that all humanity should accept their vision, while others teach that when the end of the world comes, only their followers will be saved, and the rest of the people will remain unredeemed. According to him, this ″apparently arrogant assumption″ is closely related and other characteristics of various gurus. Storr applies the term "guru" to figures as diverse as Jesus
Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label= Hebrew/ Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other names and titles), was a first-century Jewish preacher and religiou ...
, Muhammad
Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد; 570 – 8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the mo ...
, Buddha
Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism.
According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in L ...
, Gurdjieff
George Ivanovich Gurdjieff (; rus, Гео́ргий Ива́нович Гурджи́ев, r=Geórgy Ivánovich Gurdzhíev, p=ɡʲɪˈorɡʲɪj ɪˈvanəvʲɪd͡ʑ ɡʊrd͡ʐˈʐɨ(j)ɪf; hy, Գեորգի Իվանովիչ Գյուրջիև; c. 1 ...
, Rudolf Steiner
Rudolf Joseph Lorenz Steiner (27 or 25 February 1861 – 30 March 1925) was an Austrian occultist, social reformer, architect, esotericist, and claimed clairvoyant. Steiner gained initial recognition at the end of the nineteenth century as ...
, Carl Jung
Carl Gustav Jung ( ; ; 26 July 1875 – 6 June 1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who founded analytical psychology. Jung's work has been influential in the fields of psychiatry, anthropology, archaeology, literature, phi ...
, Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud ( , ; born Sigismund Schlomo Freud; 6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939) was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for evaluating and treating pathologies explained as originating in conflicts ...
, Jim Jones
James Warren Jones (May 13, 1931 – November 18, 1978) was an American preacher, political activist and mass murderer. He led the Peoples Temple, a new religious movement, between 1955 and 1978. In what he called "revolutionary suicide ...
and David Koresh
David Koresh (; born Vernon Wayne Howell; August 17, 1959 – April 19, 1993) was an American cult leader who played a central role in the Waco siege of 1993. As the head of the Branch Davidians, a religious sect and offshoot of the Davidian Se ...
. The Belgian Indologist Koenraad Elst
Koenraad Elst (; born 7 August 1959) is a Flemish right wing Hindutva author, known primarily for his support of the Out of India theory and the Hindutva movement. Schola ...
criticized Storr's book for its avoidance of the term prophet
In religion, a prophet or prophetess is an individual who is regarded as being in contact with a divine being and is said to speak on behalf of that being, serving as an intermediary with humanity by delivering messages or teachings from the s ...
instead of guru for several people. Elst asserts that this is possibly due to Storr's pro-Western, pro-Christian cultural bias.
* Rob Preece, a psychotherapist and a practicing Buddhist, writes in ''The Noble Imperfection'' that while the teacher/disciple relationship can be an invaluable and fruitful experience, the process of relating to spiritual teachers also has its hazards. He writes that these potential hazards are the result of ''naiveté'' amongst Westerners as to the nature of the guru/devotee relationship, as well as a consequence of a lack of understanding on the part of Eastern teachers as to the nature of Western psychology. Preece introduces the notion of transference
Transference (german: Übertragung) is a phenomenon within psychotherapy in which the "feelings, attitudes, or desires" a person had about one thing are subconsciously projected onto the here-and-now Other. It usually concerns feelings from a ...
to explain the manner in which the guru/disciple relationship develops from a more Western psychological perspective. He writes: "''In its simplest sense transference occurs when unconsciously a person endows another with an attribute that actually is projected from within themselves.''" In developing this concept, Preece writes that, when we transfer an inner quality onto another person, we may be giving that person a power over us as a consequence of the projection, carrying the potential for great insight and inspiration, but also the potential for great danger: "In giving this power over to someone else they have a certain hold and influence over us it is hard to resist, while we become enthralled or spellbound by the power of the archetype
The concept of an archetype (; ) appears in areas relating to behavior, historical psychology, and literary analysis.
An archetype can be any of the following:
# a statement, pattern of behavior, prototype, "first" form, or a main model that ...
".[Preece, Rob, "The teacher-student relationship" in ''The Noble Imperfection: The challenge of individuation in Buddhist life'', Mudras Publications]
*According to a professor of religious studies at Dawson College
Dawson College (French: ''Collège Dawson)'' is an English-language public general and vocational college in Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
The college is situated near the heart of Downtown Montreal in a former nunnery on approximately 12 acr ...
in Quebec
Quebec ( ; )According to the Canadian government, ''Québec'' (with the acute accent) is the official name in Canadian French and ''Quebec'' (without the accent) is the province's official name in Canadian English is one of the thirtee ...
