The greater sage-grouse (''Centrocercus urophasianus''), also known as the sagehen, is the largest
grouse
Grouse are a group of birds from the order Galliformes, in the family Phasianidae. Grouse are presently assigned to the tribe Tetraonini (formerly the subfamily Tetraoninae and the family Tetraonidae), a classification supported by mitochondr ...
(a type of bird) in North America. Its range is
sagebrush country in the western
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
and southern
Alberta
Alberta ( ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada. It is part of Western Canada and is one of the three prairie provinces. Alberta is bordered by British Columbia to the west, Saskatchewan to the east, the Northwest Ter ...
and
Saskatchewan
Saskatchewan ( ; ) is a Provinces and territories of Canada, province in Western Canada, western Canada, bordered on the west by Alberta, on the north by the Northwest Territories, on the east by Manitoba, to the northeast by Nunavut, and on t ...
, Canada. It was known as simply the sage grouse until the
Gunnison sage-grouse was recognized as a separate species in 2000. The
Mono Basin
The Mono Basin is an endorheic drainage basin located east of Yosemite National Park in California and Nevada. It is bordered to the west by the Sierra Nevada, to the east by the Cowtrack Mountains, to the north by the Bodie Hills, and to the sou ...
population of sage grouse may also be distinct.
The greater sage-grouse is a permanent resident in its breeding grounds but may move short distances to lower elevations during winter. It makes use of a complex
lek system in mating and nests on the ground under sagebrush or grass patches. It forages on the ground, mainly eating sagebrush but also other plants and insects. Greater sage-grouse do not have a muscular
crop
A crop is a plant that can be grown and harvested extensively for profit or subsistence. When the plants of the same kind are cultivated at one place on a large scale, it is called a crop. Most crops are cultivated in agriculture or hydroponic ...
and are not able to digest hard
seed
A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering, along with a food reserve. The formation of the seed is a part of the process of reproduction in seed plants, the spermatophytes, including the gymnosperm and angiospe ...
s like other grouse.
The species is in decline across its range due to
habitat loss
Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss and habitat reduction) is the process by which a natural habitat becomes incapable of supporting its native species. The organisms that previously inhabited the site are displaced or dead, thereby ...
, and has been recognized as threatened or near threatened by several national and international organizations.
Description
Adult greater sage-grouse have a long, pointed tail and legs with
feather
Feathers are epidermal growths that form a distinctive outer covering, or plumage, on both avian (bird) and some non-avian dinosaurs and other archosaurs. They are the most complex integumentary structures found in vertebrates and a premier ...
s to the toes. The adult male has a yellow patch over each eye, is grayish on top with a white breast, and has a dark brown throat and a black belly; two yellowish
sacs on the neck are inflated during courtship display. The adult female is mottled gray-brown with a light brown throat and dark belly. Adult males range in length from 26 to 30 inches and weigh between 4 and 7 pounds. Adult females are smaller, ranging in length from 19 to 23 inches and weighing between 2 and 4 pounds.
Distribution and habitat
Greater sage-grouse are obligate residents of the sagebrush (''
Artemisia
Artemisia may refer to:
People
* Artemisia I of Caria (fl. 480 BC), queen of Halicarnassus under the First Persian Empire, naval commander during the second Persian invasion of Greece
* Artemisia II of Caria (died 350 BC), queen of Caria under th ...
'' spp.) ecosystem, usually inhabiting sagebrush-grassland or juniper (''
Juniperus
Junipers are coniferous trees and shrubs in the genus ''Juniperus'' () of the cypress family Cupressaceae. Depending on the taxonomy, between 50 and 67 species of junipers are widely distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere, from the Arcti ...
'' spp.) sagebrush-grassland communities. Meadows surrounded by sagebrush may be used as feeding grounds.
[ Use of meadows with a crown cover of silver sagebrush ('' A. cana'') is especially important in Nevada during the summer.][Savage, David E. 1969. Relation of sage grouse to upland meadows in Nevada. Job Completion Report: Federal Aid in Wildlife Project No. W-39-R-9. Reno, NV: University of Nevada, Nevada Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit]
Greater sage-grouse occur throughout the range of big sagebrush ('' A. tridentata''), except on the periphery of big sagebrush distribution.[ Greater Sage-Grouse prefer mountain big sagebrush (''A. t.'' ssp. ''vaseyana'') and Wyoming big sagebrush (''A. t.'' ssp. ''wyomingensis'') communities to basin big sagebrush (''A. t.'' ssp. ''tridentata'') communities.
Sagebrush cover types other than big sagebrush can fulfill greater sage-grouse habitat requirements; in fact, the grouse may prefer other sagebrush cover types to big sagebrush. Greater sage-grouse in ]Antelope Valley
The Antelope Valley is located in northern Los Angeles County, California, and the southeast portion of Kern County, California, and constitutes the western tip of the Mojave Desert. It is situated between the Tehachapi, Sierra Pelona, and the ...
, California, for example, use black sagebrush ('' A. nova'') cover types more often than the more common big sagebrush cover types.[ Hens with broods on the National Antelope Refuge in Oregon were most frequently found (54–67% of observations) in low sagebrush ('' A. arbuscula'') cover.] Desert shrub habitat may also be used by greater sage-grouse.
