''Gaudavaho'' ("Slaying of the Gauda king") is an 8th-century

Prakrit The Prakrits (; sa, prākṛta; psu, 𑀧𑀸𑀉𑀤, ; pka, ) are a group of vernacular Middle Indo-Aryan languages that were used in the Indian subcontinent from around the 3rd century BCE to the 8th century CE. The term Prakrit is usu ...

-language epic poem by Vakpati-raja. It narrates the exploits of the poet's patron, king

Yashovarman Yashovarman (IAST: Yaśovarman) was a medieval Indian ruler of Kannauj, who founded the Varman dynasty of Kannauj. There are few sources that provide information of his life, although he was indubitably a powerful man. Life Yashovarman was k ...

, who ruled in northern India. The poem deifies the king as an incarnation of the god

Vishnu Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism. Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" within t ...

, and credits him with several military achievements, including slaying of the Gauda king. A little over 1200 verses of the text are known from several manuscripts. According to some scholars such as

Georg Bühler Professor Johann Georg Bühler (July 19, 1837 – April 8, 1898) was a scholar of ancient Indian languages and law. Early life and education Bühler was born to Rev. Johann G. Bühler in Borstel, Hanover, attended grammar school in Hanover, whe ...

, the surviving text is only a prelude to the larger poem that Vakpati intended to write, but possibly never finished.

Authorship

Gaudavaho was composed by Vakpati-raja (Prakrit: "Bappai-rāa"), a court poet of king

. He wrote in the first half of the 8th century. He states that he was known as ''Kavi-raja'' (Prakrit: "Kairāa", "king of poets"), an epithet possibly awarded to him by his patron Yashovarman.

Kalhana Kalhana ( sa, कल्हण, translit=kalhaṇa) was the author of ''Rajatarangini'' (''River of Kings''), an account of the history of Kashmir. He wrote the work in Sanskrit between 1148 and 1149. All information regarding his life has to be d ...

's ''

Rajatarangini ''Rajatarangini'' ("The River of Kings") is a metrical legendary and historical chronicle of the north-western part of India, particularly the kings of Kashmir. It was written in Sanskrit by Kashmiri historian Kalhana in the 12th century CE. The ...

'' suggests that both Vakpati and

Bhavabhuti Bhavabhūti (Devanagari: भवभूति) was an 8th-century scholar of India noted for his plays and poetry, written in Sanskrit. His plays are considered the equal of the works of Kalidasa. Bhavabhuti was born in Padmapura, Vidarbha, in Gond ...

were court poets of Lalitaditya. Vakpati's reference to Bhavabhuti in ''Gaudavaho'' suggests that Bhavabhuti was not alive when ''Gaudavaho'' was composed. He appears to have been younger than Bhavabhuti, and probably a pupil or admirer of Bhavabhuti. Vakpati was well-versed with the works of earlier poets such as Bhasa,

Kalidasa Kālidāsa (''fl.'' 4th–5th century CE) was a Classical Sanskrit author who is often considered ancient India's greatest poet and playwright. His plays and poetry are primarily based on the Vedas, the Rāmāyaṇa, the Mahābhārata and ...

, and Subandhu. He highly praised the Prakrit language, and composed two poems in it: Mahumaha-viyayo (''Madhumatha-vijaya'') and ''Gaudavaho''. The first poem, which was composed earlier, is a

lost work A lost work is a document, literary work, or piece of multimedia produced some time in the past, of which no surviving copies are known to exist. It can only be known through reference. This term most commonly applies to works from the classical ...

: Vakpati describes it as far superior to ''Gaudavaho''. Vallabhadeva's ''Subhashitavali'' suggests that his father's name was Harsha-deva; a verse is attributed to Harsha-deva in ''Subhashita Ratna Bhandagara''. Soddhala's ''Udaya-sundari-katha'' states that Vakpati was born in a royal family. A verse in

Halayudha Halayudha (Sanskrit: हलायुध) was a 10th-century Indian mathematician who wrote the ',Maurice Winternitz, ''History of Indian Literature'', Vol. III a commentary on Pingala's ''Chandaḥśāstra''. The latter contains a clear descri ...

's commentary on

Pingala Acharya Pingala ('; c. 3rd2nd century BCE) was an ancient Indian poet and mathematician, and the author of the ' (also called the ''Pingala-sutras''), the earliest known treatise on Sanskrit prosody. The ' is a work of eight chapters in the late ...

