[
]
With algae and cyanobacteria
Lichens are a symbiotic relationship between fungi and photosynthetic algae or cyanobacteria. The photosynthetic partner in the relationship is referred to in lichen terminology as a "photobiont". The fungal part of the relationship is composed mostly of various species of ascomycetes and a few basidiomycetes.[ Lichens occur in every ecosystem on all continents, play a key role in soil formation and the initiation of Ecological succession, biological succession,][ and are prominent in some extreme environments, including polar region, polar, Alpine climate, alpine, and semiarid climate, semiarid desert regions. They are able to grow on inhospitable surfaces, including bare soil, rocks, Bark (botany), tree bark, wood, shells, barnacles and leaves.][ As in mycorrhizas, the photobiont provides sugars and other carbohydrates via photosynthesis to the fungus, while the fungus provides minerals and water to the photobiont. The functions of both symbiotic organisms are so closely intertwined that they function almost as a single organism; in most cases the resulting organism differs greatly from the individual components. Lichenization is a common mode of nutrition for fungi; around 27% of known fungi—more than 19,400 species—are lichenized.] Characteristics common to most lichens include obtaining organic carbon by photosynthesis, slow growth, small size, long life, long-lasting (seasonal) Vegetative reproduction, vegetative reproductive structures, mineral nutrition obtained largely from airborne sources, and greater tolerance of desiccation than most other photosynthetic organisms in the same habitat.
With insects
Many insects also engage in Ant-fungus mutualism, mutualistic relationships with fungi. Several groups of ants cultivate fungi in the order Chaetothyriales for several purposes: as a food source, as a structural component of their nests, and as a part of an ant/plant symbiosis in the domatium, domatia (tiny chambers in plants that house arthropods). Ambrosia beetles cultivate various species of fungi in the bark of trees that they infest. Likewise, females of several wood wasp species (genus ''Sirex'') inject their eggs together with spores of the wood-rotting fungus ''Amylostereum areolatum'' into the Wood#Heartwood and sapwood, sapwood of pine trees; the growth of the fungus provides ideal nutritional conditions for the development of the wasp larvae. At least one species of stingless bee has a relationship with a fungus in the genus ''Monascus'', where the larvae consume and depend on fungus transferred from old to new nests.[ Termites on the African savannah are also known to cultivate fungi,][ and yeasts of the genera ''Candida (genus), Candida'' and ''Lachancea'' inhabit the Gastrointestinal tract, gut of a wide range of insects, including neuropterans, beetles, and cockroaches; it is not known whether these fungi benefit their hosts.][ Fungi growing in Coarse woody debris, dead wood are essential for Xylophagy, xylophagous insects (e.g. woodboring beetles).] They deliver nutrients needed by Xylophagy, xylophages to nutritionally scarce dead wood. Thanks to this nutritional enrichment the larvae of the woodboring insect is able to grow and develop to adulthood. The larvae of many families of fungicolous flies, particularly those within the superfamily Sciaroidea such as the Mycetophilidae and some Keroplatidae feed on fungal fruiting bodies and sterile mycorrhizae.
As pathogens and parasites
Many fungi are parasite
Parasitism is a close relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or inside another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this way of life. The entomologist E. O. Wilson has ...
s on plants, animals (including humans), and other fungi. Serious pathogens of many cultivated plants causing extensive damage and losses to agriculture and forestry include the rice blast fungus ''Magnaporthe oryzae'', tree pathogens such as ''Ophiostoma ulmi'' and ''Ophiostoma novo-ulmi'' causing Dutch elm disease, ''Cryphonectria parasitica'' responsible for chestnut blight, and ''Texas Root Rot, Phymatotrichopsis omnivora'' causing Texas Root Rot, and plant pathogens in the genera ''Fusarium'', ''Ustilago'', ''Alternaria'', and ''Cochliobolus''.[ Some carnivorous fungi, like ''Paecilomyces lilacinus'', are Nematophagous fungus, predators of nematodes, which they capture using an array of specialized structures such as constricting rings or adhesive nets.][ Many fungi that are plant pathogens, such as ''Magnaporthe oryzae'', can switch from being biotrophic (parasitic on living plants) to being necrotrophic (feeding on the dead tissues of plants they have killed). This same principle is applied to fungi-feeding parasites, including ''Asterotremella albida'', which feeds on the fruit bodies of other fungi both while they are living and after they are dead.
