Flood Plains National Park ( si, ජලගැලුම් නිම්න ජාතික වනෝද්‍යානය, translit=Jalagælum Nimna Jātika Vanōdyānaya; ta, வெள்ளச் சமவெளிகள் தேசிய வனம், translit=Veḷḷac Camaveḷikaḷ Tēciya Vaṉam) is one of the four national parks set aside under the

Mahaweli River The Mahaweli River ( si, මහවැලි ගඟ, literally "Great Sandy River"; ta, மகாவலி ஆறு 'mahawali gangai'', is a long river, ranking as the longest river in Sri Lanka. It has a drainage basin of , the largest in the ...

development project in Sri Lanka. Senarathna 2004: p. 166 The park was created on 7 August 1984. The national park is situated along the Mahaweli flood plain and is considered a rich feeding ground for elephants. Flood Plains National Park is considered an elephant corridor for the elephants migrate between

Wasgamuwa Wasgamuwa National Park is a natural park in Sri Lanka situated in the Matale and Polonnaruwa Districts. It was declared to protect and to make a refuge for the displaced wild animals during the Mahaweli Development Project in 1984 and is one of ...

and Somawathiya national parks. The park is situated north-east of

Colombo Colombo ( ; si, කොළඹ, translit=Koḷam̆ba, ; ta, கொழும்பு, translit=Koḻumpu, ) is the executive and judicial capital and largest city of Sri Lanka by population. According to the Brookings Institution, Colombo me ...

Physical features

The park's elevation range from with sparse rock outcrop. The

flows from south to north through the centre of the park. The rich alluvial soil

flood plains A floodplain or flood plain or bottomlands is an area of land adjacent to a river which stretches from the banks of its channel to the base of the enclosing valley walls, and which experiences flooding during periods of high discharge.Goudi ...

situated beside the river are featured by a number of shallow swampy depressions called "villus". Around 38 villus have been recorded from the floodplains. The villus system of Mahaweli River has received protected status from Flood Plains and Somawathiya National Parks. The extended inundation of these low-lying areas, along with the nutrients carried in by the water, are the cause of the high level of net

primary productivity In ecology, primary production is the synthesis of organic compounds from atmospheric or aqueous carbon dioxide. It principally occurs through the process of photosynthesis, which uses light as its source of energy, but it also occurs through c ...

. Furthermore to being flooded in the wet season, the villus are also inundated during the dry season because the headwaters of the Mahaweli River experience the south-west monsoon at that time. Unto the recent diversion of the river for irrigational purposes, the villus were important as dry season grazing grounds. The park is situated in the dry zone, therefore there is only a north-east monsoon from October to late-January and the wet season is followed up by a dry lasting from March to September. Mean temperature is around and mean rainfall is around . Relative humidity range from 60-90% depending on the rainfall patterns and the area experience strong seasonal windy periods.

History

Mahaweli River in this section was connected to the nearby ancient

irrigation Irrigation (also referred to as watering) is the practice of applying controlled amounts of water to land to help grow Crop, crops, Landscape plant, landscape plants, and Lawn, lawns. Irrigation has been a key aspect of agriculture for over 5,00 ...

network. On the right bank of the river, at the edge of the Mutugalla villu, ruins of an ancient cave monastery with inscriptions dating back to between 2nd and 7th century BC have been found. Flood Plains National Park which declared in 1984 is in the upper flood plains of Mahaweli River and

Somawathiya National Park Somawathiya National Park is one of the four national parks designated under the Mahaweli River development project. Senarathna 2004: p. 166 Somawathiya Chaitya, a stupa said to be containing a relic of the tooth of the Buddha, is situated withi ...

declared in 1986 is situated in the downstream. These two parks, along with Wasgamuwa National Park to the southwest and the Trikonamadu Nature Reserve to the northeast forms a system of contiguous protected areas. It has been proposed to link all these national parks together to form a single protected area.

Flora

The floodplains of the Mahaweli forest are made up of diverse ecological zones consisting of river channels, riverine marshes, villus, seasonally flooded grasslands, and swamp forests. The flood plain in general and associated villus in particular have a high diversity of both smaller and larger plant species. There are 231 plant species that have recorded from Handapan and Bendiya villus and marsh forests, which is the largest villu of within the Mahaweli River floodplain. Saturated soil and flooding hinder tree growth and enhance the growth of water-tolerant grasses and

aquatic plant Aquatic plants are plants that have adapted to living in aquatic environments (saltwater or freshwater). They are also referred to as hydrophytes or macrophytes to distinguish them from algae and other microphytes. A macrophyte is a plant that ...

s. The vegetation of the villus shows distinct pattern of zonation with creeping grasses such as ''

Cynodon dactylon ''Cynodon dactylon'', commonly known as Bermuda grass, is a grass found worldwide. It is native to Europe, Africa, Australia and much of Asia. It has been introduced to the Americas. Although it is not native to Bermuda, it is an abundant invasi ...