's work also suggests that Vakpati was a prince as well as a poet. However, a note on Halayudha's verse in ''Dasharupavaloka'' states that the Vakpati referred to here is to the 10th century

Paramara The Paramara dynasty (IAST: Paramāra) was an Indian dynasty that ruled Malwa and surrounding areas in west-central India between 9th and 14th centuries. They belonged to the Parmara clan of the Rajputs. The dynasty was established in either th ...

king

Vakpati Munja Munja (reigned c. 972-990s CE), also known as Vakpati II, was an Indian ruler from the Paramara dynasty, who ruled in the Malwa region. He is known for consolidating the Paramara kingdom, for patronizing poets and scholars and for achieving the ...

. A verse in '' Yashas-tilaka'' states that Vakpati-raja was imprisoned by Yashovarman, and composed his poem in the prison. ''Bappabhatti-Suri-Charita'', a biography of the

Jain Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle being ...

leader Bappabhatti, claims that Vakpati was born in the Paramara royal family, and was imprisoned by king "Yashodharma". Vakpati wrote ''Gaudavaho'' in prison, and impressed by his poetic merit, Yashodharma freed him. Vakpati was a good friend of Bappabhatti, and converted from

Brahmanism The historical Vedic religion (also known as Vedicism, Vedism or ancient Hinduism and subsequently Brahmanism (also spelled as Brahminism)), constituted the religious ideas and practices among some Indo-Aryan peoples of northwest Indian Subco ...

to Shvetambara sect of Jainism. A similar story is narrated in other Jain works, including Rajashekhara Suri's ''

Prabandha Kosha ''Prabandha-Kosha'' (IAST: Prabandhakośa) is an Indian Sanskrit-language collection of ''prabandha''s (legendary biographical narratives). It was compiled by the Jain scholar Rajashekhara Suri in 1349 CE. It describes the lives of 24 people, inclu ...

'' and Prabhachandra Suri's ''Prabhavaka-charita''. However, these works wrongly state that ''Mahumaha-vijayo'' was composed after ''Gaudavaho''. Also, these stories do not allude to any association between Vakpati and Yashovarman: instead, they state that Vakpati was patronized by

Āma Āma was a medieval Indian king who ruled Kannauj and surrounding areas during the 8th and the 9th centuries. According to the Jain chronicles, he was the son and successor of Yashovarman. Jain account The Jain chronicle ''Bappabhatti-Suri-C ...

, who is described as a son of Yashovarman. These Jain accounts can be dismissed as unreliable: they are mostly fabrications, aimed at showing how Bappabhatti was able to convert notable people including Vakpati to Jainism.

Organization

''Gaudavaho'' is organized in form of verses (''gatha''s) grouped into ''kulika''s or ''kulaka''s (group of verses with one theme, idea, or topic). But, it is not divided into cantos or chapters: this form was later adopted by Kutuhala for ''Lilavati''. Pandit's critical edition contains 1209 verses, plus another 26 verses in the appnedix. The language of ''Gaudavaho'' can be described as

Maharashtri Prakrit Maharashtri or Maharashtri Prakrit ('), is a Prakrit language of ancient as well as medieval India and the ancestor of Marathi and Konkani. Maharashtri Prakrit was commonly spoken until 875 CEV.Rajwade, ''Maharashtrache prachin rajyakarte''

. Vakpati's poetic style appears to be a mixture of "Gaudi" and "Vidarbhi", more of "Gaudi". The poem uses

Arya Aryan or Arya (, Indo-Iranian *''arya'') is a term originally used as an ethnocultural self-designation by Indo-Iranians in ancient times, in contrast to the nearby outsiders known as 'non-Aryan' (*''an-arya''). In Ancient India, the term ' ...

and

Gatha ''Gāthā'' is a Sanskrit term for 'song' or 'verse', especially referring to any poetic metre which is used in legends, and is not part of the Vedas but peculiar to either Epic Sanskrit or to Prakrit. The word is originally derived from the Sansk ...

metres The metre (British spelling) or meter (American spelling; see spelling differences) (from the French unit , from the Greek noun , "measure"), symbol m, is the primary unit of length in the International System of Units (SI), though its prefi ...

, except in verses 60 and 61, which use the Samagalitaka metre.

Critical editions

In the 1870s, German Indologist

came across a manuscript of ''Gaudavaho'' at the Jaina Bhandara,

Jaisalmer Jaisalmer , nicknamed "The Golden city", is a city in the Indian state of Rajasthan, located west of the state capital Jaipur. The town stands on a ridge of yellowish sandstone and is crowned by the ancient Jaisalmer Fort. This fort contains a ...