Some fungi can cause serious diseases in humans, several of which may be fatal if untreated. These include aspergillosis, candidiasis, coccidioidomycosis, cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis, Eumycetoma, mycetomas, and paracoccidioidomycosis. Furthermore, persons with Immunodeficiency, immuno-deficiencies are particularly susceptible to disease by genera such as ''Aspergillus'', ''Candida (genus), Candida'', ''Cryptococcus neoformans, Cryptoccocus'',][ ''Histoplasma'',][ and ''Pneumocystis''.][ Other fungi can attack eyes, nails, hair, and especially skin, the so-called Dermatophyte, dermatophytic and keratinophilic fungi, and cause local infections such as ringworm and athlete's foot.][ Fungal spores are also a cause of allergies, and fungi from different taxonomic groups can evoke allergic reactions.][
]
As targets of mycoparasites
Organisms that parasitize fungi are known as mycoparasitism, mycoparasitic organisms. About 300 species of fungi and fungus-like organisms, belonging to 13 classes and 113 genera, are used as biocontrol agents against plant fungal diseases. Fungi can also act as mycoparasites or antagonists of other fungi, such as ''Hypomyces chrysospermus'', which grows on bolete mushrooms.
Fungi can also become the target of infection by mycoviruses.
Communication
There appears to be electrical communication between fungi in word-like components according to spiking characteristics.
Mycotoxins
Many fungi produce biological activity, biologically active compounds, several of which are toxin, toxic to animals or plants and are therefore called mycotoxins. Of particular relevance to humans are mycotoxins produced by molds causing food spoilage, and poisonous mushrooms (see above). Particularly infamous are the lethal amatoxins in some ''Amanita'' mushrooms, and Ergotamine, ergot alkaloids, which have a long history of causing serious epidemics of ergotism (St Anthony's Fire) in people consuming rye or related cereals contaminated with sclerotia of the ergot fungus, ''Claviceps purpurea''.[ Other notable mycotoxins include the aflatoxins, which are insidious Hepatotoxicity, liver toxins and highly carcinogenic metabolites produced by certain ''Aspergillus'' species often growing in or on grains and nuts consumed by humans, ochratoxins, patulin, and trichothecenes (e.g., T-2 mycotoxin) and fumonisins, which have significant impact on human food supplies or animal livestock.]
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites (or natural products), and research has established the existence of biochemical pathways solely for the purpose of producing mycotoxins and other natural products in fungi.[ Mycotoxins may provide Fitness (biology), fitness benefits in terms of physiological adaptation, competition with other microbes and fungi, and protection from consumption (fungivore, fungivory).][ Many fungal secondary metabolites (or derivatives) are used medically, as described under #Human use, Human use below.
]
Pathogenic mechanisms
''Ustilago maydis'' is a pathogenic plant fungus that causes smut disease in maize and teosinte. Plants have evolved efficient defense systems against pathogenic microbes such as ''U. maydis''. A rapid defense reaction after pathogen attack is the oxidative burst where the plant produces reactive oxygen species at the site of the attempted invasion. ''U. maydis'' can respond to the oxidative burst with an oxidative stress response, regulated by the gene ''YAP1''. The response protects ''U. maydis'' from the host defense, and is necessary for the pathogen's virulence.[ Furthermore, ''U. maydis'' has a well-established recombinational DNA repair system which acts during mitosis and meiosis.][ The system may assist the pathogen in surviving DNA damage arising from the host plant's oxidative defensive response to infection.][
''Cryptococcus neoformans'' is an encapsulated yeast that can live in both plants and animals. ''C.neoformans'' usually infects the lungs, where it is phagocytosed by alveolar macrophages.][ Some ''C.neoformans'' can survive intracellular, inside macrophages, which appears to be the basis for latency period, latency, disseminated disease, and resistance to antifungal agents. One mechanism by which ''C.neoformans'' survives the hostile macrophage environment is by up-regulating the expression of genes involved in the oxidative stress response.] Another mechanism involves meiosis. The majority of ''C.neoformans'' are mating "type a". Filaments of mating "type a" ordinarily have haploid nuclei, but they can become diploid (perhaps by endoduplication or by stimulated nuclear fusion) to form blastospores. The diploid nuclei of blastospores can undergo meiosis, including recombination, to form haploid basidiospores that can be dispersed.[ This process is referred to as monokaryotic fruiting. This process requires a gene called ''DMC1'', which is a conserved homologue of genes ''recA'' in bacteria and ''RAD51'' in eukaryotes, that mediates homologous chromosome pairing during meiosis and repair of DNA double-strand breaks. Thus, ''C.neoformans'' can undergo a meiosis, monokaryotic fruiting, that promotes recombinational repair in the oxidative, DNA damaging environment of the host macrophage, and the repair capability may contribute to its virulence.][
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Human use
The human use of fungi for food preparation or preservation and other purposes is extensive and has a long history. Mushroom farming and mushroom gathering are large industries in many countries. The study of the historical uses and sociological impact of fungi is known as ethnomycology. Because of the capacity of this group to produce an enormous range of natural products with antimicrobial or other biological activities, many species have long been used or are being developed for industrial production of antibiotics, vitamins, and Taxol#Production, anti-cancer and Lovastatin, cholesterol-lowering drugs. Methods have been developed for genetic engineering of fungi,[ enabling metabolic engineering of fungal species. For example, genetic modification of yeast species]—which are easy to grow at fast rates in large fermentation vessels—has opened up ways of pharmaceutical production that are potentially more efficient than production by the original source organisms.[ Fungi-based industries are sometimes considered to be a major part of a growing bioeconomy, with applications under research and development including use for textiles, Environmental impact of meat production, meat substitution and general fungal biotechnology.