, Susan J. Palmer, the word guru has acquired very negative connotations in France.[Palmer, Susan, article in the book ''NRMs in the 21st century: legal, political, and social challenges in global perspective'' edited by Phillip Charles Lucas and Thomas Robbins, (2004) ]
*The psychiatrist Alexander Deutsch
Alexander Nikolaevich Deutsch (Aleksandr Nikolaevič Dejč; russian: Александр Николаевич Дейч; December 31, 1899 – 22 November 1986) was a Soviet Union, Soviet astronomer who worked at Pulkovo Observatory.
Deutsch was b ...
performed a long-term observation of a small cult, called ''The Family'' (not to be confused with Family International
The Family International (TFI) is a Christian New Religious Movement founded in Huntington Beach, California, USA, in 1968 by David Berg that has been criticized as an authoritarian cult. Originally named Teens for Christ, it has gone under a n ...
), founded by an American guru called ''Baba'' or ''Jeff'' in New York in 1972, who showed increasingly schizophrenic
Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by continuous or relapsing episodes of psychosis. Major symptoms include hallucinations (typically hearing voices), delusions, and disorganized thinking. Other symptoms include social withdr ...
behavior. Deutsch observed that this man's mostly Jew
Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""T ...
ish followers interpreted the guru's pathological mood swings as expressions of different Hindu deities and interpreted his behavior as ''holy madness'', and his cruel deeds as punishments that they had earned. After the guru dissolved the cult in 1976, his mental condition was confirmed by Jeff's retrospective accounts to an author.[Deutsch, Alexander ]M.D.
Doctor of Medicine (abbreviated M.D., from the Latin ''Medicinae Doctor'') is a medical degree, the meaning of which varies between different jurisdictions. In the United States, and some other countries, the M.D. denotes a professional degree. ...
''Observations on a sidewalk ashram'' Archive Gen. Psychiatry 32 (1975) 2, 166-175[Deutsch, Alexander M.D. ''Tenacity of Attachment to a cult leader: a psychiatric perspective'' American Journal of Psychiatry 137 (1980) 12, 1569-1573.]
* Jan van der Lans (1933–2002), a professor of the psychology of religion
Psychology of religion consists of the application of psychological methods and interpretive frameworks to the diverse contents of religious traditions as well as to both religious and irreligious individuals. The various methods and frameworks ...
at the Catholic University of Nijmegen
Radboud University (abbreviated as RU, nl, Radboud Universiteit , formerly ''Katholieke Universiteit Nijmegen'') is a public research university located in Nijmegen, the Netherlands. The university bears the name of Saint Radboud, a 9th century ...
, wrote, in a book commissioned by the Netherlands-based Catholic Study Center for Mental Health, about followers of gurus and the potential dangers that exist when personal contact between the guru and the disciple is absent, such as an increased chance of idealization of the guru by the student (myth making and deification), and an increase of the chance of false mysticism
Mysticism is popularly known as becoming one with God or the Absolute, but may refer to any kind of ecstasy or altered state of consciousness which is given a religious or spiritual meaning. It may also refer to the attainment of insight in ...
. He further argues that the deification of a guru is a traditional element of Eastern spirituality but, when detached from the Eastern cultural element and copied by Westerners, the distinction between the person who is the guru and that which he symbolizes is often lost, resulting in the relationship between the guru and disciple degenerating into a boundless, uncritical personality cult
A cult of personality, or a cult of the leader, Mudde, Cas and Kaltwasser, Cristóbal Rovira (2017) ''Populism: A Very Short Introduction''. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 63. is the result of an effort which is made to create an id ...
.
*In their 1993 book, ''The Guru Papers
''The Guru Papers: Masks of Authoritarian Power'' (1993) was written by Diana Alstad and Joel Kramer (Frog Books, ). ''Includes "Look inside" preview''
References
Political books
{{poli-book-stub ...
'', authors Diana Alstad and Joel Kramer reject the guru-disciple tradition because of what they see as its structural defects. These defects include the authoritarian control of the guru over the disciple, which is in their view increased by the guru's encouragement of surrender
Surrender may refer to:
* Surrender (law), the early relinquishment of a tenancy
* Surrender (military), the relinquishment of territory, combatants, facilities, or armaments to another power
Film and television
* ''Surrender'' (1927 film), an ...
to him. Alstad and Kramer assert that gurus are likely to be hypocrites because, in order to attract and maintain followers, gurus must present themselves as purer than and superior to ordinary people and other gurus.[Kramer, Joel, and Diana Alstad ''The guru papers: masks of authoritarian power'' (1993) ]
*According to the journalist Sacha Kester, in a 2003 article in the Dutch newspaper De Volkskrant, finding a guru is a precarious matter, pointing to the many holy men in India and the case of Sathya Sai Baba whom Kester considers a swindler. In this article he also quotes the book ''Karma Cola'' describing that in this book a German economist tells author Gita Mehta, "It is my opinion that quality control has to be introduced for gurus. Many of my friends have become crazy in India". She describes a comment by Suranya Chakraverti who said that some Westerners do not believe in spirituality and ridicule a true guru. Other westerners, Chakraverti said, on the other hand believe in spirituality but tend to put faith in a guru who is a swindler.