Sagebrush communities supporting greater sage-grouse include silver sagebrush and fringed sagebrush ('' A. frigida'').[
Their historic range spanned 16 American states and ]Alberta
Alberta ( ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada. It is part of Western Canada and is one of the three prairie provinces. Alberta is bordered by British Columbia to the west, Saskatchewan to the east, the Northwest Ter ...
, British Columbia
British Columbia (commonly abbreviated as BC) is the westernmost province of Canada, situated between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. It has a diverse geography, with rugged landscapes that include rocky coastlines, sandy beaches, ...
, and Saskatchewan
Saskatchewan ( ; ) is a Provinces and territories of Canada, province in Western Canada, western Canada, bordered on the west by Alberta, on the north by the Northwest Territories, on the east by Manitoba, to the northeast by Nunavut, and on t ...
in Canada. Between 1988 and 2012, the Canadian population declined by 98%. By 2012, they were extirpated from British Columbia and left with only remnant populations in Alberta with 40 to 60 adult birds, and in Saskatchewan with only 55 to 80 adult birds. By 2013, sage grouse were also extirpated from five U.S. states. In 2013, the Canadian Governor in Council on behalf of the Minister of the Environment
An environment minister (sometimes minister of the environment or secretary of the environment) is a cabinet position charged with protecting the natural environment and promoting wildlife conservation. The areas associated with the duties of an ...
, under the Species at Risk Act
The ''Species at Risk Act'' (SARA) (the ''Act'') is a piece of Canadian federal legislation which became law in Canada on December 12, 2002. It is designed to meet one of Canada's key commitments under the International Convention on Biological D ...
, annexed an emergency order for the protection of the greater sage-grouse.
Ecology
Lek mating system
Greater sage-grouse are notable for their elaborate courtship rituals. Each spring, males congregate in leks
A lek is an aggregation of male animals gathered to engage in competitive displays and courtship rituals, known as lekking, to entice visiting females which are surveying prospective partners with which to mate. A lek can also indicate an avail ...
and perform a "strutting display". Groups of females observe these displays and select the most attractive males with which to mate. The dominant male located in the center of the lek typically copulates with around 80% of the females on the lek. Males perform in leks for several hours in the early morning and evening during the spring
Video
Males gather in leks to court, usually in late February to April. Only a few dominant males, usually two, breed. Sage grouse mating behaviors are complex.[ After mating, the hen leaves the lek for the nesting grounds.
Open areas such as swales, irrigated fields, meadows, burns, roadsides, and areas with low, sparse sagebrush cover are used as leks.][ Of 45 leks, 11 were on windswept ridges or exposed knolls, 10 were in flat sagebrush, seven were in bare openings, and the remaining 17 were on various other site types.][ Leks are usually surrounded by areas with 20 to 50% sagebrush cover, with sagebrush no more than tall. Daily morning lek attendance by male Sage grouse can vary considerably between years, with lower attendance on days with precipitation.
]
Nest selection
Greater sage-grouse disperse to areas surrounding the leks for nesting.[ In a study of habitat selection by male greater sage grouse in central Montana during breeding season, sagebrush height and canopy cover at 110 daytime feeding and loafing sites of cocks were recorded. About 80% of the locations occurred in sagebrush with a canopy cover of 20–50%. In another Montana study,] sagebrush cover averaged 30% on a cock-use area, and no cocks were observed in areas of less than 10% canopy cover.
Some females probably travel between leks. In Mono County, California, the home range of marked females during one month of the breeding season was , enough area to include several active leks. DNA from feathers dropped at leks showed that about 1% of grouse may travel long distances to explore breeding areas up to 120 miles away, a type of long-distance dispersal that can potentially boost populations and temper inbreeding.
Within a week to ten days following breeding, the hen builds a nest in the vicinity of the lek. Hens usually nest near the lekking grounds,[Schlatterer, Edward Frederick. 1960. Productivity and movements of a population of Greater Sage-Grouse in southeastern Idaho. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. Thesis.] but some hens have been noted to fly as far as to favorable nesting sites.[Gill, R. Bruce. 1966. A literature review on the sage grouse. Special Report No. 6. Denver, CO: Colorado Department of Game, Fish, and Parks, Game Research Division, Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit][Rogers, Glenn E. 1964. Sage grouse investigations in Colorado. Tech. Publ. No. 16. Denver, CO: Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Department, Game Research Division]
Quality of nesting habitat surrounding the lek is the most important factor in population success. Adequacy of cover is critical for nesting. Too little can exist: where 13% was the average total crown cover on Idaho range, nests were located where average cover was 17%. No hens nested in the most arid, open areas with less than 10% total shrub cover. Too much also can occur: average shrub cover at 87 nest sites was 18.4%, and in more dense cover, greater sage-grouse did not nest where total shrub cover was greater than 25%.[ In Utah, no nests occurred where threetip sagebrush cover exceeded 35%.][
Sagebrush forms the nesting cover for most greater sage-grouse nests throughout the West, with concealment being the basic requirement.][ Rabbitbrush ('']Chrysothamnus
''Chrysothamnus'', known as rabbitbrush, rabbitbush, and chamisa, are a genus of shrubs in the family Asteraceae. The native distribution is in the arid western United States, Canada, and northern Mexico. It is known for its bright white or yell ...