'', and essentially terrestrial annual plants on the edges. Hydrophytic plants and grasses further inwards; floating plants such '' Aponogeton crispum'', ''A. natans'', and ''

Nymphoides ''Nymphoides'', or floatingheart, is a genus of aquatic flowering plants in the family Menyanthaceae. The genus name refers to their resemblance to the water lily '' Nymphaea''. ''Nymphoides'' are aquatic plants with submerged roots and floating ...

'' spp. occur along with ''

Nelumbo nucifera ''Nelumbo nucifera'', also known as sacred lotus, Laxmi lotus, Indian lotus, or simply lotus, is one of two extant species of aquatic plant in the family Nelumbonaceae. It is sometimes colloquially called a water lily, though this more often re ...

'' in deeper water, and an association of manel '' Nymphaea stellata'' and the submerged floating plants ''

Ceratophyllum demersum ''Ceratophyllum demersum'', commonly known as hornwort, rigid hornwort, coontail, or coon's tail, is a species of ''Ceratophyllum''. It is a submerged, free-floating aquatic plant, with a cosmopolitan distribution, native to all continents except ...

'' in the deepest water. Some floating plants found in the all zones. The original riverine forest on the banks has been completely removed make way for tobacco cultivation. Between the banks the swamps of the villus, the vegetation is similar to swamp forests, due to periodic inundation with trees such as ''

Terminalia arjuna ''Terminalia arjuna'' is a tree of the genus '' Terminalia''. It is commonly known as arjuna or arjun tree in English. Description ''T. arjuna'' grows to about 20–25 metres tall; usually has a buttressed trunk, and forms a wide canopy at the ...

'', ''Hydnocarpus venenata'', ''

Mitragyna parvifolia ''Mitragyna parvifolia'' is a tree species found in Asia, native to India and Sri Lanka. ''Mitragyna'' species are used medicinally and for their fine timber throughout the areas where they grow. ''M. parvifolia'' reaches heights of 50 feet wit ...

'', ''

Madhuca longifolia ''Madhuca longifolia'' is an Indian tropical tree found largely in the central, southern, north Indian plains and forests, Nepal, Myanmar and Sri Lanka. It is commonly known as madhūka, , mahuwa, Butter Tree, mahua, mahwa, , Iluppai or vippa che ...

'', and ''

Barringtonia asiatica ''Barringtonia asiatica'' (fish poison tree, putat or sea poison tree) is a species of ''Barringtonia'' native to mangrove habitats from islands of the Indian Ocean in the west to tropical Asia and islands of the western Pacific Ocean. It is g ...

'' being the most abundant. ''

Calamus rotang ''Calamus rotang'', also known as common rattan, is a plant species native to India, Sri Lanka and Myanmar (Burma). It is one of the scandent (climbing) rattan palms used to make Malacca cane furniture, baskets, walking-sticks, umbrellas, table ...

'' are also common in the area. About 25 plants of a rare herb ''Pentapetes phoenicea'' are found at three different sites in the marsh forest. Elsewhere the monsoon forest is found on higher grounds and

gallery forest A gallery forest is one formed as a corridor along rivers or wetlands, projecting into landscapes that are otherwise only sparsely treed such as savannas, grasslands, or deserts. The gallery forest maintains a more temperate microclimate above th ...

along the river banks.

Fauna

The rich vegetation in the villus attract large numbers of herbivores and aves and supports a higher annual

biomass Biomass is plant-based material used as a fuel for heat or electricity production. It can be in the form of wood, wood residues, energy crops, agricultural residues, and waste from industry, farms, and households. Some people use the terms bi ...

than any other form of habitat within the accelerated Mahaweli development project area. The flood plains are abundant in supply of water and grasslands and therefore is an important habitat for

elephant Elephants are the largest existing land animals. Three living species are currently recognised: the African bush elephant, the African forest elephant, and the Asian elephant. They are the only surviving members of the family Elephantidae an ...

(''Elephas maximus''). In 2007 the estimated elephant population of the park was around 50-100. Other frequently seen mammals are

fishing cat The fishing cat (''Prionailurus viverrinus'') is a medium-sized wild cat of South and Southeast Asia. Since 2016, it is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. Fishing cat populations are threatened by destruction of wetlands and have declin ...