]
Therapeutic uses
Modern chemotherapeutics
Many species produce metabolites that are major sources of pharmacology, pharmacologically active drugs.
= Antibiotics
=
Particularly important are the antibiotics, including the penicillins, a structurally related group of β-lactam antibiotics that are synthesized from small peptides. Although naturally occurring penicillins such as penicillin G (produced by ''Penicillium chrysogenum'') have a relatively narrow spectrum of biological activity, a wide range of other penicillins can be produced by Chemical synthesis, chemical modification of the natural penicillins. Modern penicillins are semisynthesis, semisynthetic compounds, obtained initially from fermentation (biochemistry), fermentation cultures, but then structurally altered for specific desirable properties.[ Other antibiotics produced by fungi include: ciclosporin, commonly used as an immunosuppressant during organ transplant, transplant surgery; and fusidic acid, used to help control infection from Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, methicillin-resistant ''Staphylococcus aureus'' bacteria.][ Widespread use of antibiotics for the treatment of bacterial diseases, such as tuberculosis, syphilis, leprosy, and others began in the early 20th century and continues to date. In nature, antibiotics of fungal or bacterial origin appear to play a dual role: at high concentrations they act as chemical defense against competition with other microorganisms in species-rich environments, such as the rhizosphere (ecology), rhizosphere, and at low concentrations as quorum sensing, quorum-sensing molecules for intra- or interspecies signaling.][
]
= Other
=
Other drugs produced by fungi include griseofulvin isolated from ''Penicillium griseofulvum'', used to treat fungal infections,[ and statins (HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors), used to inhibit cholesterol synthesis. Examples of statins found in fungi include mevastatin from ''Penicillium citrinum'' and lovastatin from ''Aspergillus terreus'' and the Pleurotus ostreatus, oyster mushroom.][ Psilocybin from Psilocybin mushroom, fungi is investigated Psilocybin therapy, for therapeutic use and appears to cause Brain connectivity estimators, global increases in brain Large-scale brain network, network Functional integration (neurobiology), integration. Fungi produce compounds that inhibit viruses][ and cancer cells.][ Specific metabolites, such as polysaccharide-K, ergotamine, and Beta-lactam antibiotic, β-lactam antibiotics, are routinely used in clinical medicine. The shiitake mushroom is a source of lentinan, a clinical drug approved for use in cancer treatments in several countries, including Japan.][ In Europe and Japan, polysaccharide-K (brand name Krestin), a chemical derived from ''Trametes versicolor'', is an approved adjuvant for cancer therapy.]
Traditional medicine
Certain mushrooms are used as supposed therapeutics in traditional medicine, folk medicine practices, such as traditional Chinese medicine. Mushrooms with a history of such use include ''Agaricus subrufescens'',[ ''Ganoderma lucidum'',] and ''Ophiocordyceps sinensis''.
Cultured foods
Baker's yeast or ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'', a unicellular fungus, is used to make bread and other wheat-based products, such as pizza dough and dumplings.[ Yeast species of the genus ''Saccharomyces'' are also used to produce alcoholic beverages through fermentation.][ Shoyu koji mold (''Aspergillus oryzae'') is an essential ingredient in brewing Shoyu (]soy sauce
Soy sauce (also called simply soy in American English and soya sauce in British English) is a liquid condiment of Chinese origin, traditionally made from a fermented paste of soybeans, roasted grain, brine, and '' Aspergillus oryzae'' or ''Asp ...
