A DNA database or DNA databank is a
database
In computing, a database is an organized collection of data stored and accessed electronically. Small databases can be stored on a file system, while large databases are hosted on computer clusters or cloud storage. The design of databases sp ...
of
DNA profile
DNA profiling (also called DNA fingerprinting) is the process of determining an individual's DNA characteristics. DNA analysis intended to identify a species, rather than an individual, is called DNA barcoding.
DNA profiling is a forensic tec ...
s which can be used in the analysis of
genetic disease
A genetic disorder is a health problem caused by one or more abnormalities in the genome. It can be caused by a mutation in a single gene (monogenic) or multiple genes (polygenic) or by a chromosomal abnormality. Although polygenic disorders ...
s,
genetic fingerprinting
DNA profiling (also called DNA fingerprinting) is the process of determining an individual's DNA characteristics. DNA analysis intended to identify a species, rather than an individual, is called DNA barcoding.
DNA profiling is a forensic t ...
for
criminology
Criminology (from Latin , "accusation", and Ancient Greek , ''-logia'', from λόγος ''logos'' meaning: "word, reason") is the study of crime and deviant behaviour. Criminology is an interdisciplinary field in both the behavioural and so ...
, or
genetic genealogy. DNA databases may be public or private, the largest ones being
national DNA database
A DNA database or DNA databank is a database of DNA profiles which can be used in the analysis of genetic diseases, genetic fingerprinting for criminology, or genetic genealogy. DNA databases may be public or private, the largest ones being nat ...
s.
DNA databases are often employed in
forensic investigations. When a match is made from a national DNA database to link a crime scene to a person whose DNA profile is stored on a database, that link is often referred to as a ''cold hit''. A cold hit is of particular value in linking a specific person to a crime scene, but is of less evidential value than a DNA match made without the use of a DNA database. Research shows that DNA databases of criminal offenders reduce crime rates.
Types
Forensic
A forensic database is a centralized DNA database for storing DNA profiles of individuals that enables searching and comparing of DNA samples collected from a crime scene against stored profiles. The most important function of the
forensic
Forensic science, also known as criminalistics, is the application of science to criminal and civil laws, mainly—on the criminal side—during criminal investigation, as governed by the legal standards of admissible evidence and criminal p ...
database is to produce matches between the suspected individual and crime scene bio-markers, and then provides evidence to support criminal investigations, and also leads to identify potential suspects in the criminal investigation. Majority of the National DNA databases are used for forensic purposes.
The
Interpol
The International Criminal Police Organization (ICPO; french: link=no, Organisation internationale de police criminelle), commonly known as Interpol ( , ), is an international organization that facilitates worldwide police cooperation and cri ...
DNA database is used in criminal investigations. Interpol maintains an automated DNA database called DNA Gateway that contains DNA profiles submitted by member countries collected from crime scenes, missing persons, and unidentified bodies.
The DNA Gateway was established in 2002, and at the end of 2013, it had more than 140,000 DNA profiles from 69 member countries. Unlike other DNA databases, DNA Gateway is only used for information sharing and comparison, it does not link a DNA profile to any individual, and the physical or psychological conditions of an individual are not included in the database.
Genealogical
A national or forensic DNA database is not available for non-police purposes. DNA profiles can also be used for genealogical purposes, so that a separate
genetic genealogy database needs to be created that stores DNA profiles of
genealogical DNA test
A genealogical DNA test is a DNA-based test used in genetic genealogy that looks at specific locations of a person's genome in order to find or verify ancestral genealogical relationships, or (with lower reliability) to estimate the ethnic mixt ...
results. GenBank is a public genetic genealogy database that stores genome sequences submitted by many genetic genealogists. Until now, GenBank has contained large number of DNA sequences gained from more than 140,000 registered organizations, and is updated every day to ensure a uniform and comprehensive collection of sequence information. These databases are mainly obtained from individual laboratories or large-scale sequencing projects. The files stored in GenBank are divided into different groups, such as BCT (bacterial), VRL (viruses), PRI (primates)...etc. People can access GenBank from NCBI's retrieval system, and then use “BLAST” function to identify a certain sequence within the GenBank or to find the similarities between two sequences.
Medical
A medical DNA database is a DNA database of medically relevant genetic variations. It collects an individual's DNA which can reflect their medical records and lifestyle details. Through recording DNA profiles, scientists may find out the interactions between the genetic environment and occurrence of certain diseases (such as cardiovascular disease or cancer), and thus finding some new drugs or effective treatments in controlling these diseases. It is often collaborated with the National Health Service.
National
A national DNA database is a DNA database maintained by the government for storing DNA profiles of its population. Each DNA profile based on PCR and uses STR (Short Tandem Repeats) analysis. They are generally used for forensic purposes which includes searching and matching of DNA profiles of potential criminal suspects.