''felis viverrinus'',

jungle cat The jungle cat (''Felis chaus''), also called reed cat, swamp cat and jungle lynx, is a medium-sized cat native to the Middle East, the Caucasus, South and Southeast Asia and southern China. It inhabits foremost wetlands like swamps, littora ...

''Felis chaus'',

rusty-spotted cat The rusty-spotted cat (''Prionailurus rubiginosus'') is one of the cat family's smallest members, of which historical records are known only from India and Sri Lanka. In 2012, it was also recorded in the western Terai of Nepal. Since 2016, the gl ...

''felis rubiginosa'',

jackal Jackals are medium-sized canids native to Africa and Eurasia. While the word "jackal" has historically been used for many canines of the subtribe canina, in modern use it most commonly refers to three species: the closely related black-backed ...

''Canis aureus'',

wild boar The wild boar (''Sus scrofa''), also known as the wild swine, common wild pig, Eurasian wild pig, or simply wild pig, is a suid native to much of Eurasia and North Africa, and has been introduced to the Americas and Oceania. The species is ...

''Sus scrofa'',

Indian muntjac The Indian muntjac or the common muntjac (''Muntiacus muntjak''), also called the southern red muntjac and barking deer, is a deer species native to South and Southeast Asia. It is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. In popular local l ...

''Muntiacus muntjak'', sambar ''Cervix unicolor'',

spotted deer The chital or cheetal (''Axis axis''; ), also known as the spotted deer, chital deer, and axis deer, is a deer species native to the Indian subcontinent. It was first described and given a binomial name by German naturalist Johann Christian Po ...

''C. axis'', and

water buffalo The water buffalo (''Bubalus bubalis''), also called the domestic water buffalo or Asian water buffalo, is a large bovid originating in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Today, it is also found in Europe, Australia, North America, So ...

''Bubalus bubalis''.

European otter The Eurasian otter (''Lutra lutra''), also known as the European otter, Eurasian river otter, common otter, and Old World otter, is a semiaquatic mammal native to Eurasia. The most widely distributed member of the otter subfamily (Lutrinae) of th ...

''Lutra lutra'',

Sri Lankan spotted chevrotain ''Moschiola meminna'' is a species of even-toed ungulate in the chevrotain family (Tragulidae). Particularly in the old literature, ''M. meminna'' often refers to the spotted chevrotains as a whole. Today, the name is increasingly restricted to ...

''Moschiola meminna'', and

leopard The leopard (''Panthera pardus'') is one of the five extant species in the genus '' Panthera'', a member of the cat family, Felidae. It occurs in a wide range in sub-Saharan Africa, in some parts of Western and Central Asia, Southern Russia, a ...

''Panthera pardus'' are also have been recorded from the park. Flood Plains National Park is one of the recorded habitats of

grey slender loris The gray slender loris (''Loris lydekkerianus'') is a species of primate in the family Loridae. It is native to India and Sri Lanka and inhabits subtropical and tropical dry forests and subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests. It is threa ...

''Loris lydekkerianus''. The flood plains are especially important for the diversity and richness of their avifauna, particularly migrant birds. The rare species

lesser adjutant The lesser adjutant (''Leptoptilos javanicus'') is a large wading bird in the stork family Ciconiidae. Like other members of its genus, it has a bare neck and head. It is however more closely associated with wetland habitats where it is solitary ...

''Leptoptilos javanicus'' and variety of other species inhabit the floodplains. It has been estimated that around 75 species winter in the swamps of the flood plains. Frequently seen residents are

marsh sandpiper The marsh sandpiper (''Tringa stagnatilis'') is a small wader. It is a rather small shank, and breeds in open grassy steppe and taiga wetlands from easternmost Europe to the Russian Far East. The genus name ''Tringa'' is the New Latin name given ...

''Tringa stagnatilis'',

wood sandpiper The wood sandpiper (''Tringa glareola'') is a small wader. This Eurasian species is the smallest of the shanks, which are mid-sized long-legged waders of the family Scolopacidae. The genus name ''Tringa'' is the New Latin name given to the gree ...

''T. glareola'', Asiatic golden plover ''Pluvialis dominica'',

garganey The garganey (''Spatula querquedula'') is a small dabbling duck. It breeds in much of Europe and across the Palearctic, but is strictly migratory, with the entire population moving to southern Africa, India (in particular Santragachi), Banglades ...

''Anas querquedula'',

osprey The osprey (''Pandion haliaetus''), , also called sea hawk, river hawk, and fish hawk, is a diurnal, fish-eating bird of prey with a cosmopolitan range. It is a large raptor reaching more than in length and across the wings. It is brown o ...