'' spp.) is occasionally used for nesting cover with greasewood (''Sarcobatus vermiculatus
''Sarcobatus'' is a North American genus of two species of flowering plants, formerly considered to be a single species. Common names for ''S. vermiculatus'' include greasewood, seepwood, and saltbush. Traditionally, ''Sarcobatus'' has been ...
'') and shadscale ('' Atriplex canescens'') being rarely used.[
Greater sage-grouse prefer relatively tall sagebrush with an open canopy for nesting. In Utah, 33% of 161 nests were under silver sagebrush that was tall, while big sagebrush of the same height accounted for 24% of nests.][Rasmussen, D. I.; Griner, Lynn A. 1938. Life history and management studies of the sage grouse in Utah, with special reference to nesting and feeding habits. In: Transactions, 3rd North American Wildlife Conference: 852–864] In a threetip sagebrush (''A. tripartata'') habitat averaging 8 in (20 cm) in height, hens selected the tallest plants for nesting cover. Similarly in Wyoming, 92% of nests in Wyoming big sagebrush were in areas where vegetation was tall and cover did not exceed 50%.[
In Montana, when sagebrush characteristics around 31 successful and 10 unsuccessful nests were compared, successful nests had greater than average sagebrush cover surrounding the nest and were located in stands with a higher average canopy cover (27%) than unsuccessful nests (20%).] The average height of sagebrush cover over all nests was as compared to an average height of in adjacent areas.
During the nesting season, cocks and hens without nests use "relatively open" areas for feeding, and roost in "dense" patches of sagebrush.
Brood rearing
Clutch size ranges from six to eight eggs; incubation time is 25 to 27 days. Greater sage-grouse apparently have high rates of nest desertion and nest predation.[ Johnsgard, Paul A. 1973. Grouse and quails of North America. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press][ Data from several sage grouse studies indicate a range of nesting success from 23.7 to 60.3%, with predation accounting for 26 to 76% of lost nests.][
Chicks fly by two weeks of age, although their movements are limited until they are two to three weeks old.][ They can sustain flight by five to six weeks of age. Juveniles are relatively independent by the time they have completed their first molt at 10 to 12 weeks of age.][
]
Diet
Adults
The importance of sagebrush in the diet of adult greater sage-grouse is great; numerous studies have documented its year-round use.[Call, Mayo W.; Maser, Chris. 1985. Wildlife habitats in managed rangelands—the Great Basin of southeastern Oregon: sage grouse. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-187. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station][Schneegas, Edward R. 1967. Sage grouse and sagebrush control. Transactions, North American Wildlife Conference. 32: 270–274.][Klebenow, Donald A. 1973. The habitat requirements of sage grouse and the role of fire in management. In: Proceedings, annual Tall Timbers fire ecology conference; 1972 June 8–9; Lubbock, TX. No. 12. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 305–315][Patterson, Robert L. 1952. The sage grouse in Wyoming. Federal Aid to Wildlife Restoration Project 28-R. Denver, CO: Sage Books, Inc.][Wallestad, Richard. 1975. Life history and habitat requirements of sage grouse in central Montana. Helena, MT: Montana Department of Fish and Game][Call, Mayo W. 1979. Habitat requirements and management recommendations for sage grouse. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Denver Service Center] A Montana study, based on 299 crop samples, showed that 62% of total food volume of the year was sagebrush. Between December and February, it was the only food item found in all crops. Only between June and September did sagebrush constitute less than 60% of their diet.[ Sage grouse select sagebrush species differentially. Greater sage-grouse in Antelope Valley, California, browsed black sagebrush more frequently than the more common big sagebrush.][ The browse of black sagebrush is highly preferred by greater sage-grouse in Nevada. In southeastern Idaho, black sagebrush was preferred as forage.][Crawford, John Earl, Jr. 1960. The movements, productivity, and management of sage grouse in Clark and Fremont Counties, Idaho. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. Thesis]
Among the big sagebrush subspecies, basin big sagebrush is less nutritious and higher in terpene
Terpenes () are a class of natural products consisting of compounds with the formula (C5H8)n for n > 1. Comprising more than 30,000 compounds, these unsaturated hydrocarbons are produced predominantly by plants, particularly conifers. Terpenes ar ...
s than either mountain or Wyoming big sagebrush. Sage grouse prefer the other two subspecies to basin big sagebrush.[ In a common garden study done in Utah, greater sage-grouse preferred mountain big sagebrush over Wyoming and basin big sagebrush.] However, when leaves and buds of the preferred species became limited, the birds shifted to the lesser-liked plants. The birds, while expressing preference, are capable of shifting their eating habits.
Sage grouse lack a muscular gizzard and cannot grind and digest seeds; they must consume soft-tissue foods.[ Apart from sagebrush, the adult diet consists largely of herbaceous leaves, which are used primarily in late spring and summer. Additionally, greater sage-grouse use perennial bunchgrasses for food.][
Sage grouse are highly selective grazers, choosing only a few plant genera. Dandelion ('']Taraxacum
''Taraxacum'' () is a large genus of flowering plants in the family Asteraceae, which consists of species commonly known as dandelions. The scientific and hobby study of the genus is known as taraxacology. The genus is native to Eurasia and Nor ...
'' spp.), legumes (), yarrow (''Achillea
''Achillea'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Asteraceae, known colloquially as yarrows. The plants typically have frilly leaves. The common name "yarrow" usually refers to '' A. millefolium''. The genus was named after the Gre ...