) and sake, and the preparation of miso,[ while ''Rhizopus'' species are used for making tempeh.][ Several of these fungi are Domestication, domesticated species that were Breeding program, bred or selected according to their capacity to ferment food without producing harmful mycotoxins (see below), which are produced by very closely related ''Aspergillus flavus, Aspergilli''.][ Quorn (food product), Quorn, a Meat analogue, meat substitute, is made from ''Fusarium venenatum''.][
]
In food
Edible mushrooms include commercially raised and wild-harvested fungi. ''Agaricus bisporus'', sold as button mushrooms when small or Portobello mushrooms when larger, is the most widely cultivated species in the West, used in salads, soups, and many other dishes. Many Asian fungi are commercially grown and have increased in popularity in the West. They are often available fresh in grocery stores and markets, including straw mushrooms (''Volvariella volvacea''), oyster mushrooms (''Pleurotus ostreatus''), shiitakes (''Lentinula edodes''), and enokitake (''Flammulina'' spp.).[
]
Many other mushroom species are Mushroom hunting, harvested from the wild for personal consumption or commercial sale. Lactarius deliciosus, Milk mushrooms, morels, chanterelles, truffles
A truffle is the fruiting body of a subterranean ascomycete fungus, predominantly one of the many species of the genus ''Tuber''. In addition to ''Tuber'', many other genera of fungi are classified as truffles including ''Geopora'', ''Peziza ...
, Craterellus, black trumpets, and ''porcini'' mushrooms (''Boletus edulis'') (also known as king boletes) demand a high price on the market. They are often used in gourmet dishes.
Certain types of cheeses require inoculation of milk curds with fungal species that impart a unique flavor and texture to the cheese. Examples include the blue cheese, blue color in cheeses such as Stilton cheese, Stilton or Roquefort, which are made by inoculation with ''Penicillium roqueforti''.[ Molds used in cheese production are non-toxic and are thus safe for human consumption; however, mycotoxins (e.g., aflatoxins, roquefortine C, patulin, or others) may accumulate because of growth of other fungi during cheese ripening or storage.][
]
Poisonous fungi
Many mushroom species are Mushroom poisoning, poisonous to humans and cause a range of reactions including slight digestive problems, allergy, allergic reactions, hallucinations, severe organ failure, and death. Genera with mushrooms containing deadly toxins include ''Conocybe'', ''Galerina'', ''Lepiota'' and the most infamous, ''Amanita''.[ The latter genus includes the destroying angel ''(Amanita virosa, A.virosa)'' and the death cap ''(Amanita phalloides, A.phalloides)'', the most common cause of deadly mushroom poisoning.][ The false morel (''Gyromitra esculenta'') is occasionally considered a delicacy when cooked, yet can be highly toxic when eaten raw.][ ''Tricholoma equestre'' was considered edible until it was implicated in serious poisonings causing rhabdomyolysis.][ Amanita muscaria, Fly agaric mushrooms (''Amanita muscaria'') also cause occasional non-fatal poisonings, mostly as a result of ingestion for its Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants, hallucinogenic properties. Historically, fly agaric was used by different peoples in Europe and Asia and its present usage for religious or shamanism, shamanic purposes is reported from some ethnic groups such as the Koryaks, Koryak people of northeastern Siberia.][
As it is difficult to accurately identify a safe mushroom without proper training and knowledge, it is often advised to assume that a wild mushroom is poisonous and not to consume it.][Hall, p. 7.][
]
Pest control
In agriculture, fungi may be useful if they actively compete for nutrients and space with pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria or other fungi via the competitive exclusion principle,[ or if they are parasitism, parasites of these pathogens. For example, certain species eliminate or suppress the growth of harmful plant pathogens, such as insects, mites, weeds, nematodes, and other fungi that cause diseases of important crop plants.] This has generated strong interest in practical applications that use these fungi in the biological control of these agricultural pests. Entomopathogenic fungi can be used as biopesticides, as they actively kill insects. Examples that have been used as biological insecticides are ''Beauveria bassiana'', ''Metarhizium'' spp., ''Hirsutella'' spp., ''Paecilomyces'' (''Isaria'') spp., and ''Lecanicillium lecanii''.