''Pandion haliaetus'', and

black-tailed godwit The black-tailed godwit (''Limosa limosa'') is a large, long-legged, long-billed shorebird first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. It is a member of the godwit genus, ''Limosa''. There are four subspecies, all with orange head, neck and chest ...

''Limosa limosa''. Common residents are eastern large egret ''Egreta alba'',

cattle egret The cattle egret (''Bubulcus ibis'') is a cosmopolitan species of heron (family Ardeidae) found in the tropics, subtropics, and warm-temperate zones. It is the only member of the monotypic genus ''Bubulcus'', although some authorities regard it ...

''Bubulcus ibis'',

Painted stork The painted stork (''Mycteria leucocephala'') is a large wading bird, wader in the stork family. It is found in the wetlands of the plains of tropical Asia south of the Himalayas in the Indian Subcontinent and extending into Southeast Asia. Thei ...

''Ibis leucocephala'',

pond heron Pond herons (''Ardeola'') are herons, typically long with an wingspan. Most breed in the tropical Old World, but the migratory squacco heron occurs in southern Europe and the Middle East and winters in Africa. The scientific name comes fro ...

''Ardeola grayii'', eastern grey heron ''Ardea cinerea'',

pheasant-tailed jacana The pheasant-tailed jacana (''Hydrophasianus chirurgus'') is a jacana in the monotypic genus ''Hydrophasianus''. Like all other jacanas, they have elongated toes and nails that enable them to walk on floating vegetation in shallow lakes, their p ...

''Hydrophasianus chirurgus'', purple coot ''Porphyrio porphyrio'',

Indian darter The Oriental darter (''Anhinga melanogaster'') is a water bird of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. It has a long and slender neck with a straight, pointed bill and, like the cormorant, it hunts for fish while its body is submerged in water ...

''Anhinga rufa'',

little cormorant The little cormorant (''Microcarbo niger'') is a member of the cormorant family of seabirds. Slightly smaller than the Indian cormorant it lacks a peaked head and has a shorter beak. It is widely distributed across the Indian Subcontinent and ex ...

''Phalacrocorax niger'',

Indian shag The Indian cormorant or Indian shag (''Phalacrocorax fuscicollis'') is a member of the cormorant family. It is found mainly along the inland waters of the Indian Subcontinent but extending west to Sind and east to Thailand and Cambodia. It is a ...

''P. fuscicollis'',

Indian cormorant The Indian cormorant or Indian shag (''Phalacrocorax fuscicollis'') is a member of the cormorant family. It is found mainly along the inland waters of the Indian Subcontinent but extending west to Sind and east to Thailand and Cambodia. It is a g ...

''P. carbo sinensis'',

brahminy kite The brahminy kite (''Haliastur indus''), formerly known as the red-backed sea-eagle in Australia, is a medium-sized bird of prey in the family Accipitridae, which also includes many other diurnal raptors, such as eagles, buzzards, and harriers. ...

''Haliastur indus'',

painted snipe The Rostratulidae, commonly known as the painted-snipes, are a family of wading birds that consists of two genera: ''Rostratula'' and '' Nycticryphes''. Description The painted-snipes are short-legged, long-billed birds similar in shape to the t ...

''Rostratula benghalensis'',

black-winged stilt The black-winged stilt (''Himantopus himantopus'') is a widely distributed very long-legged wader in the avocet and stilt family (Recurvirostridae). The scientific name ''H. himantopus'' is sometimes applied to a single, almost cosmopolitan speci ...

''Himantopus himantopus'', and

red-wattled lapwing The red-wattled lapwing (''Vanellus indicus'') is an Asian lapwing or large plover, a wader in the family Charadriidae. Like other lapwings they are ground birds that are incapable of perching. Their characteristic loud alarm calls are indicat ...

''Vanellus indicus''. The freshwater fish are dominated by

exotic species An introduced species, alien species, exotic species, adventive species, immigrant species, foreign species, non-indigenous species, or non-native species is a species living outside its native distributional range, but which has arrived there ...

(i.e. ''

Oreochromis ''Oreochromis'' is a large genus of Oreochromini, oreochromine cichlids, fishes Endemism, endemic to Africa and the Middle East. A few species from this genus have been Introduced species, introduced far outside their native range and are import ...

'' spp., ''

Osphronemus goramy The giant gourami (''Osphronemus goramy'') is a species of large gourami native to freshwater habitats in Southeast Asia. It has also been introduced elsewhere. The species is commercially important as a food fish and is also farmed. It can be fou ...