'' spp.) and wild lettuce (''Lactuca
''Lactuca'', commonly known as lettuce, is a genus of flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. The genus includes at least 50 species, distributed worldwide, but mainly in temperate Eurasia.
Its best-known representative is the garden lettuce ...
'' spp.) account for most of their forb intake.[Autenrieth, Robert; Molini, William; Braun, Clait, eds. 1982. Sage grouse management practices. Tech. Bull No. 1. Twin Falls, ID: Western States Sage Grouse Committee] From July to September, dandelion comprised 45% of forb intake; sagebrush comprised 34%. Collectively, dandelion, sagebrush, and two legume genera (''Trifolium'' and ''Astragalus'') contributed more than 90% of the greater sage-grouse diet. Insects are a minor diet item for adults. Insects comprised 2% of the adult diet in spring and fall and 9% in summer. Sagebrush made up 71% of the year-round diet.
Females before laying
Herbaceous dicots are used heavily by females before egg laying and may be essential for their nutrition because of their high protein
Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, respo ...
and nutrient content.[
Favored foods of prelaying and brood-rearing greater sage-grouse hens in Oregon are common dandelion ('']Taraxacum officinale
''Taraxacum officinale'', the dandelion or common dandelion, is a flowering herbaceous perennial plant of the dandelion genus in the family Asteraceae (syn. Compositae). The common dandelion is well known for its yellow flower heads that turn i ...
''), goatsbeard (''Tragopogon dubius
''Tragopogon dubius'' (yellow salsify, western salsify, western goat's-beard, wild oysterplant, yellow goat's beard, goat's beard, goatsbeard, common salsify, salsify) is a species of salsify native to southern and central Europe and western As ...
''), western yarrow (''Achillea millefolium
''Achillea millefolium'', commonly known as yarrow () or common yarrow, is a flowering plant in the family Asteraceae. Other common names include old man's pepper, devil's nettle, sanguinary, milfoil, soldier's woundwort, and thousand seal.
The ...
''), prickly lettuce (''Lactuca serriola
''Lactuca serriola'', also called prickly lettuce, milk thistle (not to be confused with ''Silybum marianum'', also called milk thistle), compass plant, and scarole, is an annual or biennial plant in the tribe Cichorieae within the family Asterac ...
''), and sego lily (''Calochortus macrocarpus
''Calochortus macrocarpus'', also known as sagebrush mariposa lily, is a North American species of bulbous perennials in the Liliaceae, lily family.
Distribution
The plant is native to the Northwestern United States (Washington (state), Washingt ...
'').
Juveniles
In their first week of life, greater sage-grouse chicks consume primarily insects, especially ant
Ants are eusocial insects of the family Formicidae and, along with the related wasps and bees, belong to the order Hymenoptera. Ants evolved from vespoid wasp ancestors in the Cretaceous period. More than 13,800 of an estimated total of 22 ...
s and beetle
Beetles are insects that form the order Coleoptera (), in the superorder Endopterygota. Their front pair of wings are hardened into wing-cases, elytra, distinguishing them from most other insects. The Coleoptera, with about 400,000 describ ...
s.[ Their diet then switches to ]forb
A forb or phorb is an herbaceous flowering plant that is not a graminoid (grass, sedge, or rush). The term is used in biology and in vegetation ecology, especially in relation to grasslands and understory. Typically these are dicots without woo ...
s, with sagebrush gradually assuming primary importance. In a Utah study, forbs composed 54 to 60% of the summer diet of juveniles, while the diet of adult birds was 39 to 47% forbs.[Trueblood, Richard W. 1954. The effect of grass reseeding in sagebrush lands on sage grouse populations. Logan, UT: Utah State Agricultural College. Thesis]
A Wyoming study evaluated effects of eliminating insects from the diet of newly hatched greater sage-grouse chicks. All chicks hatched in captivity and not provided insects died between the ages of 4 and 10 days, whereas all chicks fed insects survived the first 10 days. Captive chicks required insects for survival until they were at least three weeks old. Chicks more than three weeks old survived without insects, but their growth rates were lowered significantly, indicating insects were still required for normal growth after three weeks of age. As quantity of insects in the diet increased, survival and growth rates also increased up to 45 days, the length of the experiment.
In a study conducted in Idaho, Klebenow and Gray measured food items for juvenile greater sage-grouse for each age class, classes being defined by weeks since birth. In the first week, insects were very important – 52% of the total diet. Beetles, primarily family Scarabaeidae
The family Scarabaeidae, as currently defined, consists of over 30,000 species of beetles worldwide; they are often called scarabs or scarab beetles. The classification of this family has undergone significant change in recent years. Several sub ...
, were the main food item. Beetles were taken by all other age classes of chicks, but in smaller amounts. All ages fed upon ants, and while the volume was generally low, ants were found in most of the crops. After week 3, insect volume dropped and stayed at a lower level throughout all the age classes, fluctuating but always under 25%.
Forbs were the major plant food of the chicks. Harkness gilia (''Leptosiphon harknessii
''Leptosiphon harknessii'' ( syn. ''Linanthus harknessii'') is a species of flowering plant in the phlox family known by the common name Harkness' flaxflower.