In 2009
Interpol
The International Criminal Police Organization (ICPO; french: link=no, Organisation internationale de police criminelle), commonly known as Interpol ( , ), is an international organization that facilitates worldwide police cooperation and cri ...
reported there were 54 police national DNA databases in the world at the time and 26 more countries planned to start one.
In Europe Interpol reported there were 31 national DNA databases and six more planned.
[ The European Network of Forensic Science Institutes (ENFSI) DNA working group made 33 recommendations in 2014 for DNA database management and guidelines for auditing DNA databases. Other countries have adopted privately developed DNA databases, such as Qatar, which has adopted Bode dbSEARCH.
Typically, a tiny subset of the individual's genome is sampled from 13 or 16 regions that have high individuation.
]
United Kingdom
The first national DNA database in the United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and North ...
was established in April 1995, called National DNA Database
A DNA database or DNA databank is a database of DNA profiles which can be used in the analysis of genetic diseases, genetic fingerprinting for criminology, or genetic genealogy. DNA databases may be public or private, the largest ones being nat ...
(NDNAD). By 2006, it contained 2.7 million DNA profiles (about 5.2% of the UK population), as well as other information from individuals and crime scenesI in 2020 it had 6.6 million profiles (5.6 million individuals excluding duplicates). The information is stored in the form of a digital code, which is based on the nomenclature of each STR. In 1995 the database originally had 6 STR markers for each profile, from 1999 10 markers, and from 2014, 16 core markers and a gender identifier. Scotland has used 21 STR loci, two Y-DNA markers and a gender identifier since 2014. In the UK, police have wide-ranging powers to take DNA samples and retain them if the subject is convicted of a recordable offence. As the large amount of DNA profiles which have been stored in NDNAD, "cold hits" may happen during the DNA matching, which means finding an unexpected match between an individual's DNA profile and an unsolved crime-scene DNA profile. This can introduce a new suspect into the investigation, thus helping to solve the old cases.
In England and Wales, anyone arrested on suspicion of a recordable offence
A recordable offence is any offence in England and Wales where the police must keep records of convictions and offenders on the Police National Computer.
Legislation
The power for police to keep such records is contained in the National Police R ...
must submit a DNA sample, the profile of which is then stored on the DNA database. Those not charged or not found guilty have their DNA data deleted within a specified period of time. In Scotland, the law similarly requires the DNA profiles of most people who are acquitted be removed from the database.
New Zealand
New Zealand
New Zealand ( mi, Aotearoa ) is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and over 700 smaller islands. It is the sixth-largest island count ...
was the second country to set up a DNA database. In 2019 The New Zealand DNA Profile Databank held 40,000 DNA profiles and 200,000 samples.
United States
The United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
national DNA database is called Combined DNA Index System
The Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) is the United States national DNA database created and maintained by the Federal Bureau of Investigation. CODIS consists of three levels of information; Local DNA Index Systems (LDIS) where DNA profiles orig ...
(CODIS). It is maintained at three levels: national, state and local. Each level implemented its own DNA index system. The national DNA index system (NDIS) allows DNA profiles to be exchanged and compared between participated laboratories nationally. Each state DNA index system (SDIS) allows DNA profiles to be exchanged and compared between the laboratories of various states and the local DNA index system (LDIS) allows DNA profiles collected at local sites and uploaded to SDIS and NDIS.
CODIS software integrates and connects all the DNA index systems at the three levels. CODIS is installed on each participating laboratory site and uses a standalone network known as Criminal Justice Information Systems Wide Area Network (CJIS WAN) to connect to other laboratories. In order to decrease the number of irrelevant matches at NDIS, the Convicted Offender Index requires all 13 CODIS STRs to be present for a profile upload. Forensic profiles only require 10 of the STRs to be present for an upload.
As of 2011, over 9 million records were held within CODIS. As of March 2011, 361,176 forensic profiles and 9,404,747 offender profiles have been accumulated, making it the largest DNA database in the world. As of the same date, CODIS has produced over 138,700 matches to requests, assisting in more than 133,400 investigations.
The growing public approval of DNA databases has seen the creation and expansion of many states' own DNA databases. Political measures such as California Proposition 69
California is a U.S. state, state in the Western United States, located along the West Coast of the United States, Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the List of states and territori ...
(2004), which increased the scope of the DNA database, have already met with a significant increase in numbers of investigations aided. Forty-nine states in the USA
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territori ...
, all apart from Idaho, store DNA profiles of violent offenders, and many also store profiles of suspects. A 2017 study showed that DNA databases in U.S. states "deter crime by profiled offenders, reduce crime rates, and are more cost-effective than traditional law enforcement tools".