'') and also endemic species such as ''Esomus thermoicos'', '' Garra ceylonensis'', '' Schistura notostigma'' also have been recorded from the park. Important fish species of the villus are climbing perch ''Anabas testudineus'', snakeheads '' Ophiocephalus stratus'' and ''O. parulius'', ''

Labeo ''Labeo'' is a genus of carps in the family Cyprinidae. They are found in freshwater habitats in the tropics and subtropics of Africa and Asia. It contains the typical labeos in the subfamily Labeoninae, which may not be a valid group, however, ...

'' sp., branded etroplus ''Etroplus suratensis'', butter catfish ''Ompok bimaculatus'' and the introduced

tilapia Tilapia ( ) is the common name for nearly a hundred species of cichlid fish from the coelotilapine, coptodonine, heterotilapine, oreochromine, pelmatolapiine, and tilapiine tribes (formerly all were "Tilapiini"), with the economically most ...

''Tilapia mossambica''. The marshy habitat harbors a large population of reptiles including natricine watersnakes,

mugger crocodile The mugger crocodile (''Crocodylus palustris'') is a medium-sized broad- snouted crocodile, also known as mugger and marsh crocodile. It is native to freshwater habitats from southern Iran to the Indian subcontinent, where it inhabits marshes, ...

''Crocodylus palustris'', and

estuarine crocodile The saltwater crocodile (''Crocodylus porosus'') is a crocodilian native to saltwater habitats and brackish wetlands from India's east coast across Southeast Asia and the Sundaic region to northern Australia and Micronesia. It has been liste ...

''Crocodylus porosus''.

Indian black turtle The Indian black turtle (''Melanochelys trijuga'') or Indian pond terrapin is a species of medium-sized freshwater turtle found in South Asia. Description Despite its name, the color of its upper shell or carapace can vary from reddish to dar ...

''Melanochelys trijuga'' and Indian flap-shelled turtle ''Lissemys punctata'' are the other aquatic reptiles reported.

Conservation

The park is especially important for the long-term survival of elephants within the Mahaweli catchment. Together with adjoining

, Flood Plains provides a sanctuary for a wide variety of resident and migratory

waterfowl Anseriformes is an order of birds also known as waterfowl that comprises about 180 living species of birds in three families: Anhimidae (three species of screamers), Anseranatidae (the magpie goose), and Anatidae, the largest family, which in ...

s. Although there is an overall systems plan for protected areas within the Mahaweli region, there is no management plan particularly for Flood Plains National Park. For management purposes, the northern half of the park is treated as part of Somawathiya National Park and the southern half as part of Wasgamuwa National Park. The construction of dam on the Mahaweli River will inevitably drop water flow and thereby reduce the magnitude and duration of flooding downstream. This drastic change in the water management of the villus will change the rich grasslands into poor quality grazing grounds, which in turn will be harmful to the wildlife. The park was added 1989

IUCN The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN; officially International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natu ...

/ CNNPA register of threatened protected areas of the world, for its integrity being threatened greatly by

overexploitation Overexploitation, also called overharvesting, refers to harvesting a renewable resource to the point of diminishing returns. Continued overexploitation can lead to the destruction of the resource, as it will be unable to replenish. The term app ...

of its resources. Elephants have fallen into the holes created by the hundreds of

kiln A kiln is a thermally insulated chamber, a type of oven, that produces temperatures sufficient to complete some process, such as hardening, drying, or chemical changes. Kilns have been used for millennia to turn objects made from clay int ...

s and died. Harmful activities were due to be phased out or control strictly to enable to recover. Effective management has been hampered political and security problems in the region. The drying up of villus has facilitated the spread of invasive

alien Alien primarily refers to: * Alien (law), a person in a country who is not a national of that country ** Enemy alien, the above in times of war * Extraterrestrial life, life which does not originate from Earth ** Specifically, intelligent extrater ...

species such as ''

Eichhornia crassipes ''Pontederia crassipes'' (formerly ''Eichhornia crassipes''), commonly known as common water hyacinth is an aquatic plant native to South America, naturalized throughout the world, and often invasive species, invasive outside its native range ...

'', ''Xanthium indicum'', ''

Salvinia molesta ''Salvinia molesta'', commonly known as giant salvinia, or as kariba weed after it infested a large portion of Lake Kariba between Zimbabwe and Zambia, is an aquatic fern, native to south-eastern Brazil. It is a free-floating plant that does n ...

'', which has affected the native grasses and other aquatic plants, resulting in native herbivores' food loss.

References