Distribution and habitat
The plant is native to western North America, from British C ...
'') was the main forb species in the first week and then steadily decreased. It was not found in the diet after 6 weeks. Loco ('' Arabis convallarius'') and common dandelion were important food items for most of the collection period and occurred with generally high frequencies. Common dandelion was the most abundant food item and the mainstay of the chicks. At 6 weeks of age, goatsbeard reached its peak in the diet and sego lily was found in greatest volume a week later. These five species were the most important forbs.
With plants like common dandelion and goatsbeard, all aboveground parts of the plant were sometimes eaten. The stems, however, were not of main importance. The reproductive parts, mainly buds, flowers, and capsules, were the only parts taken from some of the other species. Conversely, leaves were the only parts of sagebrush found in the crops. Leaves and flowers of the species listed above and other dicots contained higher amounts of crude protein
Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, respo ...
, calcium
Calcium is a chemical element with the symbol Ca and atomic number 20. As an alkaline earth metal, calcium is a reactive metal that forms a dark oxide-nitride layer when exposed to air. Its physical and chemical properties are most similar to ...
, and phosphorus
Phosphorus is a chemical element with the symbol P and atomic number 15. Elemental phosphorus exists in two major forms, white phosphorus and red phosphorus, but because it is highly reactive, phosphorus is never found as a free element on Ear ...
than sagebrush and may be important in greater sage-grouse diets for these reasons.
Water
Greater sage-grouse apparently do not require open water for day-to-day survival if succulent vegetation is available. They use free water if it is available, however. Their distribution is apparently seasonally limited by water in some areas. In summer, greater sage-grouse in desert regions occur only near streams, springs, and water holes. In winter in Eden Valley, Wyoming, they have been observed regularly visiting partially frozen streams to drink from holes in the ice.[
]
Predators
Predators are commonly believed to reduce greater sage-grouse populations and of most importance is timing of death. Nest loss to predators is most important when potential production of young and recruitment are seriously impacted.[ Lack of adequate nesting and brooding cover may account for high juvenile losses in many regions.][ Nest success is related to herbaceous cover near the nest site.] Taller, more dense herbaceous cover apparently reduces nest predation and likely increases early brood survival.[ Although predators were the proximate factor influencing nest loss, the ultimate cause may relate to the vegetation available to nesting grouse.][ Tall, dense vegetation may provide visual, scent, and physical barriers between predators and nests of ground-nesting birds. Greater amounts of both tall grass and medium-height shrub cover were associated collectively with a lower probability of nest predation.][ In a series of Nevada studies, artificial nest predation experiments were conducted. Artificial nests experienced 100% mortality with the loss of 1,400 eggs in 200 simulated nests in two weeks in one study, 84% of the nests were destroyed in three days in another study, while just 3% of the nests were destroyed in 10 days in an area of significantly better cover.
Generally, quantity and quality of habitats used by greater sage-grouse control the degree of predation,so predation would be expected to be most important as habitat size and herbaceous cover within sagebrush decreases.][ A decline in preferred prey may also result in increased predation on greater sage-grouse. In southeastern Oregon, a decline in ]black-tailed jackrabbit
The black-tailed jackrabbit (''Lepus californicus''), also known as the American desert hare, is a common hare of the western United States and Mexico, where it is found at elevations from sea level up to . Reaching a length around , and a ...
(''Lepus californicus'') numbers may have caused predators to switch to greater sage-grouse as their primary prey.[
Predator species include ]coyote
The coyote (''Canis latrans'') is a species of canis, canine native to North America. It is smaller than its close relative, the wolf, and slightly smaller than the closely related eastern wolf and red wolf. It fills much of the same ecologica ...
s (''Canis latrans''),[ ]bobcat
The bobcat (''Lynx rufus''), also known as the red lynx, is a medium-sized cat native to North America. It ranges from southern Canada through most of the contiguous United States to Oaxaca in Mexico. It is listed as Least Concern on the IUC ...
s (''Lynx rufus''), American badger
The American badger (''Taxidea taxus'') is a North American badger similar in appearance to the European badger, although not closely related. It is found in the western, central, and northeastern United States, northern Mexico, and south-centr ...
s (''Taxidea taxus''),[Klott, James H.; Smith, Randy B.; Vullo, Charlene. 1993. Sage grouse habitat use in the Brown's Bench Area of south-central Idaho. Tech. Bulletin No. 93–4. Boise, ID: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Idaho State Office] falcons (Falconidae
The falcons and caracaras are around 60 species of diurnal birds of prey that make up the family Falconidae (representing all extant species in the order Falconiformes). The family is divided into three subfamilies, Herpetotherinae, which inclu ...
), and hawks and eagles (Accipitridae
The Accipitridae is one of the three families within the order Accipitriformes, and is a family of small to large birds with strongly hooked bills and variable morphology based on diet. They feed on a range of prey items from insects to medium-s ...
sp.) prey on adult and juveniles. Crows and ravens (''Corvus
''Corvus'' is a widely distributed genus of medium-sized to large birds in the family Corvidae. It includes species commonly known as crows, ravens and Rook (bird), rooks. The species commonly encountered in Europe are the carrion crow, the hoo ...