CODIS is also used to help find missing persons and identify human remains. It is connected to the National Missing Persons DNA Database
National may refer to:
Common uses
* Nation or country
** Nationality – a ''national'' is a person who is subject to a nation, regardless of whether the person has full rights as a citizen
Places in the United States
* National, Maryland, ce ...
; samples provided by family members are sequenced by the University of North Texas Center for Human Identification The University of North Texas Center for Human Identification is a national resource for the identification of missing and unidentified persons at the University of North Texas Health Science Center. UNTCHI combines the services of a forensic DNA l ...
, which also runs the National Missing and Unidentified Persons System
The National Missing and Unidentified Persons System (NamUs) is a national clearinghouse and resource center for missing, unidentified, and unclaimed person cases throughout the United States.
NamUs is funded and administered by the National Inst ...
. UNTCHI can sequence both nuclear and mitochondrial DNA
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA or mDNA) is the DNA located in mitochondria, cellular organelles within eukaryotic cells that convert chemical energy from food into a form that cells can use, such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Mitochondrial D ...
.
The Department of Defense maintains a DNA database to identify the remains of service members. The Department of Defense Serum Repository
The Department of Defense Serum Repository (also referred to as the DoD Serum Repository or simply DoDSR) is a biological repository operated by the United States Department of Defense containing over 50,000,000 human serum specimens, collected ...
maintains more than 50,000,000 records, primarily to assist in the identification of human remains. Submission of DNA samples is mandatory for US servicemen, but the database also includes information on military dependents. The National Defense Authorization Act of 2003 provided a means for federal courts or military judges to order the use of the DNA information collected to be made available for the purpose of investigation or prosecution of a felony, or any sexual offense, for which no other source of DNA information is reasonably available.
Australia
The Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
n national DNA database is called the National Criminal Investigation DNA Database (NCIDD). By July 2018, it contained 837,000+ DNA profiles. The database used 9 STR loci and a sex gene for analysis, and this was increased to 18 core markers in 2013. NCIDD combines all forensic data, including DNA profiles, advanced bio-metrics or cold cases.
Canada
The Canadian national DNA database is called the National DNA Data Bank (NDDB) which was established in 1998 but first used in 2000. The legislation that Parliament enacted to govern the use of this technology within the criminal justice system has been found by Canadian courts to be respectful of the constitutional and privacy rights of suspects, and of persons found guilty of designated offences.
On December 11, 1999, The Canadian Government agreed upon the DNA Identification Act. This would allow a Canadian DNA data bank to be created and amended for the criminal code. This provides a mechanism for judges to request the offender to provide blood, buccal swabs, or hair samples from DNA profiles. This legislation became official on June 29, 2000. Canadian police has been using forensic DNA evidence for over a decade. It has become one of the most powerful tools available to law enforcement agencies for the administration of justice.
NDDB consists of two indexes: the Convicted Offender Index (COI) and National Crime Scene Index (CSI-nat). There is also the Local Crime Scene Index (CSI-loc) which is maintained by local laboratories but not NDDB as local DNA profiles do not meet NDDB collection criteria. Another National Crime Scene Index (CSI-nat) is a collection of three labs operated by Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), Laboratory Sciences Judiciary Medicine Legal (LSJML) and Center of Forensic Sciences (CFS).
Dubai
In 2017 Dubai
Dubai (, ; ar, دبي, translit=Dubayy, , ) is the most populous city in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and the capital of the Emirate of Dubai, the most populated of the 7 emirates of the United Arab Emirates.The Government and Politics of ...
announced an initiative called Dubai 10X which was planned to create 'disruptive innovation' into the country. One of the projects in this initiative was a DNA database that would collect the genomes of all 3 million citizens of the country over a 10-year period. It was intended to use the data base for finding genetic causes of diseases and creating personalised medical treatments.
Germany
Germany set up its DNA database for the German Federal Police
The Federal Police (''Bundespolizei'' or BPOL) is the national and principal federal law enforcement agency of the German Federal Government, being subordinate to the Federal Ministry of the Interior, Building and Community (''Bundesministeriu ...
(BKA) in 1998.
In late 2010, the database contained DNA profiles of over 700,000 individuals and in September 2016 it contained 1,162,304 entries. On 23 May 2011 in the "Stop the DNA Collection Frenzy!" campaign various civil rights and data protection organizations handed an open letter to the German minister of justice Sabine Leutheusser-Schnarrenberger
Sabine Leutheusser-Schnarrenberger ( Leutheusser; born 26 July 1951) is a German politician of the liberal Free Democratic Party and a prominent advocate of human rights in Germany and Europe. Within the FDP, she is a leading figure of the soc ...
asking her to take action in order to stop the "preventive expansion of DNA data-collection" and the "preemptive use of mere suspicions and of the state apparatus against individuals" and to cancel projects of international exchange of DNA data at the European and transatlantic level.