*Teachings of Shri Satguru Devendra Ghia (Kaka) are in his hymns and the broadness of his thoughts is in the variety. "Religion is nothing but a path towards God. Different religions have evolved over different times and in different places based on the need of that era. However, the basic concept in each religion remains the same. Each religion talks of a universal God, who is eternal and infinite."
See also
* Lineage
** Guru–shishya tradition
The ''guru–shishya'' tradition, or ''parampara'' ("lineage"), denotes a succession of teachers and disciples in Indian-origin religions such as Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and Buddhism (including Tibetan and Zen traditions). Each ''parampar ...
** Parampara
** Sampradaya
''Sampradaya'' ( sa, सम्प्रदाय; ), in Indian origin religions, namely Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, can be translated as 'tradition', 'spiritual lineage', 'sect', or 'religious system'. To ensure continuity and ...
** Lineage (Buddhism)
A lineage in Buddhism is a line of transmission of the Buddhist teaching that is "theoretically traced back to the Buddha himself." The acknowledgement of the transmission can be oral, or certified in documents. Several branches of Buddhism, in ...
** List of Hindu gurus
* Lifestyle
** Akhara
Akhara or Akhada ( Sanskrit and Hindi: अखाड़ा, shortened to ''khara'' Hindi: खाड़ा) is an Indian word for a place of practice with facilities for boarding, lodging and training, both in the context of Indian martial artist ...
** Apprenticeship
Apprenticeship is a system for training a new generation of practitioners of a trade or profession with on-the-job training and often some accompanying study (classroom work and reading). Apprenticeships can also enable practitioners to gain a ...
** Chillum
** Darshan
** Gurukula
A or ( sa, गुरुकुल, gurukul) is a type of education system in ancient India with ('students' or 'disciples') living near or with the guru, in the same house. The guru-shishya tradition is a sacred one in Hinduism and possibly ...
** Kaupinam
The kaupinam, kaupina, langot or lungooty () is a loincloth worn by men in the Indian subcontinent as underclothing, it is now commonly worn by South Asian '' pehlwano'' wrestlers while exercising or sparring in a '' dangal''. It is made up of a ...
** Kacchera
Kachera ( pa, ਕਛੈਰਾ) are an undergarment for the lower body that is specially tailored for shalwar with a tie-knot ''naala'' or '' naada '' ( drawstring) worn by fully initiated Sikhs. They are similar to European boxer shorts in ap ...
** Langota
* Others
** Aghori
** Charismatic authority
Charismatic authority is a concept of leadership developed by the German sociologist Max Weber. It involves a type of organization or a type of leadership in which authority derives from the charisma of the leader. This stands in contrast to two o ...
** Godman
** Guru Gita
The Guru Gita (Song of the Guru) is a Hindu scripture that is said to have been authored by the sage Vyasa. The verses of this scripture may also be chanted. The text is part of the larger ''Skanda Purana''. There are several versions of the Guru ...
** Gurunath
Gurunath is a commonly used term when praising what is considered by devotees the ultimate source of compassion, love and truth - irrespective of sectarian divides whether they may be devotees of Shiva, the Lord of Transformation in the Hindu panth ...
** Hindu reform movements
Contemporary groups, collectively termed Hindu reform movements, reform Hinduism, Neo-Hinduism, or Hindu revivalism, strive to introduce regeneration and reform to Hinduism, both in a religious or spiritual and in a societal sense. The movement ...
** Lama
** Lifestyle guru
Lifestyle gurus (also called lifestyle coaches, lifestyle trainers, lifestyle consultants) trained people to understand how they can make themselves happier through changes in their lifestyle. Lifestyle gurus are a profession popularised by severa ...
** Nath
Nath, also called Natha, are a Shaiva sub-tradition within Hinduism in India and Nepal. A medieval movement, it combined ideas from Buddhism, Shaivism and Yoga traditions in India.[Religious conversion
Religious conversion is the adoption of a set of beliefs identified with one particular religious denomination to the exclusion of others. Thus "religious conversion" would describe the abandoning of adherence to one denomination and affiliatin ...]
** Sage (philosophy)
** Satguru
''Satguru'' ( sa, सत्गुरु), or ''sadguru'' ( sa, सद्गुरु), means the 'true guru' in Sanskrit. The term is distinguished from other forms of gurus, such as musical instructors, scriptural teachers, parents, and so on ...