. He requested Indian scholar Shankar Pandurang Pandit to work on a

critical edition Textual criticism is a branch of textual scholarship, philology, and of literary criticism that is concerned with the identification of textual variants, or different versions, of either manuscripts or of printed books. Such texts may range in da ...

of the text. Pandit consulted three more manuscripts from the

Jaina JAINA is an acronym for the Federation of Jain Associations in North America, an umbrella organizations to preserve, practice, and promote Jainism in USA and Canada. It was founded in 1981 and formalized in 1983. Among Jain organization it is ...

collections of western India, as well as Haripala's

Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...

language commentary on ''Gaudavaho''. His critical edition - Bombay Sanskrit and Prakrit Series #34 - was published in 1887. In 1927, N. B. Utgikar released a reprint of Pandit's edition, with notes from Bühler and Jacobi. In 1975, Narhari Govind Suru came up with an updated critical edition with an English translation. This edition incorporated 26 additional ''gatha''s into the main text without translation; Pandit's edition included these ''gatha''s in the appendix.

Completeness of the surviving text

The poem's title suggests that the slaying of the Gauda king would be its major theme. However, the surviving text mentions the incident only once. Out of more than 1200 verses, only 3 or 4 verses describe the conflict with the Gauda king. Moreover, the last ''gatha'' states that the life of the king "will now be narrated", asking the audience to listen. Scholars such as

Johannes Hertel Johannes Hertel (13 March 1872, Zwickau – 27 October 1955, Leipzig) was a German Indologist. Hertel wrote numerous essays and books on Indological topics. His research focus was Indian narrative literature and the Vedas. Above all, he is kno ...

and N. B. Utgikar regard the surviving text as a complete work, and believe that Vakpati had no intention of writing more. According to Utgikar, the last part of the poem refers to the composition of the preceding verses. The prominence of "Gauda" in the title of the poem can be attributed to the staunch rivalry between Yashovarman and the king of Gauda. Other scholars, such as Pandit and Bühler, theorize that the surviving text of ''Gaudavaho'' is only a prelude to the larger work that Vakpati planned to write, but possibly could not complete. The colophon of three manuscripts describes the surviving text of ''Gaudavaho'' as ''katha-pitham'' (Prakrit: ''kahāvīḍhaṃ'' in two manuscripts, ''gāhāvīḍhaṃ'' in another). Bühler notes that ''katha-pitham'' is the title of the introductory parts of

Somadeva Somadeva Bhatta was an 11th century writer from Kashmir, and author of the '' Kathasaritsagara''. Not much is known about him except that his father's name was Rama and he composed his work (probably during the years 1063–1081 CE) for the ente ...

's '' Katha-sarit-sagara'' and Kshemendra's ''Brhat-katha-manjari'', both of which are Sanskrit-language adaptations of ''

Brihatkatha ''Bṛhatkathā'' (Sanskrit, "the Great Narrative") is an ancient Indian epic, said to have been written by Guṇāḍhya in a poorly-understood language known as Paiśācī. The work no longer exists but several later adaptations — the ''Ka ...

''.

Hermann Jacobi Hermann Georg Jacobi (11 February 1850 – 19 October 1937) was an eminent German Indologist. Education Jacobi was born in Köln (Cologne) on 11 February 1850. He was educated in the gymnasium of Cologne and then went to the University of Be ...

opposes this theory, stating that the surviving text is too large to have formed only a prelude of a larger work, and the poet would not have included the best part of his work (such as descriptions of natural scenery) in a prelude. Jacobi theorizes that the surviving text is an abridgement of Vakpati's complete text: the later redactors seem to discarded the parts that were not of interest to poets. This may also explain why the number of verses differs between manuscripts: the largest manuscript has 133 more verses than the shortest one. Jacobi notes that Haripala's commentary on ''Gaudavaho'' is titled ''Haripala-Virachita-Gaudavadha-Sara-Tika'' ("Commentary on the

epitome An epitome (; gr, ἐπιτομή, from ἐπιτέμνειν ''epitemnein'' meaning "to cut short") is a summary or miniature form, or an instance that represents a larger reality, also used as a synonym for embodiment. Epitomacy represents "t ...

of Gaudavaho, written by Haripala"). This suggests that the manuscript available to Haripala contained only an abridged version (''sāra'' or epitome) of Gaudavaho.