'' sp.) and magpies ('' Pica'' sp.) consume juvenile birds. Coyotes, ground squirrel
Ground squirrels are members of the squirrel family of rodents (Sciuridae), which generally live on or in the ground, rather than trees. The term is most often used for the medium-sized ground squirrels, as the larger ones are more commonly known ...
s (Sciuridae
Squirrels are members of the family Sciuridae, a family that includes small or medium-size rodents. The squirrel family includes tree squirrels, ground squirrels (including chipmunks and prairie dogs, among others), and flying squirrels. Squ ...
spp.), and badgers are the most important mammalian nest predators. Among bird species, magpies and ravens commonly prey on Greater Sage-Grouse nests.[ Johnsgard, Paul A. 1983. The grouse of the world. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska]
Greater sage-grouse are a popular game bird
Galliformes is an order of heavy-bodied ground-feeding birds that includes turkeys, chickens, quail, and other landfowl. Gallinaceous birds, as they are called, are important in their ecosystems as seed dispersers and predators, and are ofte ...
. Mortality due to hunting is generally considered to be compensatory[Braun, Clait E. 1998. Sage grouse declines in western North America: what are the problems? In: Proceedings of the Western Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies; 1998 June 26 – July 2; Jackson, WY. Cheyenne, WY: Western Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies: 139–156] and replacive,[ where until mortality reaches a "threshold value", it has no effect on population levels. Data are not available to suggest that closed or restricted hunting seasons will materially affect overall population levels on their primary range.][
In a study on hunting in a low-density greater sage-grouse population in Nevada, low populations may be a result of factors other than hunting. Protecting one greater sage-grouse population from hunting while doubling the birds harvested in a four-year period on another population showed, despite low recruitment, both populations increased to nearly the same density. In an Oregon study, no relationship was found between the rate of summer recruitment (chicks/adult) and harvest by hunters, nor was any significant relationship found between the size of the fall harvest and population trends during the subsequent spring.
]
Conservation
Residential building and energy development have caused the greater sage-grouse population to decline from 16 million 100 years ago to between 200,000 and 500,000 today.[Broder, John M.. (2010-03-05]
No Endangered Status for Plains Bird
Nytimes.com. Retrieved on 2011-08-07.
This species is in decline due to loss of habitat
Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss and habitat reduction) is the process by which a natural habitat becomes incapable of supporting its native species. The organisms that previously inhabited the site are displaced or dead, thereby ...
; the bird's range has shrunk in historical times, having been extirpated
Local extinction, also known as extirpation, refers to a species (or other taxon) of plant or animal that ceases to exist in a chosen geographic area of study, though it still exists elsewhere. Local extinctions are contrasted with global extinct ...
from British Columbia, Kansas
Kansas () is a state in the Midwestern United States. Its capital is Topeka, and its largest city is Wichita. Kansas is a landlocked state bordered by Nebraska to the north; Missouri to the east; Oklahoma to the south; and Colorado to the ...
, and Nebraska
Nebraska () is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States. It is bordered by South Dakota to the north; Iowa to the east and Missouri to the southeast, both across the Missouri River; Kansas to the south; Colorado to the southwe ...
. Though the greater sage-grouse as a whole is not considered endangered by the IUCN
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN; officially International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natu ...
, local populations may be in serious danger of extinction. In May 2000, the Canadian Species at Risk Act
The ''Species at Risk Act'' (SARA) (the ''Act'') is a piece of Canadian federal legislation which became law in Canada on December 12, 2002. It is designed to meet one of Canada's key commitments under the International Convention on Biological D ...
listed the subspecies ''Centrocercus urophasianus phaios'', formerly found in British Columbia, as being extirpated in Canada. The presence of subfossil
A fossil (from Classical Latin , ) is any preserved remains, impression, or trace of any once-living thing from a past geological age. Examples include bones, shells, exoskeletons, stone imprints of animals or microbes, objects preserved in ...
bones at Conkling Cave and Shelter Cave ''Shelter Cave'' is an archaeological and paleontological site located in Doña Ana County, New Mexico.
Description
The site is a rock shelter well up on the western side of Bishop's Cap, an outlier of the Organ Mountains. It lies about 450  ...
in southern New Mexico show that the species was present south of its current range at the end of the last ice age, leading some experts to project that the species could become increasingly vulnerable as global climate change
In common usage, climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to E ...
increases the humidity in semiarid
A semi-arid climate, semi-desert climate, or steppe climate is a dry climate sub-type. It is located on regions that receive precipitation below potential evapotranspiration, but not as low as a desert climate. There are different kinds of semi- ...
regions.
United States
In the United States, the species was a candidate for listing under the Endangered Species Act
The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA or "The Act"; 16 U.S.C. § 1531 et seq.) is the primary law in the United States for protecting imperiled species. Designed to protect critically imperiled species from extinction as a "consequence of ec ...
, but the US Fish and Wildlife Service
The United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS or FWS) is an agency within the United States Department of the Interior dedicated to the management of fish, wildlife, and natural habitats. The mission of the agency is "working with othe ...
(USFWS) was forced by the US Congress to not grant endangered species status in September 2015.
The original petition to list the greater sage-grouse was mailed to the USFWS in June, 2002 by Craig Dremann of Redwood City
Redwood City is a city on the San Francisco Peninsula in Northern California's Bay Area, approximately south of San Francisco, and northwest of San Jose. Redwood City's history spans its earliest inhabitation by the Ohlone people to being a po ...