(Sadguru)
** Shramana
** Sikh gurus
The Sikh gurus (Punjabi: ਸਿੱਖ ਗੁਰੂ) are the spiritual masters of Sikhism, who established this religion over the course of about two and a half centuries, beginning in 1469. The year 1469 marks the birth of Guru Nanak, the founde ...
** Shifu
Shifu () in Mandarin, or sifu in Cantonese, or sai hu in Hokkien, is a title for, and the role of, a skillful person or a master. The character 師/师 means "skilled person" or "teacher," while 傅 means "tutor" and 父 means "father."
Though ...
** Sensei
Sensei, Seonsaeng, Tiên sinh or Xiansheng, corresponding to Chinese characters , is an East Asian honorific term shared in Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese and Chinese; it is literally translated as "person born before another" or "one who c ...
** Eight Garudhammas
The Eight Garudhammas (Sanskrit: ,here "garu" or "guru" is used as an adjective, the wikilink points to the associated sanskrit noun.See The Pali Text Society's Pali-English dictionary entry for "garu": https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/pali ...
** Vishwa Guru
Vishwa Guru or vishwaguru is a Sanskrit phrase and idea which translates to world or global teacher, world guru, tutors of the world, world leader, or teacher to the world or universe.
Translation
( sa, विश्व गुरु) consis ...
Bibliography
* Lucia, Amanda (2022) The contemporary guru field. ''Religion Compass'', e12427. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/rec3.12427
Notes
References
Further reading
* Mick Brown ''The Spiritual Tourist'', Bloomsbury publishing, 1998,
* André van der Braak (2003). Enlightenment Blues: My Years with an American Guru. Monkfish Book Publishing.
* Jacob Copeman and Aya Ikegame (2012), The Guru in South Asia: New Interdisciplinary Perspectives, Routledge,
* Thomas Forsthoefel
Thomas Forsthoefel is a professor of religious studies at Mercyhurst University in Erie, Pennsylvania, as well as a poet and author. and Cynthia Ann Humes, Eds. ''Gurus in America''. Albany, New York: SUNY Press, 2005,
* Sister Nivedita
Sister Nivedita ( born Margaret Elizabeth Noble; 28 October 1867 – 13 October 1911) was an Irish teacher, author, social activist, school founder and disciple of Swami Vivekananda. She spent her childhood and early youth in Ireland. She wa ...
, ''The Master as I Saw Him'', Kolkata: Udbodhan Office, 1993.
* André Padoux (2013), ''The Tantric Guru'', in Tantra in Practice (Editor: David Gordon White), Motilal Banarsidass,
* Karen Pechelis (2004), The Graceful Guru: Hindu Female Gurus in India and the United States, Oxford University Press,
* Swami Satyananda, Devi Mandir, "Shree Maa: Guru and Goddess" ( )
* Alex Wayman (1987), The Guru in Buddhism, , Volume 36, Universita Gregoriana Roma, pp. 195–214
External links
Guru choice and spiritual seeking in contemporary India
M Warrier (2003), International Journal of Hindu Studies, Volume 7, Issue 1–3, pages 31–54
Guru-shishya relationship in Indian culture: The possibility of a creative resilient framework
MK Raina (2002), Journal: Psychology & Developing Societies
''Psychology and Developing Societies (PDS)'' is a peer reviewed journal. It serves as a forum for discussion for psychologists from different parts of the world concerned with the problems of developing societies. In pursuit of that aim, the jou ...
Mentors in Indian mythology - Guru and Gurukul system
P. Nachimuthu (2006), Management and Labor Studies
Scandals in emerging Western Buddhism - Gurus
Sandra Bell (2002), Durham University
The Guru as Pastoral Counselor
Raymond Williams (1986), Journal of Pastoral Care Counseling
The Tradition of Female Gurus
, Catherine Clémentin-Ojha (1985)
The Guru in Hindu Tradition
J Mlecko (1982), Numen (journal)
''Numen: International Review for the History of Religions'' is a bimonthly peer-reviewed academic journal covering the history of religions of any regions and times. It was established in 1954 and is published by Brill Publishers on behalf of the ...
Hindu Concepts of Teacher, Sanskrit Guru and Ācārya
Minoru Hara (1980), Sanskrit and Indian Studies
The Guru and the Conjurer: Transactions in Knowledge and the Shaping of Culture in Southeast Asia and Melanesia
Fredrik Barth (1990), Journal: Man
{{Authority control
Sanskrit words and phrases
Sikh terminology
Titles and occupations in Hinduism
Vajrayana
Gurus