Moriz Winternitz Moriz Winternitz (Horn, Austria, Horn, December 23, 1863 – Prague, January 9, 1937) was a scholar from Austria who began his Indology contributions working with Max Müller at the Oxford University. An eminent Sanskrit scholar, he worked as ...

also regards the surviving text as a summary of a longer poem. N. G. Suru disagrees with Jacobi, stating that several post-Kalidasa poets enjoyed voluminous writing, focusing on quantity over quality. Therefore, it is possible that Vakpati planned to write a very large poem, although he may have not been able to finish it. He may have included the description of natural scenery in the prelude, because he intended to focus on the main theme (the killing of the Gauda king) in the subsequent parts of the poem. Suru states that the different number of verses in various manuscripts may result from preferences of the copyists. Suru further argues that Haripala wrote a commentary on the manuscript with the least number of verses, and he himself admits that he is commenting on an earlier part of ''Gaudavaho''. The last verse in two manuscripts of ''Gaudavaho'', written in the ''upajati'' metre, suggests that the work is finished. Suru regards this verse as an addition by the copyists, noting that it refers to the completion of the ''katha-pitham'' (prelude). If it referred to the completion of ''Gaudavaho'', it would be in contradiction with the preceding verse, which states that the story of the king will now be told. According to the

Kashmir Kashmir () is the northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term "Kashmir" denoted only the Kashmir Valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal Range. Today, the term encompas ...

i poet

's ''

'', Yashovarman was defeated by and became a vassal of the Kashmiri king Lalitaditya. Yashovarman's defeat may have prevented Vakpati from completing his work. Indologist

A.K. Warder Anthony Kennedy Warder (8 September 1924 – 8 January 2013) was a British Indologist. His best-known works are ''Introduction to Pali'' (1963), ''Indian Buddhism'' (1970), and the eight-volume ''Indian Kāvya Literature'' (1972–2011). Life Wa ...

theorizes that the ''Gaudavaho'' may have been composed after Yashovarman's defeat against Lalitaditya, as the poem features an "atmosphere of nostalgia" with "bitter verses on good and evil, on the vanity of the present age when success is reserved for mediocrity and jealously withheld from excellence."

Plot

Prelude

Vakpati invokes several gods in the first 61 verses. He starts with

Brahma Brahma ( sa, ब्रह्मा, Brahmā) is a Hindu god, referred to as "the Creator" within the Trimurti, the trinity of supreme divinity that includes Vishnu, and Shiva.Jan Gonda (1969)The Hindu Trinity Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp. 21 ...

, and then refers to

and his incarnations including

Narasimha Narasimha ( sa, नरसिंह, lit=man-lion, ), sometimes rendered Narasingha, is the fourth avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu. He is regarded to have incarnated in the form of a part-lion, part-man being to slay Hiranyakashipu, to end rel ...

Varaha Varaha ( sa, वराह, , "boar") is an avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu, in the form of a boar. Varaha is generally listed as third in the Dashavatara, the ten principal avatars of Vishnu. Varaha is most commonly associated with the lege ...

Vamana Vamana (), also known as Trivikrama (), Urukrama (), Upendra (), Dadhivamana (), and Balibandhana () is an avatar of the Hindu deity Vishnu. He is the fifth avatar of Vishnu, and the first Dashavatara in the Treta Yuga, after Narasimha. O ...

Kurma Kurma ( sa, कूर्म; , 'Turtle', 'Tortoise'), is the second avatar of the Hindu preserver deity, Vishnu. Originating in Vedic literature such as the Yajurveda as being synonymous with the Saptarishi called Kashyapa, Kurma is most comm ...

Mohini Mohini (Sanskrit: मोहिनी, ') is the Hindu goddess of enchantment. She is the only female avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu. She is portrayed as a '' femme fatale'', an enchantress, who maddens lovers and demons, sometimes leading them ...

, and

Krishna Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is one ...

. Next, the poet invokes

Shiva Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hindu ...

and his aspects such as

Ardhanarishvara The Ardhanarishvara ( sa, अर्धनारीश्वर, Ardhanārīśvara, the half-female Lord, translit-std=IAST), is a form of the Hindu deity Shiva combined with his consort Parvati. Ardhanarishvara is depicted as half-male and half ...

. He then refers to Shiva's son

Kartikeya Kartikeya ( sa, कार्त्तिकेय, Kārttikeya), also known as Skanda, Subrahmanya, Shanmukha (), and Murugan ( ta, முருகன்), is the Hindu god of war. He is the son of Parvati and Shiva, the brother of Ganesha ...

, and Shiva's consort

Parvati Parvati ( sa, पार्वती, ), Uma ( sa, उमा, ) or Gauri ( sa, गौरी, ) is the Hindu goddess of power, energy, nourishment, harmony, love, beauty, devotion, and motherhood. She is a physical representation of Mahadevi i ...

, naming her various aspects including

Mahishasura Mardini ''Mahishasura Mardini'' (; a name for Durga) is a 1959 Indian Kannada-language film, directed and produced by B. S. Ranga. The film stars Dr. Rajkumar, Rajkumar, V. Nagayya, Udaykumar and Narasimharaju (Kannada actor), Narasimharaju. It was dub ...