[ Endophytic fungi of grasses of the genus ''Epichloë'', such as ''Epichloë coenophiala, E. coenophiala'', produce alkaloids that are toxic to a range of invertebrate and vertebrate herbivores. These alkaloids protect grass plants from herbivory, but several endophyte alkaloids can poison grazing animals, such as cattle and sheep.] Infecting cultivars of pasture or forage grasses with ''Epichloë'' endophytes is one approach being used in plant breeding, grass breeding programs; the fungal strains are selected for producing only alkaloids that increase resistance to herbivores such as insects, while being non-toxic to livestock.[
]
Bioremediation
Certain fungi, in particular white rot, white-rot fungi, can degrade insecticides, herbicides, pentachlorophenol, creosote, coal tars, and heavy fuels and turn them into carbon dioxide, water, and basic elements. Fungi have been shown to biomineralization, biomineralize uranium#Oxides, uranium oxides, suggesting they may have application in the bioremediation of radioactively polluted sites.[
]
Model organisms
Several pivotal discoveries in biology were made by researchers using fungi as model organisms, that is, fungi that grow and sexually reproduce rapidly in the laboratory. For example, the one gene-one enzyme hypothesis was formulated by scientists using the bread mold ''Neurospora crassa'' to test their biochemical theories.[ Other important model fungi are ''Aspergillus nidulans'' and the yeasts ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' and ''Schizosaccharomyces pombe'', each of which with a long history of use to investigate issues in eukaryotic cell biology and genetics, such as cell cycle regulation, chromatin structure, and gene regulation. Other fungal models have emerged that address specific biological questions relevant to medicine, plant pathology, and industrial uses; examples include ''Candida albicans'', a dimorphic, opportunistic human pathogen,][ ''Magnaporthe grisea'', a plant pathogen,][ and ''Pichia pastoris'', a yeast widely used for eukaryotic protein production.]
Others
Fungi are used extensively to produce industrial chemicals like citric acid, citric, gluconic acid, gluconic, lactic acid, lactic, and malic acid, malic acids,[ and industrial enzymes, such as lipases used in biological detergents,][ cellulases used in making cellulosic ethanol][ and stonewashed jeans,][ and amylases,][ invertases, proteases and xylanases.][
]
See also
* Conservation of fungi
* Fantastic Fungi
* Glossary of fungi
* Marine fungi
* Mycosis
* Outline of fungi
References
Citations
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[{{cite journal , last1=Rigling , first1=Daniel , last2=Prospero , first2=Simone , title=''Cryphonectria parasitica'', the causal agent of chestnut blight: invasion history, population biology and disease control , journal=Molecular Plant Pathology , volume=19 , issue=1 , year=2018 , pages=7–20 , doi=10.1111/mpp.12542 , pmid=28142223 , pmc=6638123]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Rohlfs M, Albert M, Keller NP, Kempken F , title=Secondary chemicals protect mould from fungivory , journal=Biology Letters , volume=3 , issue=5 , pages=523–5 , date=October 2007 , pmid=17686752 , pmc=2391202 , doi=10.1098/rsbl.2007.0338]
[{{cite journal , last1=Rossman , first1=Amy Y. , title=Lessons learned from moving to one scientific name for fungi , journal=IMA Fungus , volume=5 , issue=1 , year=2014 , pages=81–89 , pmc=4107901 , pmid=25083410 , doi=10.5598/imafungus.2014.05.01.10]
[For an example, see {{cite journal , vauthors=Samuels GJ , title=''Trichoderma'': systematics, the sexual state, and ecology , journal=Phytopathology , volume=96 , issue=2 , pages=195–206 , date=February 2006 , pmid=18943925 , doi=10.1094/PHYTO-96-0195 , url=https://zenodo.org/record/1235933 , doi-access=free]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Sancho LG, de la Torre R, Horneck G, Ascaso C, de Los Rios A, Pintado A, Wierzchos J, Schuster M , s2cid=4121180 , title=Lichens survive in space: results from the 2005 LICHENS experiment , journal=Astrobiology , volume=7 , issue=3 , pages=443–54 , date=June 2007 , pmid=17630840 , doi=10.1089/ast.2006.0046 , bibcode=2007AsBio...7..443S]