Israel
The Israeli national DNA database is called the Israel Police DNA Index System (IPDIS) which was established in 2007, and has a collection of more than 135,000 DNA profiles. The collection includes DNA profiles from suspected and accused persons and convicted offenders. The Israeli database also include an “elimination bank” of profiles from laboratory staff and other police personnel who may have contact with the forensic evidence in the course of their work.
In order to handle the high throughput processing and analysis of DNA samples from FTA cards, the Israeli Police DNA database has established a semi-automated program LIMS, which enables a small number of police to finish processing a large number of samples in a relatively small period of time, and it is also responsible for the future tracking of samples.
Kuwait
The Kuwaiti government passed a law in July 2015 requiring all citizens and permanent residents (4.2 million people) to have their DNA taken for a national database. The reason for this law was security concerns after the ISIS suicide bombing of the Imam Sadiq mosque. They planned to finish collecting the DNA by September 2016 which outside observers thought was optimistic. In October 2017 the Kuwait constitutional court struck down the law saying it was an invasion of personal privacy and the project was cancelled.
Brazil
In 1998, the Forensic DNA Research Institute of Federal District Civil Police created DNA databases of sexual assault evidence
A rape kit or rape test kit is a package of items used by medical personnel for gathering and preserving physical evidence following an allegation of sexual assault. The evidence collected from the victim can aid the criminal rape investigation an ...
. In 2012, Brazil
Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area ...
approved a national law establishing DNA databases at state and national levels regarding DNA typing of individuals convicted of violent crimes. Following the decree of the Presidency of the Republic of Brazil
Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area an ...
in 2013, which regulates the 2012 law, Brazil began using CODIS
The Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) is the United States national DNA database created and maintained by the Federal Bureau of Investigation. CODIS consists of three levels of information; Local DNA Index Systems (LDIS) where DNA profiles ori ...
in addition to the DNA databases of sexual assault evidence to solve sexual assault crimes in Brazil.
France
France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
set up the DNA database called FNAEG
The Fichier National Automatisé des Empreintes Génétiques ( en, Automated National File of Genetic Prints) is the French national DNA database, used by both the national police force and local gendarmerie.
Origins and evolution
In June 199 ...
in 1998. By December 2009, there were 1.27 million profiles on FNAEG.
Russia
In Russia
Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia, Northern Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the ...
, scientific DNA testing is being actively carried out in order to study the genetic diversity of the peoples of Russia in the framework of the state task - to learn from DNA to determine the probable territory of human origin based on data on the majority of the peoples of the country. On June 16, 2017, the Council of Ministers of the Union State of Belarus and Russia adopted Resolution No. 26, in which it approved the scientific and technical program of the Union State "Development of innovative genogeographic and genomic technologies for identification of personality and individual characteristics of a person based on the study of gene pools of the regions of the Union State" (DNA - identification).
Within the framework of this program, it is also planned to include the peoples of neighboring countries, which are the main source of migration, into the genogeographic study on the basis of existing collections.
In accordance with the Federal Law of December 3, 2008 No. 242-FZ "On state genomic registration in the Russian Federation", voluntary state genomic registration of citizens of the Russian Federation, as well as foreign citizens and stateless persons living or temporarily staying in the territory of the Russian Federation on the basis of a written application and on a paid basis. Genomic information obtained as a result of state genomic registration is used, among other things, for the purpose of establishing family relationships of wanted (identified) persons. The form of keeping records of data on genomic registration of citizens is the Federal Genomic Information Database (FBDGI).
Articles 10 and 11 of the Federal Law of July 27, 2006 No. 152-FZ "On Personal Data" provide that the processing of special categories of personal data relating to race, nationality, political views, religious or philosophical beliefs, health status, intimate life is allowed if it is necessary in connection with the implementation of international agreements of the Russian Federation on readmission and is carried out in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation on citizenship of the Russian Federation. Information characterizing the physiological and biological characteristics of a person, on the basis of which it is possible to establish his identity (biometric personal data), can be processed without the consent of the subject of personal data in connection with the implementation of international agreements of the Russian Federation on readmission, administration of justice and execution of judicial acts, compulsory state fingerprinting registration, as well as in cases stipulated by the legislation of the Russian Federation on defense, security, anti-terrorism, transport security, anti-corruption, operational investigative activities, public service, as well as in cases stipulated by the criminal-executive legislation of Russia, the legislation of Russia on the procedure for leaving the Russian Federation and entering the Russian Federation, citizenship of the Russian Federation and notaries.