Kali Kali (; sa, काली, ), also referred to as Mahakali, Bhadrakali, and Kalika ( sa, कालिका), is a Hinduism, Hindu goddess who is considered to be the goddess of ultimate power, time, destruction and change in Shaktism. In t ...

, and

Chamunda Chamunda (Sanskrit: चामुण्डा, ISO-15919: Cāmuṇḍā), also known as Chamundeshwari, Chamundi or Charchika, is a fearsome form of Chandi, the Hindu Divine Mother Shakti and is one of the seven Matrikas (mother goddesses).W ...

. He further invokes

Saraswati Saraswati ( sa, सरस्वती, ) is the Hindu goddess of knowledge, music, art, speech, wisdom, and learning. She is one of the Tridevi, along with the goddesses Lakshmi and Parvati. The earliest known mention of Saraswati as a go ...

Surya Surya (; sa, सूर्य, ) is the sun as well as the solar deity in Hinduism. He is traditionally one of the major five deities in the Smarta tradition, all of whom are considered as equivalent deities in the Panchayatana puja and a m ...

Shesha Shesha (Sanskrit: शेष; ) , also known as Sheshanaga (Sanskrit: शेषनाग; ) or Adishesha (), is a serpentine demigod (Naga) and Nagaraja (King of all serpents), as well as a primordial being of creation in Hinduism. In the Puran ...

Ganapati Ganesha ( sa, गणेश, ), also known as Ganapati, Vinayaka, and Pillaiyar, is one of the best-known and most worshipped deities in the Hindu pantheon and is the Supreme God in Ganapatya sect. His image is found throughout India. Hindu de ...

Lakshmi Lakshmi (; , sometimes spelled Laxmi, ), also known as Shri (, ), is one of the principal goddesses in Hinduism. She is the goddess of wealth, fortune, power, beauty, fertility and prosperity, and associated with ''Maya'' ("Illusion"). Alo ...

, and

Kama ''Kama'' (Sanskrit ) means "desire, wish, longing" in Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, and Sikh literature.Monier Williamsकाम, kāmaMonier-Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary, pp 271, see 3rd column Kama often connotes sensual pleasure, sexual ...

, and

Ganga The Ganges ( ) (in India: Ganga ( ); in Bangladesh: Padma ( )). "The Ganges Basin, known in India as the Ganga and in Bangladesh as the Padma, is an international river to which India, Bangladesh, Nepal and China are the riparian states." is ...

. In the next 36 verses, Vakpati talks about poets, their impact, their challenges, the language used by them (Sanskri or Prakrit), their aspirations, and their disappointments. Vakpati then glorifies his patron Yashovarman, calling him the Lord of the Earth, deifying him as an incarnation of Vishnu. He states that the king of gods -

Indra Indra (; Sanskrit: इन्द्र) is the king of the devas (god-like deities) and Svarga (heaven) in Hindu mythology. He is associated with the sky, lightning, weather, thunder, storms, rains, river flows, and war. volumes/ref> I ...

- invites Yashovarman to share his throne. The poet then describes a mythological episode of how Indra cut the wings of the flying mountains. Next, Vakpati talks about Yashovarman's courtesans playing water-sports in the bathing tanks of defeated enemies. He then describes

pralaya Pralaya ( sa, प्रलय, , Apocalypse or the Annihilation of the Universe, translit=Pralaya) is a concept in Hindu eschatology. Generally referring to four different phenomena, it is most commonly used to indicate the event of the dissol ...

, the periodic dissolution of the world, stating that its sole survivor - Vishnu - had incarnated as Yashovarman. The next 10 verses describe the pitiful condition of the widows of the enemy kings.

Expeditions

Vakpati then states that after Yashovarman's

coronation ceremony A coronation is the act of placement or bestowal of a crown upon a monarch's head. The term also generally refers not only to the physical crowning but to the whole ceremony wherein the act of crowning occurs, along with the presentation of ot ...

, as soon as the rainy season ended, the king launched a campaign for world conquest. The gods, the celestial nymphs, and the bards celebrated this event. Yashovarman's army comprised four units: infantry, cavalry, chariots, and elephants: Vakpati describes the horses and elephants in more detail. The poet then describes the winter season, stating that Yashovarman marched to the Shona river and then to the

Vindhya The Vindhya Range (also known as Vindhyachal) () is a complex, discontinuous chain of mountain ridges, hill ranges, highlands and plateau escarpments in west-central India. Technically, the Vindhyas do not form a single mountain range in the ...

mountains. There, the Shabara tribals directed him to the temple of the goddess

Vindhyavasini Yogamaya (), also venerated as Vindhyavasini, Mahamaya, and Ekanamsha, is a Hindu goddess. In Vaishnava tradition, she is accorded the epithet Narayani, and serves as the personification of Vishnu's powers of illusion. The deity is regarded ...