[{{cite journal , last1=Santini , first1=Alberto , last2=Battisti , first2=Andrea , title=Complex insect–pathogen interactions in tree pandemics , journal=Frontiers in Physiology , volume=10 , year=2019 , page=550 , doi=10.3389/fphys.2019.00550 , pmc=6517489 , pmid=31133880 , doi-access=free]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Schaller M, Borelli C, Korting HC, Hube B , title=Hydrolytic enzymes as virulence factors of ''Candida albicans'' , journal=Mycoses , volume=48 , issue=6 , pages=365–77 , date=November 2005 , pmid=16262871 , doi=10.1111/j.1439-0507.2005.01165.x , s2cid=1356254]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Schardl CL, Craven KD , title=Interspecific hybridization in plant-associated fungi and oomycetes: a review , journal=Molecular Ecology , volume=12 , issue=11 , pages=2861–73 , date=November 2003 , pmid=14629368 , doi=10.1046/j.1365-294X.2003.01965.x , s2cid=25879264]
[{{cite book , vauthors=Schlegel HG , title=General Microbiology , publisher=Cambridge University Press , location=Cambridge, UK , year=1993 , page=360 , isbn=978-0-521-43980-0]
[{{Cite book , vauthors=Schardl CL, Panaccione DG, Tudzynski P , title=Ergot alkaloids--biology and molecular biology , volume=63 , pages=45–86 , year=2006 , pmid=17133714 , doi=10.1016/S1099-4831(06)63002-2 , isbn=978-0-12-469563-4 , series=The Alkaloids: Chemistry and Biology]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Schoch CL, Sung GH, López-Giráldez F, Townsend JP, Miadlikowska J, Hofstetter V, Robbertse B, Matheny PB, Kauff F, Wang Z, Gueidan C, Andrie RM, Trippe K, Ciufetti LM, Wynns A, Fraker E, Hodkinson BP, Bonito G, Groenewald JZ, Arzanlou M, de Hoog GS, Crous PW, Hewitt D, Pfister DH, Peterson K, Gryzenhout M, Wingfield MJ, Aptroot A, Suh SO, Blackwell M, Hillis DM, Griffith GW, Castlebury LA, Rossman AY, Lumbsch HT, Lücking R, Büdel B, Rauhut A, Diederich P, Ertz D, Geiser DM, Hosaka K, Inderbitzin P, Kohlmeyer J, Volkmann-Kohlmeyer B, Mostert L, O'Donnell K, Sipman H, Rogers JD, Shoemaker RA, Sugiyama J, Summerbell RC, Untereiner W, Johnston PR, Stenroos S, Zuccaro A, Dyer PS, Crittenden PD, Cole MS, Hansen K, Trappe JM, Yahr R, Lutzoni F, Spatafora JW , display-authors=6 , title=The Ascomycota tree of life: a phylum-wide phylogeny clarifies the origin and evolution of fundamental reproductive and ecological traits , journal=Systematic Biology , volume=58 , issue=2 , pages=224–39 , date=April 2009 , pmid=20525580 , doi=10.1093/sysbio/syp020 , doi-access=free]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Schüssler A, Schwarzott D, Walker C , s2cid=82128210 , year=2001 , title=A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution , journal=Mycological Research , volume=105 , issue=12 , pages=1413–1421 , doi=10.1017/S0953756201005196]
[{{cite web , url=http://www.sci-news.com/biology/science-brazilian-stingless-bee-monascus-fungus-03372.html , title=Entomologists: Brazilian Stingless Bee Must Cultivate Special Type of Fungus to Survive , date=23 October 2015 , website=Sci-News.com , access-date=25 October 2015 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151025012743/http://www.sci-news.com/biology/science-brazilian-stingless-bee-monascus-fungus-03372.html , archive-date=25 October 2015 , url-status=live]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Selosse MA, Richard F, He X, Simard SW , title=Mycorrhizal networks: des liaisons dangereuses? , journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution , volume=21 , issue=11 , pages=621–8 , date=November 2006 , pmid=16843567 , doi=10.1016/j.tree.2006.07.003]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Schulz B, Boyle C , s2cid=23182632 , title=The endophytic continuum , journal=Mycological Research , volume=109 , issue=Pt 6 , pages=661–86 , date=June 2005 , pmid=16080390 , doi=10.1017/S095375620500273X]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Shoji JY, Arioka M, Kitamoto K , title=Possible involvement of pleiomorphic vacuolar networks in nutrient recycling in filamentous fungi , journal=Autophagy , volume=2 , issue=3 , pages=226–7 , year=2006 , pmid=16874107 , doi=10.4161/auto.2695 , doi-access=free]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Shalchian-Tabrizi K, Minge MA, Espelund M, Orr R, Ruden T, Jakobsen KS, Cavalier-Smith T , title=Multigene phylogeny of choanozoa and the origin of animals , journal=PLOS ONE , volume=3 , issue=5 , pages=e2098 , year=2008 , pmid=18461162 , pmc=2346548 , doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0002098 , doi-access=free , bibcode=2008PLoSO...3.2098S]