Other European countries
In comparison with the other European countries, The Netherlands
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, image_map =
, map_caption =
, subdivision_type = Sovereign state
, subdivision_name = Kingdom of the Netherlands
, established_title = Before independence
, established_date = Spanish Netherl ...
is the largest collector of DNA profiles of its citizens. At this moment the DNA databank at the Netherlands Forensic Institute
The Netherlands Forensic Institute (Dutch ''Nederlands Forensisch Instituut'') is the national forensics institute of the Netherlands, located in the Ypenburg quarter of The Hague.
It is an autonomous division of the Dutch Ministry of Security ...
contains the DNA profiles of over 316,000 Dutch citizens.
Contrary to the situation in most other European countries, the Dutch police have wide-ranging powers to take and retain DNA samples if a subject is convicted of a recordable offence, except when the conviction only involves paying a fine. If a subject refuses, for example because of privacy concerns, the Dutch police will use force.
In Sweden
Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic country located on ...
, only the DNA profiles of criminals who have spent more than two years in prison are stored. In Norway
Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe, the mainland territory of which comprises the western and northernmost portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula. The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and t ...
and Germany
Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...
, court orders are required, and are only available, respectively, for serious offenders and for those convicted of certain offences and who are likely to reoffend. Austria started a criminal DNA database in 1997 and Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical re ...
also set one up in 2016 Switzerland started a temporary criminal DNA database in 2000 and confirmed it in law in 2005.
In 2005 the incoming Portuguese government
, border = Central
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, appointed = President ...
proposed to introduce a DNA database of the entire population of Portugal. However, after informed debate including opinion from the Portuguese Ethics Council the database introduced was of just the criminal population.
Genuity Science (formerly Genomics Medicine Ireland) is an Irish life sciences company that was founded in 2015 to create a scientific platform to perform genomic studies and generate new disease prevention strategies and treatments. The company was founded by a group of life science entrepreneurs, investors and researchers and its scientific platform is based on work by Amgen
Amgen Inc. (formerly Applied Molecular Genetics Inc.) is an American multinational biopharmaceutical company headquartered in Thousand Oaks, California. One of the world's largest independent biotechnology companies, Amgen was established in T ...
’s Icelandic subsidiary, deCODE genetics
deCODE genetics ( is, Íslensk erfðagreining) is a biopharmaceutical company based in Reykjavík, Iceland. The company was founded in 1996 by Kári Stefánsson with the aim of using population genetics studies to identify variations in the hum ...
, which has pioneered genomic population health
Population health has been defined as "the health outcomes of a group of individuals, including the distribution of such outcomes within the group". It is an approach to health that aims to improve the health of an entire human population. It ha ...
studies. The company is building a genomic database which will include data from about 10 per cent of the Irish population, including patients with various diseases and healthy people. The idea of a private company owning public DNA data has raised concerns, with an ''Irish Times
''The Irish Times'' is an Irish daily broadsheet newspaper and online digital publication. It launched on 29 March 1859. The editor is Ruadhán Mac Cormaic. It is published every day except Sundays. ''The Irish Times'' is considered a newspaper ...
'' editorial stating: "To date, Ireland seems to have adopted an entirely commercial approach to genomic medicine. This approach places at risk the free availability of genomic data for scientific research that could benefit patients." The paper's editorial pointed out that this is in stark contrast to the approach the U.K. has taken, which is the publicly and charitably funded 100,000 Genomes Project being carried out by Genomics England
Genomics England is a British company set up and owned by the United Kingdom Department of Health and Social Care to run the 100,000 Genomes Project. The project aimed in 2014 to sequence 100,000 genomes from NHS patients with a rare disease a ...
.
China
By 2020 Chinese police had collected 80 million DNA profiles. There have been concerns that China may be using DNA data not just for crime solving, but for tracking activists, including Uyghurs
The Uyghurs; ; ; ; zh, s=, t=, p=Wéiwú'ěr, IPA: ( ), alternatively spelled Uighurs, Uygurs or Uigurs, are a Turkic ethnic group originating from and culturally affiliated with the general region of Central and East Asia. The Uyghur ...
.
India
India announced it will launch its genomic database by fall 2019. In the first phase of "Genome India" the genomic data of 10,000 Indians will be catalogued. The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) has initiated the project. The first private DNA bank in India is in Lucknow - the capital of Indian State Uttar Pradesh. Unlike a research center, this is available for Public to store their DNA by paying a minimum amount and four drops of blood.
Corporate
* Ancestry
An ancestor, also known as a forefather, fore-elder or a forebear, is a parent or (recursively) the parent of an antecedent (i.e., a grandparent, great-grandparent, great-great-grandparent and so forth). ''Ancestor'' is "any person from whom ...
was reported to have collected 14 million DNA samples as of November 2018.