. The king worshipped the goddess, and Vakpati describes these ceremonies and the goddess in great detail. He uses various names for the goddess, including Madhavi, Bhairavi, Chandi, Narayani, Shankari, Kali, Shabari, Gauri, and Tapasi. Vakpati then narrates the king's thoughts upon seeing a dead body in the temple precinct. Vakpati continues with poetic descriptions of the summer season, followed by that of the rainy season. Next, he describes the killing of the Gauda king. The allies of the Gauda king initially deserted him and fled away, but later, they re-grouped and joined him on the battlefield. Yashovarman defeated them in a fierce fight, seized the fleeing Gauda king, and killed him. Yashovarman then marched along the coast, and defeated the Vanga king. He proceeded to the South, where the southern king cordially submitted before him. His army crossed the

Malaya Mountains The Malaya Mountains were a range of mountains that were mentioned in the Hindu sacred texts like ''Matsya Purana'', the ''Kurma Purana'', the ''Vishnu Purana'', and the epics of the ''Ramayana'' and the ''Mahabharata''. The Vishnu Purana specifi ...

, and reached the sea shore, where Vali and

Ravana Ravana (; , , ) is a rakshasa king of the island of Lanka, and the chief antagonist of the Hindu epic ''Ramayana'' and its adaptations. In the ''Ramayana'', Ravana is described to be the eldest son of sage Vishrava and rakshasi Kaikesi. He a ...

once roamed about. Yashovarman then defeated the Parasikas in a fierce battle as part of his world-conquest, just like Raghu had done in the past (a reference to Kalidasa's ''

Raghuvaṃśa (Devanagari: , lit. 'lineage of Raghu') is a Sanskrit epic poem (''mahakavya'') by the celebrated Sanskrit poet Kalidasa. Though an exact date of composition is unknown, the poet is presumed to have flourished in the 5th century CE. It narrat ...

''). He marched to the western mountain ranges, and collected tribute from the local rulers. Vakpati narrates how the ancient king Pṛthu had leveled the mountains, which had now grown in size. Vakpati states that Yashovarman then arrived on the banks of the river Narmada, and encamped there. The poet personalizes the river, and describes her love for the royal sage

Kartavirya Kartavirya Arjuna ( sa, कार्तवीर्य अर्जुन, ; also known as Sahasrabahu Arjuna or Sahasrarjuna) was a king of an ancient Haihayas kingdom with capital at Mahishmati which is on the banks of Narmada River in the ...

. Next, the king visited the sea shore, and stayed at the site of the

churning of the ocean The Samudra Manthana ( sa, समुद्रमन्थन; ) is a major episode in Hinduism that is elaborated in the Vishnu Purana, a major text of Hinduism. The Samudra Manthana explains the origin of the elixir of eternal life, amrita. Nom ...

. His army then marched across the desert region of Maru-desha (Marwar). Vakpati then describes Yashovarman's arrival in the suburbs of the Shrikantha (

Thanesar Thanesar city or old Kurukshetra city is a historic town and an important Hindu pilgrimage sites, Hindu pilgrimage centre in Kurukshetra district of the States and territories of India, state of Haryana in North India, northern India. It is loca ...

) city, where the ancient king

Janamejaya Janamejaya ( sa, जनमेजय) was a Kuru king who reigned during the Middle Vedic period. Along with his father and predecessor Parikshit, he played a decisive role in the consolidation of the Kuru state, the arrangement of Vedic hymns i ...

had performed a snake sacrifice ceremony to avenge his father's death. The poet provides a graphic description of the ceremony. The king then moved to

Kurukshetra Kurukshetra (, ) is a city and administrative headquarter of Kurukshetra district in the Indian state of Haryana. It is also known as Dharmakshetra ("Realm of duty ") and as the "Land of the Bhagavad Gita". Legends According to the Pura ...

, where he enjoyed water-sports with his lovers in a famous lake, which was the site of the fight between

Bhima In Hindu epic Mahabharata, Bhima ( sa, भीम, ) is the second among the five Pandavas. The ''Mahabharata'' relates many events that portray the might of Bhima. Bhima was born when Vayu, the wind god, granted a son to Kunti and Pandu. Af ...

and

Duryodhana Duryodhana ( sa, दुर्योधन, ) also known as Suyodhana, is the primary antagonist in the Hindu epic ''Mahabharata.'' He was the eldest of the Kauravas, the hundred sons of the blind king Dhritarashtra and his queen Gandhari. Being ...