. Dremann, for his petition, quoted a Department of Interior document about the declining status of the bird, putting the USFWS in the difficult position of having to argue against another Federal agency's findings. The reason why Dremann sought the listing, is after driving across the bird's range in 1997, and noting what vegetation grew at each post mile, from California to South Dakota and back, recorded how damaged and destroyed the native sagebrush understory habitat had become from lack of management of the grazing of public lands.
The following groups have supported Dremann's petition to list: American Lands Alliance, Biodiversity Conservation Alliance, Center for Biological Diversity
The Center for Biological Diversity is a nonprofit membership organization known for its work protecting endangered species through legal action, scientific petitions, creative media and grassroots activism. It was founded in 1989 by Kieran Suckl ...
, Center for Native Ecosystems, WildEarth Guardians
WildEarth Guardians is a non-profit grassroots environmental organization best known for its decade-long legal action against the US Fish and Wildlife Service, which culminated in 2011 with the Fish and Wildlife Service agreeing to move forward ...
, the Fund for Animals, Gallatin Wildlife Association, Great Old Broads for Wilderness, Hells Canyon Preservation Council, The Larch Company, The Northwest Coalition for Alternatives to Pesticides, Northwest Ecosystem Alliance, Oregon Natural Desert Association
The Oregon Natural Desert Association (ONDA) is a tax-exempt 501(c)(3) organization with a mission to protect, defend, and restore the wild lands of eastern Oregon. It was founded in 1987.
Campaigns
ONDA's efforts have included protecting habit ...
, Oregon Natural Resources Council, Predator Defense Institute, Sierra Club
The Sierra Club is an environmental organization with chapters in all 50 United States, Washington D.C., and Puerto Rico. The club was founded on May 28, 1892, in San Francisco, California, by Scottish-American preservationist John Muir, who be ...
, Sinapu, Western Fire Ecology Center, Western Watersheds Project, Wild Utah Project, and Wildlands CPR.
In 2010, after a second review, the Department of the Interior assigned the greater sage-grouse a status known as "warranted but precluded", essentially putting it on a waiting list (behind more critically threatened species) for federal protection.
Since half of all remaining sage grouse habitat is on private lands, the USDA's Natural Resources Conservation Service
Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), formerly known as the Soil Conservation Service (SCS), is an agency of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) that provides technical assistance to farmers and other private landowners an ...
launched th
Sage Grouse Initiative
a partnership-based, science-driven, Farm Bill-funded effort that uses voluntary incentives to proactively conserve America's western rangelands, wildlife, and rural way of life. The Sage Grouse Initiative has partnered with 1,500+ ranchers across 11 states since 2010, conserving 5.5 million acres of sage grouse habitat (twice the size of Yellowstone National Park
Yellowstone National Park is an American national park located in the western United States, largely in the northwest corner of Wyoming and extending into Montana and Idaho. It was established by the 42nd U.S. Congress with the Yellowston ...
).
In April 2014, the Sage-Grouse and Endangered Species Conservation and Protection Act (H.R.4419) was introduced in the U.S. House of Representatives
The United States House of Representatives, often referred to as the House of Representatives, the U.S. House, or simply the House, is the lower chamber of the United States Congress, with the Senate being the upper chamber. Together they ...
to prohibit the federal government from listing sage grouse under the Endangered Species Act
The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA or "The Act"; 16 U.S.C. § 1531 et seq.) is the primary law in the United States for protecting imperiled species. Designed to protect critically imperiled species from extinction as a "consequence of ec ...
for 10 years, as long as states prepare and carry out plans to protect the species within their borders.
Facing a court-ordered deadline of October 2015, the Department of the Interior on September 22, 2015, was forced by the US Congress just before the deadline, by adding language in the 2015 Appropriations bill to stop the listing, not to list the bird as threatened or endangered under the Endangered Species Act (ESA). The language in the 2015 bill, "Prohibits funds from being used to write or issue rules pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973 and related to the sage-grouse."
As rationale for its decision, the Department said it would rely on a new land-management plan to protect the sage grouse's habitat of 165 million acres across eleven Western states. The designation under the ESA would likely have led to land-use and other restrictions that critics feared would have economic impacts, possibly restricting oil and gas development and homebuilding. In issuing its finding, the FWS stated that:
This measure was repeated in the 2016 appropriations bill. For the 2017 bill, the Columbia Basin population was added — Sec. 114:
For the 2018 appropriations bill, over the objections of conservationists and the Democratic party, Congress applied similar measures to two other species: the gray wolf
The wolf (''Canis lupus''; : wolves), also known as the gray wolf or grey wolf, is a large canine native to Eurasia and North America. More than thirty subspecies of ''Canis lupus'' have been recognized, and gray wolves, as popularly ...
and the lesser prairie chicken
The lesser prairie chicken (''Tympanuchus pallidicinctus'') is a species in the grouse family.
Description
It is a medium to large bird, striped white and brown, slightly smaller and paler than its near relative the greater prairie chicken (''T. ...
.