* 23andme's DNA database contained genetic information of over nine million people worldwide by 2019. The company explores selling the "anonymous aggregated genetic data" to other researchers and pharmaceutical companies for research purposes if patients give their consent. Ahmad Hariri, professor of psychology and neuroscience at Duke University
Duke University is a private research university in Durham, North Carolina. Founded by Methodists and Quakers in the present-day city of Trinity in 1838, the school moved to Durham in 1892. In 1924, tobacco and electric power industrialist James ...
who has been using 23andMe in his research since 2009 states that the most important aspect of the company's new service is that it makes genetic research accessible and relatively cheap for scientists. A study that identified 15 genome sites linked to depression in 23andMe's database lead to a surge in demands to access the repository with 23andMe fielding nearly 20 requests to access the depression data in the two weeks after publication of the paper.
* My Heritage said their database had 2.5 million profiles in 2019.
*Family Tree DNA
FamilyTreeDNA is a division of Gene by Gene, a commercial genetic testing company based in Houston, Texas. FamilyTreeDNA offers analysis of autosomal DNA, Y-DNA, and mitochondrial DNA to individuals for genealogical purpose. With a database of ...
was reported they had about two million people in their database in 2019.
Compression
DNA databases occupy more storage when compared to other non DNA databases due to the enormous size of each DNA sequence. Every year DNA databases grow exponentially. This poses a major challenge to the storage, data transfer, retrieval and search of these databases. To address these challenges DNA databases are compressed to save storage space and bandwidth during the data transfers. They are decompressed during search and retrieval. Various compression algorithms are used to compress and decompress. The efficiency of any compression algorithm depends how well and fast it compresses and decompresses, which is generally measured in compression ratio. The greater the compression ratio, the better the efficiency of an algorithm. At the same time, the speed of compression and decompression are also considered for evaluation.
DNA sequences contain palindromic repetitions of A, C, T, G. Compression of these sequences involve locating and encoding these repetitions and decoding them during decompression.
Some approaches used to encode and decode are:
# Huffman Encoding
In computer science and information theory, a Huffman code is a particular type of optimal prefix code that is commonly used for lossless data compression. The process of finding or using such a code proceeds by means of Huffman coding, an algor ...
# Adaptive Huffman Encoding
# Arithmetic coding
Arithmetic coding (AC) is a form of entropy encoding used in lossless data compression. Normally, a string of characters is represented using a fixed number of bits per character, as in the ASCII code. When a string is converted to arithmetic ...
# Arithmetic coding
Arithmetic coding (AC) is a form of entropy encoding used in lossless data compression. Normally, a string of characters is represented using a fixed number of bits per character, as in the ASCII code. When a string is converted to arithmetic ...
# Context tree weighting The context tree weighting method (CTW) is a lossless compression and prediction algorithm by . The CTW algorithm is among the very few such algorithms that offer both theoretical guarantees and good practical performance (see, e.g. ).
The CTW algo ...
(CTW) method
The compression algorithm
In information theory, data compression, source coding, or bit-rate reduction is the process of encoding information using fewer bits than the original representation. Any particular compression is either lossy or lossless. Lossless compressio ...
s listed below may use one of the above encoding approaches to compress and decompress DNA database
# Compression using Redundancy of DNA sets (COMRAD)
# Relative Lempel-Ziv
LZ77 and LZ78 are the two lossless data compression algorithms published in papers by Abraham Lempel and Jacob Ziv in 1977 and 1978.
They are also known as LZ1 and LZ2 respectively. These two algorithms form the basis for many variations including ...
(RLZ)
# GenCompress
# BioCompress
# DNACompress
# CTW+LZ
In 2012, a team of scientists from Johns Hopkins University published the first genetic compression algorithm that does not rely on external genetic databases for compression. HAPZIPPER was tailored for HapMap
The International HapMap Project was an organization that aimed to develop a haplotype map (HapMap) of the human genome, to describe the common patterns of human genetic variation. HapMap is used to find genetic variants affecting health, disease a ...
data and achieves over 20-fold compression (95% reduction in file size), providing 2- to 4-fold better compression much faster than leading general-purpose compression utilities.
Genomic sequence compression algorithms, also known as DNA sequence compressors, explore the fact that DNA sequences have characteristic properties, such as inverted repeats. The most successful compressors are XM and GeCo. For eukaryotes
Eukaryotes () are organisms whose cells have a nucleus. All animals, plants, fungi, and many unicellular organisms, are Eukaryotes. They belong to the group of organisms Eukaryota or Eukarya, which is one of the three domains of life. Bacte ...
XM is slightly better in compression ratio, though for sequences larger than 100 MB its computational requirements are impractical.