. Vakpati alludes to episodes from the ''

Mahabharata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the ''Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the Kuruk ...

'', including the fight between

Karna Karna (Sanskrit: कर्ण, IAST: ''Karṇa''), also known as Vasusena, Anga-raja, and Radheya, is one of the main protagonists of the Hindu epic '' Mahābhārata''. He is the son of the sun god Surya and princess Kunti (mother of the ...

and

Arjuna Arjuna (Sanskrit: अर्जुन, ), also known as Partha and Dhananjaya, is a character in several ancient Hindu texts, and specifically one of the major characters of the Indian epic Mahabharata. In the epic, he is the third among Panda ...

. According to the poet, Yashovarman then visited

Ayodhya Ayodhya (; ) is a city situated on the banks of holy river Saryu in the States and union territories of India, Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. Ayodhya, also known as Sāketa, Saketa, is an ancient city of India, the birthplace of Rama and ...

and built a "palatial temple" there in one day. Vakpati narrates how the gods transported the city of Ayodhya to heaven as requested by the ancient king

Harishchandra Harishchandra () is a legendary king of the Solar dynasty, who appears in several legends in texts such as the ''Aitareya Brahmana'', ''Mahabharata'', the ''Markandeya Purana'', and the ''Devi Bhagavata Purana''. The most famous of these storie ...

. After Ayodhya, the king proceeded to the slopes of the Mandara mountain, where the local rich people offered him gifts. His army then proceeded northwards, and visited the

Himalayan region The Himalayas, or Himalaya (; ; ), is a mountain range in Asia, separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The range has some of the planet's highest peaks, including the very highest, Mount Everest. Over 100 ...

, including the vicinity of the Kailasa mountain. Vakpati describes the natural scenery, as seen by the king's army, in detail. He then describes the pitiful state of the kings subjugated by Yashovarman.

After the end of expeditions

Vakpati then describes erotic scenes involving the army soldiers and their wives after the end of the expedition. He then narrates how panegyrists glorified the king using poetic exaggerations and described how the king's lovers undressed before they got into bed with him. Vakpati mentions that now the king focused solely on love-making. The wives of the king of Magadha (or Gauda) were made to wave

fly-whisk __NOTOC__ A fly-whisk (or fly-swish) is a tool that is used to swat flies. A similar gadget is used as a hand fan in hot tropical climates, sometimes as part of regalia, and is called a ''chowrie'', ''chāmara'', or ''prakirnaka'' in South Asia an ...

s over the king, like the slave girls, and cried at their plight. The poet then describes the king's love scenes and playful activities with his lovers. Next, he narrates the grooming and make-up activities of these ladies after bath.

Autobiography

The poet then provides an autobiographical note, stating that he held the title "Kavi-raja" (king of poets), and that poet Kamalayudha highly respected him. He describes his work as "spray particles of poetic nectar churned out from the ocean of

's works". He enjoyed reading the works of poets such as Bhasa, Jvalanamitra, Kuntideva,

, Subandhu, and Harichandra. He also enjoyed reading scritpures, works on grammar and mimamsa, prosody, Bharata's ''

Natya Shastra The ''Nāṭya Śāstra'' (, ''Nāṭyaśāstra'') is a Sanskrit treatise on the performing arts. The text is attributed to sage Bharata Muni, and its first complete compilation is dated to between 200 BCE and 200 CE, but estimates vary ...

'', Gautama's Nyaya Sutras, lgendary texts (such as the

Ramayana The ''Rāmāyana'' (; sa, रामायणम्, ) is a Sanskrit literature, Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epic composed over a period of nearly a millennium, with scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text ranging from the 8th ...

and the

), and the works of other excellent poets. Vakpati then praises himself, calling his poetic speech "full of sentiment, full of substance, brilliant and solid in thought".

Story behind composition

Vakpati then describes what led him to compose ''Gaudavaho''. He states that one day, in the assembly, the audience requested him to tell them about king Yashovarman, especially the slaying of the Gauda king. Vakpati praises the king, calling him a manifestation of the god

. Vakpati then devotes 150 verses to describe the "dry and insipid worldly life" of his period, venting out his frustrations about sycophancy of courtiers, nepotism, fraud, poverty, stinginess of rich people, lack of respect for the non-wealthy, and general wickedness in the society. The poet then states that in this sordid world, it would be rewarding to hear about king Yashovarman's virtues. He then glorifies the king, narrating how god

tested him by appearing as a lion before him, calling him as an incarnation of Vishnu multiple times, and describing him as a member of the

lunar dynasty The Lunar dynasty (IAST: Candravaṃśa) is a legendary principal house of the Kshatriyas varna, or warrior–ruling caste mentioned in the ancient Indian texts. This legendary dynasty was said to be descended from moon-related deities (''Som ...