[{{Cite book , vauthors=Silar P , title=Protistes Eucaryotes: Origine, Evolution et Biologie des Microbes Eucaryotes , publisher=HAL , year=2016 , page=462 , isbn=978-2-9555841-0-1 , url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01263138/document , access-date=7 April 2016 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170925132023/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01263138/document , archive-date=25 September 2017 , url-status=live]
[{{cite book , vauthors=Simpson DP , title=Cassell's Latin Dictionary , publisher=Cassell Ltd , year=1979 , edition=5 , location=London, UK , page=883 , isbn=978-0-304-52257-6]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Simon-Nobbe B, Denk U, Pöll V, Rid R, Breitenbach M , title=The spectrum of fungal allergy , journal=International Archives of Allergy and Immunology , volume=145 , issue=1 , pages=58–86 , year=2008 , pmid=17709917 , doi=10.1159/000107578 , doi-access=free]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Steenkamp ET, Wright J, Baldauf SL , title=The protistan origins of animals and fungi , journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution , volume=23 , issue=1 , pages=93–106 , date=January 2006 , pmid=16151185 , doi=10.1093/molbev/msj011 , doi-access=free]
[{{cite book , vauthors=Stamets P , title=Growing Gourmet and Medicinal Mushrooms , trans-title=Shokuyō oyobi yakuyō kinoko no saibai , publisher=Ten Speed Press , location=Berkeley, California , year=2000 , pages=233–248 , isbn=978-1-58008-175-7]
[According to one 2001 estimate, some 10,000 fungal diseases are known. {{cite book , vauthors=Struck C , veditors=Cooke BM, Jones DG, Kaye B , title=The Epidemiology of Plant Diseases , publisher=Springer , location=Berlin, Germany , year=2006 , page=117 , isbn=978-1-4020-4580-6 , chapter=Infection strategies of plant parasitic fungi]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Sullivan R, Smith JE, Rowan NJ , s2cid=29723996 , title=Medicinal mushrooms and cancer therapy: translating a traditional practice into Western medicine , journal=Perspectives in Biology and Medicine , volume=49 , issue=2 , pages=159–70 , year=2006 , pmid=16702701 , doi=10.1353/pbm.2006.0034]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Taylor TN, Taylor EL , year=1996 , title=The distribution and interactions of some Paleozoic fungi , journal=Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology , volume=95 , issue=1–4 , pages=83–94 , doi=10.1016/S0034-6667(96)00029-2]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Taylor JW, Jacobson DJ, Kroken S, Kasuga T, Geiser DM, Hibbett DS, Fisher MC , s2cid=2551424 , title=Phylogenetic species recognition and species concepts in fungi , journal=Fungal Genetics and Biology , volume=31 , issue=1 , pages=21–32 , date=October 2000 , pmid=11118132 , doi=10.1006/fgbi.2000.1228]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Taylor TN, Hass H, Kerp H, Krings M, Hanlin RT , title=Perithecial ascomycetes from the 400 million year old Rhynie chert: an example of ancestral polymorphism , journal=Mycologia , volume=97 , issue=1 , pages=269–85 , year=2005 , pmid=16389979 , doi=10.3852/mycologia.97.1.269 , url=http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59350/0097/001/0269.htm , hdl=1808/16786 , access-date=5 July 2011 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412150211/http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59350/0097/001/0269.htm , archive-date=12 April 2016 , url-status=live , hdl-access=free]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Taylor JW, Berbee ML , title=Dating divergences in the Fungal Tree of Life: review and new analyses , journal=Mycologia , volume=98 , issue=6 , pages=838–49 , year=2006 , pmid=17486961 , doi=10.3852/mycologia.98.6.838 , url=http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59350/0098/006/0838.htm , access-date=5 July 2011 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412150130/http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59350/0098/006/0838.htm , archive-date=12 April 2016 , url-status=live]