Medicine
Many countries collect newborn blood samples to screen for diseases mainly with a genetic basis. Mainly these are destroyed soon after testing. In some countries the dried blood (and the DNA) is retained for later testing.
In Denmark
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, song_type = National and royal anthem
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, subdivision_type = Sovereign state
, subdivision_name = Danish Realm, Kingdom of Denmark
...
the Danish Newborn Screening Biobank at Statens Serum Institut keeps a blood sample from people born after 1981. The purpose is to test for phenylketonuria
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an inborn error of metabolism that results in decreased metabolism of the amino acid phenylalanine. Untreated PKU can lead to intellectual disability, seizures, behavioral problems, and mental disorders. It may also re ...
and other diseases. However, it is also used for DNA profiling to identify deceased and suspected criminals. Parents can request that the blood sample of their newborn be destroyed after the result of the test is known.
Privacy issues
Critics of DNA databases warn that the various uses of the technology can pose a threat to individual civil liberties
Civil liberties are guarantees and freedoms that governments commit not to abridge, either by constitution, legislation, or judicial interpretation, without due process. Though the scope of the term differs between countries, civil liberties may ...
. Personal information included in genetic material, such as markers that identify various genetic disease
A genetic disorder is a health problem caused by one or more abnormalities in the genome. It can be caused by a mutation in a single gene (monogenic) or multiple genes (polygenic) or by a chromosomal abnormality. Although polygenic disorders ...
s, physical and behavioral traits, could be used for discriminatory profiling and its collection may constitute an invasion of privacy. Also, DNA can be used to establish paternity
Paternity may refer to:
*Father, the male parent of a (human) child
*Paternity (law), fatherhood as a matter of law
* ''Paternity'' (film), a 1981 comedy film starring Burt Reynolds
* "Paternity" (''House''), a 2004 episode of the television seri ...
and whether or not a child is adopted. Nowadays, the privacy and security issues of DNA database has caused huge attention. Some people are afraid that their personal DNA information will be let out easily, others may define their DNA profiles recording in the Databases as a sense of "criminal", and being falsely accused in a crime can lead to having a "criminal" record for the rest of their lives.
UK laws in 2001 and 2003 allowed DNA profiles to be taken immediately after a person was arrested and kept in a Database even if the suspect was later acquitted. In response to public unease at these provisions,[ the UK later changed this by passing the ]Protection of Freedoms Act 2012
The Protection of Freedoms Act 2012 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. As the Protection of Freedoms Bill, it was introduced in February 2011, by the Home Secretary, Theresa May. The bill was sponsored by the Home Office. On Tuesd ...
which required that those suspects not charged or found not guilty would have their DNA data deleted from the Database.
In European countries which have established a DNA database, there are some measures which are being used to protect the privacy of individuals, more specifically, some criteria to help removing the DNA profiles from the databases. Among the 22 European countries which have been analyzed, most of the countries will record the DNA profiles of suspects or those who have committed serious crimes. For some countries (like Belgium and France) may remove the criminal's profile after 30–40 years, because these “criminal investigation” database are no longer needed. Most of the countries will delete the suspect's profile after they are acquitted...etc. All the countries have a completed legislation to largely avoid the privacy issues which may occur during the use of DNA database. Public discussion around the introduction of advanced forensic techniques (such as genetic genealogy using public genealogy databases and DNA phenotyping approaches) has been limited, disjointed, and unfocused, and raises issues of privacy and consent that may warrant additional legal protections to be established.
Privacy issues surrounding DNA databases not only means privacy is threatened in collecting and analyzing DNA samples, it also exists in protecting and storing this important personal information. As the DNA profiles can be stored indefinitely in DNA database, it has raised concerns that these DNA samples can be used for new and unidentified purposes. With the increase of the users who access the DNA database, people are worried about their information being let out or shared inappropriately, for example, their DNA profile may be shared with others such as law enforcement agencies or countries without individual consent.
The application of DNA databases have been expanded into two controversial areas: arrestees and familial searching. An arrestee is a person arrested for a crime and who has not yet been convicted for that offense. Currently, 21 states in the United States have passed legislation that allows law enforcement to take DNA from an arrestee and enter it into the state's CODIS DNA database to see if that person has a criminal record or can be linked to any unsolved crimes. In familial searching, the DNA database is used to look for partial matches that would be expected between close family members. This technology can be used to link crimes to the family members of suspects and thereby help identify a suspect when the perpetrator has no DNA sample in the database.
Furthermore, DNA databases could fall into the wrong hands due to data breaches or data sharing.