. Vakpati states that now "Gaudavaho, a big enterprise" will be narrated. The assembly then disperses to meet the next morning. The poet describes the sunset and the moon-rise. He states that he decided to sleep, finding himself unable to continue narrating the king's exploits because doing so incorrectly would weaken the king's glory. However, he did not get sleep, and used the night to compose 42 verses describing love scenes involving young women applying make-up, couples flirting and drinking wine together, hugging and kissing, enjoyment of sex, and sleep afterwards. He then describes the end of the night and the sunrise. After waking up and finishing his morning routine, Vakpati prepares to narrate the king's life, describing it as similar to the life of

Chanakya Chanakya (Sanskrit: चाणक्य; IAST: ', ; 375–283 BCE) was an ancient Indian polymath who was active as a teacher, author, strategist, philosopher, economist, jurist, and royal advisor. He is traditionally identified as Kauṭilya o ...

. A great assembly of gods,

nymphs A nymph ( grc, νύμφη, nýmphē, el, script=Latn, nímfi, label=Modern Greek; , ) in ancient Greek folklore is a minor female nature deity. Different from Greek goddesses, nymphs are generally regarded as personifications of nature, are typ ...

, men, women, and birds gathers in an open auditorium (as had happened in Bhavabhuti's play ''

Uttararamacarita ''Uttararāmacarita'' ( sa, उत्तररामचरित, IAST: Uttararāmacarita) () is a Sanskrit play in seven acts in the ''Nataka'' style by Bhavabhuti. It depicts the later life of Hindu god Rama, from the coronation after Rama's ret ...

''). As Vakpati starts his narration, there is perfect silence. He states that he is now going to talk about the king's life, and asks the audience to listen.

Historicity

''Gaudavaho'' is ''

prashasti ''Prashasti'' (IAST: Praśasti, Sanskrit for "praise") is an Indian genre of inscriptions composed by poets in praise of their rulers. Most date from the 6th century CE onwards. Written in the form of poetry or ornate prose, the ''prashastis'' s ...

''-kavya, aimed at glorifying Vakpati's patron, king Yashovarman. The surviving text of the poem does not contain much historical narrative: it focuses more on mythological episodes, and on other topics found commonly in ''mahakavya''s, such as natural scenery and march of armies. Historian

V. V. Mirashi Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi (1893–1985) was a Sanskrit scholar and a prominent Indologist of the 20th century who hailed from Maharashtra, India. He was an expert of his times on stone and copper inscriptions and the coinage of ancient India. ...

calls ''Gaudavaho'' "mostly a fictionalised piece" that does not name any of the defeated kings, and appears to be modeled on Kalidasa's ''Raghuvaṃśa'' and

Harishena Harishena () was the last known ruler of the Vatsagulma branch of the Vakataka dynasty The Vakataka dynasty () was an ancient Indian dynasty that originated from the Deccan in the mid-3rd century CE. Their state is believed to have extende ...

's panegyric on

Samudragupta Samudragupta (Gupta script: ''Sa-mu-dra-gu-pta'', (c. 335–375 CE) was the second emperor of the Gupta Empire of ancient India, and is regarded among the greatest rulers of the dynasty. As a son of the Gupta emperor Chandragupta I and the Li ...

. That said, Yashovarman's subjugation of the eastern king of Gauda or

Magadha Magadha was a region and one of the sixteen sa, script=Latn, Mahajanapadas, label=none, lit=Great Kingdoms of the Second Urbanization (600–200 BCE) in what is now south Bihar (before expansion) at the eastern Ganges Plain. Magadha was ruled ...

appears to be a true event. According to commentator Haripala, as well as several later scholars, the text uses the terms "Magadha king" and "Gauda king" to refer to the same person. According to this theory, during Yashovarman's time, Magadha was a part of Gauda, or vice versa. According to Mirashi, the defeated king was probably Jivitagupta II, the last known ruler of the

Later Gupta dynasty The Later Gupta dynasty ruled the Magadha region in eastern India between the 6th and 8th centuries CE. The Later Guptas succeeded the imperial Guptas as the rulers of Magadha, but there is no evidence connecting the two dynasties; these appear ...

. An inscription found at

Nalanda Nalanda (, ) was a renowned ''mahavihara'' (Buddhist monastic university) in ancient Magadha (modern-day Bihar), India.

References

Bibliography

* * * * * {{ref end Prakrit literature 8th-century poems 8th-century Indian books