Despite the Department of the Interior's decision not to list the greater sage-grouse as threatened or endangered, legal efforts to protect the sage-grouse continue. For instance, in May 2016 the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit
The United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit (in case citations, 9th Cir.) is the U.S. federal court of appeals that has appellate jurisdiction over the U.S. district courts in the following federal judicial districts:
* District ...
ruled that a planned wind energy project in Harney County, Oregon
Harney County is one of the 36 counties in the U.S. state of Oregon. As of the 2020 census, the population was 7,495, making it the sixth-least populous county in Oregon. The county seat is Burns. Established in 1889, the county is named in ho ...
could not proceed until the Bureau of Land Management
The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) is an agency within the United States Department of the Interior responsible for administering federal lands. Headquartered in Washington DC, and with oversight over , it governs one eighth of the country's la ...
adequately studied whether the project site provided winter habitat for sage-grouses.
On December 6, 2018, the government announced a plan to roll back protections for the sage grouse to open nine million acres of land to wind and solar farms, drilling, mining, and cornfields for the production of government mandated ethanol.
Canada
The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) designated the greater sage-grouse as ''Threatened'' in 1997, and re-designated the species as ''Endangered'' in April 1998. The status was reevaluated and confirmed in May 2000 and April 2008. The greater sage-grouse is listed on Schedule 1 of Canada's ''Species at Risk Act
The ''Species at Risk Act'' (SARA) (the ''Act'') is a piece of Canadian federal legislation which became law in Canada on December 12, 2002. It is designed to meet one of Canada's key commitments under the International Convention on Biological D ...
'', as ''Endangered''.
In 2013, the Canadian Governor in Council on behalf of the Minister of the Environment, under the Species at Risk Act, annexed an emergency order for the protection of the greater sage-grouse. This order, among other things, prohibits killing of sagebrush plants, native grasses, or native forbs, and the building of fences and other structures in certain areas. The order is implemented "to protect a listed wildlife species on both federal and non-federal lands when the competent Minister is of the opinion that the species faces imminent threats to its survival or recovery."In 2014, a ten-year captive breeding program
Captive breeding, also known as captive propagation, is the process of plants or animals in controlled environments, such as wildlife reserves, zoos, botanic gardens, and other conservation facilities. It is sometimes employed to help species that ...
for greater sage-grouse was initiated at the Calgary Zoo
The Calgary Zoo is located in Bridgeland, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, just east of the city's downtown and adjacent to the Inglewood and East Village neighborhoods. It is accessible via Calgary's C-Train light rail system, by car via Memorial ...
. Despite only two of thirteen hatched birds surviving to the age of seven months, the program will proceed.
In popular culture
A sage-grouse, Cecil the Sagehen, is the mascot of the Pomona-Pitzer Sagehens
Pomona-Pitzer Sagehens is the joint athletics program for Pomona College and Pitzer College, two of the Claremont Colleges. It competes in the Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (SCIAC) of the NCAA Division III. Its masc ...
, the joint athletics program of Pomona College
Pomona College ( ) is a private liberal arts college in Claremont, California. It was established in 1887 by a group of Congregationalists who wanted to recreate a "college of the New England type" in Southern California. In 1925, it became ...
and Pitzer College
Pitzer College is a private liberal arts college in Claremont, California. One of the Claremont Colleges, the college has a curricular emphasis on the social sciences, behavioral sciences, international programs, and media studies. Pitzer is k ...
, two liberal arts colleges in Claremont, California.
References
Further reading
*
* Connelly, John W.; Knick, Steven T.; Schroeder, Michael A. & Stiver, San J. (2004). ''Conservation Assessment of Greater Sage-grouse and Sagebrush Habitats''. Unpublished Report, Western Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies. Cheyenne, Wyoming
PDf fulltext
* Manier, D.J. (2013).
Summary of Science, Activities, Programs, and Policies that Influence the Rangewide Conservation of Greater Sage-Grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus).
' Reston, Va.: U.S. Department of the Interior
The United States Department of the Interior (DOI) is one of the executive departments of the U.S. federal government headquartered at the Main Interior Building, located at 1849 C Street NW in Washington, D.C. It is responsible for the mana ...
, U.S. Geological Survey
The United States Geological Survey (USGS), formerly simply known as the Geological Survey, is a scientific agency of the United States government. The scientists of the USGS study the landscape of the United States, its natural resources, and ...
.
* ''Western Watersheds Project v. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service'' – Summary Judgemen
PDF fulltext
External links
Cornell Lab of Ornithology – Greater Sage Grouse
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070929083611/http://enature.com/fieldguides/detail.asp?allSpecies=y&searchText=greater%20sage%20grouse&curGroupID=1&lgfromWhere=&curPageNum=1 eNature.com: Greater Sage Grouse]
High-resolution sage-grouse photos, range maps, broadcast-quality b-roll, and fact sheets
VIREO
* ttp://www.westernwatersheds.org/issues/species/sage-grouse/ Western Watersheds Project: Greater Sage Grouse
Biodiversity Conservation Alliance
Studies in Avian Biology Monograph: Ecology and Conservation of Greater Sage-Grouse: A Landscape Species and Its Habitats
Biodiversity Conservation Alliance
A Guide to the Nevada Sage Grouse Conservation Project Records, 2007-14
Special Collections, University Libraries, University of Nevada, Reno.
{{Taxonbar, from=Q747372
Centrocercus
Birds of the United States
Native birds of the Western United States
Fauna of the Great Basin
Grouse
Birds described in 1827
Taxa named by Charles Lucien Bonaparte
Articles containing video clips