DNA collection and human rights
In a judgement in December 2008, the European Court of Human Rights
The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR or ECtHR), also known as the Strasbourg Court, is an international court of the Council of Europe which interprets the European Convention on Human Rights. The court hears applications alleging that a ...
ruled that two British men should not have had their DNA and fingerprints retained by police saying that retention "could not be regarded as necessary in a democratic society __NOTOC__
"Necessary in a democratic society" is a test found in Articles 8–11 of the European Convention on Human Rights, which provides that the state may impose restrictions of these rights only if such restrictions are "necessary in a democra ...
".
The DNA fingerprinting pioneer Professor Sir Alec Jeffreys condemned UK government plans to keep the genetic details of hundreds of thousands of innocent people in England and Wales for up to 12 years. Jeffreys said he was "disappointed" with the proposals, which came after a European court ruled that the current policy breaches people's right to privacy. Jefferys said "It seems to be as about as minimal a response to the European court of human rights judgment as one could conceive. There is a presumption not of innocence but of future guilt here … which I find very disturbing indeed".
Effects on crime
A 2021 study found that registration of Danish criminal offenders in a DNA database substantially reduced the probability of re-offending, as well as increased the likelihood that re-offenders were identified if they committed future crimes.
A 2017 study in the '' American Economic Journal: Applied Economics'' showed that databases of criminal offenders' DNA profiles in US states "deter crime by profiled offenders, reduce crime rates, and are more cost-effective than traditional law enforcement tools."
Monozygotic twins
Monozygotic twins
Twins are two offspring produced by the same pregnancy.MedicineNet > Definition of TwinLast Editorial Review: 19 June 2000 Twins can be either ''monozygotic'' ('identical'), meaning that they develop from one zygote, which splits and forms two em ...
share around 99.99% of their DNA, while other siblings share around 50%. Some next generation sequencing
DNA sequencing is the process of determining the nucleic acid sequence – the order of nucleotides in DNA. It includes any method or technology that is used to determine the order of the four bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. The ...
tools are capable of detecting rare de novo mutations
In biology, a mutation is an alteration in the nucleic acid sequence of the genome of an organism, virus, or extrachromosomal DNA. Viral genomes contain either DNA or RNA. Mutations result from errors during DNA or viral replication, mitos ...
in only one of the twins (detectable in rare single nucleotide polymorphisms). Most DNA testing tools would not detect these rare SNPs in most twins.
Each person's DNA is unique to them to the slight exception of identical (monozygotic and monospermotic) twins, who start out from the identical genetic line of DNA but during the twinning event have incredibly small mutations which can be detected now (for all intents and purposes, compared to all other humans and even to theoretical "clones, ho would not share the same uterus nor experience the same mutations pre-twinning event identical twins have more identical DNA than is probably possible to achieve between any other two humans). Tiny differences between identical twins can now (2014) be detected by next generation sequencing. For current fiscally available testing, "identical" twins cannot be easily differentiated by the most common DNA testing, but it has been shown to be possible. While other siblings (including fraternal twins) share about 50% of their DNA, monozygotic twins share virtually 99.99%. Beyond these more recently discovered twinning-event mutation disparities, since 2008 it has been known that people who are identical twins also each have their own set of copy number variants, which can be thought of as the number of copies they each personally exhibit for certain sections of DNA.[Am J Hum Genet. 2008 Mar;82(3):763-71. doi: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2007.12.011. Epub 2008 Feb 14.
Phenotypically concordant and discordant monozygotic twins display different DNA copy-number-variation profiles.]
See also
* Combined DNA Index System
The Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) is the United States national DNA database created and maintained by the Federal Bureau of Investigation. CODIS consists of three levels of information; Local DNA Index Systems (LDIS) where DNA profiles orig ...
(CODIS)
* DNA profiling
DNA profiling (also called DNA fingerprinting) is the process of determining an individual's DNA characteristics. DNA analysis intended to identify a species, rather than an individual, is called DNA barcoding.
DNA profiling is a forensic tec ...
* Forensic Science Service
The Forensic Science Service (FSS) was a government-owned company in the United Kingdom which provided forensic science services to the police forces and government agencies of England and Wales, as well as other countries.
The UK Government a ...
* Government databases A government database collects information for various reasons, including climate monitoring, securities law compliance, geological surveys, patent applications and grants, surveillance, national security, border control, law enforcement, public hea ...
* LGC Forensics
LGC Group, formerly the Laboratory of the Government Chemist, is an international life sciences measurement and tools company. It provides the role and duties of the UK Government Chemist, a statutory role and adviser to the government. LGC als ...
* UK National DNA Database
The United Kingdom National DNA Database (NDNAD; officially the ''UK National Criminal Intelligence DNA Database'') is a national DNA Database that was set up in 1995. In 2005 it had 3.1 million profiles and in 2020 it had 6.6 million profiles ...
References
{{DEFAULTSORT:Dna Database
Biological databases
Government databases
Privacy
Forensic databases
Forensic genetics