[{{cite journal , last1=Thambugala , first1=Kasun M. , last2=Daranagama , first2=Dinushani A. , last3=Phillips , first3=Alan J. L. , last4=Kannangara , first4=Sagarika D. , last5=Promputtha , first5=Itthayakorn , title=Fungi vs. fungi in biocontrol: An overview of fungal antagonists applied against fungal plant pathogens , journal=Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology , volume=10 , year=2020 , page=604923 , doi=10.3389/fcimb.2020.604923 , pmid=33330142 , pmc=7734056 , doi-access=free]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Thomas MB, Read AF , s2cid=14460348 , title=Can fungal biopesticides control malaria? , journal=Nature Reviews. Microbiology , volume=5 , issue=5 , pages=377–83 , date=May 2007 , pmid=17426726 , doi=10.1038/nrmicro1638 , hdl=1842/2089 , hdl-access=free]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Tudzynski B , s2cid=11191347 , title=Gibberellin biosynthesis in fungi: genes, enzymes, evolution, and impact on biotechnology , journal=Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology , volume=66 , issue=6 , pages=597–611 , date=March 2005 , pmid=15578178 , doi=10.1007/s00253-004-1805-1]
[{{cite journal , last1=Tudzynski , first1=Bettina , year=2014 , title=Nitrogen regulation of fungal secondary metabolism in fungi , journal=Frontiers in Microbiology , volume=5 , page=656 , pmid=25506342 , pmc=4246892 , doi=10.3389/fmicb.2014.00656 , doi-access=free]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Trail F , title=Fungal cannons: explosive spore discharge in the Ascomycota , journal=FEMS Microbiology Letters , volume=276 , issue=1 , pages=12–8 , date=November 2007 , pmid=17784861 , doi=10.1111/j.1574-6968.2007.00900.x , doi-access=free]
[{{cite book , author1=Ulloa, Miguel , author2=Halin, Richard T. , title=Illustrated Dictionary of Mycology , edition=2nd , year=2012 , publisher=The American Phytopathological Society , location=St. Paul, Minnesota , isbn=978-0-89054-400-6 , page=156]
[{{cite web , url=http://tolweb.org/Fungi/2377 , title=Fungi. Eumycota: mushrooms, sac fungi, yeast, molds, rusts, smuts, etc. , vauthors=Blackwell M, Vilgalys R, James TY, Taylor JW , publisher=Tree of Life Web Project , year=2009 , access-date=25 April 2009 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413045121/http://tolweb.org/Fungi/2377 , archive-date=13 April 2009 , url-status=live]
[{{cite web , url=http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/jul98/fung0798.htm , vauthors=Becker H , title=Setting the Stage To Screen Biocontrol Fungi , publisher=United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service , year=1998 , access-date=23 February 2009 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116041447/http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/jul98/fung0798.htm , archive-date=16 January 2009 , url-status=live]
[{{cite magazine , last1=Vargas-Gastélum , first1=Lluvia , last2=Riquelme , first2=Meritxell , title=The mycobiota of the deep sea: What omics can offer , magazine=Life (magazine), Life , volume=10 , issue=11 , year=2020 , pages=292 , doi=10.3390/life10110292 , pmid=33228036 , pmc=7699357 , doi-access=free]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Yang Y, Yang E, An Z, Liu X , title=Evolution of nematode-trapping cells of predatory fungi of the Orbiliaceae based on evidence from rRNA-encoding DNA and multiprotein sequences , journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , volume=104 , issue=20 , pages=8379–84 , date=May 2007 , pmid=17494736 , pmc=1895958 , doi=10.1073/pnas.0702770104 , bibcode=2007PNAS..104.8379Y , doi-access=free]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Vetter J , title=Toxins of ''Amanita phalloides'' , journal=Toxicon , volume=36 , issue=1 , pages=13–24 , date=January 1998 , pmid=9604278 , doi=10.1016/S0041-0101(97)00074-3]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Vaupotic T, Veranic P, Jenoe P, Plemenitas A , title=Mitochondrial mediation of environmental osmolytes discrimination during osmoadaptation in the extremely halotolerant black yeast Hortaea werneckii , journal=Fungal Genetics and Biology , volume=45 , issue=6 , pages=994–1007 , date=June 2008 , pmid=18343697 , doi=10.1016/j.fgb.2008.01.006]
[{{cite journal , last1=Walther , first1=Grit , last2=Wagner , first2=Lysett , last3=Kurzai , first3=Oliver , year=2019 , title=Updates on the taxonomy of Mucorales with an emphasis on clinically important taxa , journal=Journal of Fungi , volume=5 , issue=4 , page=106 , doi=10.3390/jof5040106 , pmc=6958464 , pmid=31739583, doi-access=free]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Wang ZY, Jenkinson JM, Holcombe LJ, Soanes DM, Veneault-Fourrey C, Bhambra GK, Talbot NJ , s2cid=7111935 , title=The molecular biology of appressorium turgor generation by the rice blast fungus ''Magnaporthe grisea'' , journal=Biochemical Society Transactions , volume=33 , issue=Pt 2 , pages=384–8 , date=April 2005 , pmid=15787612 , doi=10.1042/BST0330384]
[{{cite journal , last1=Wang , first1=Ke , last2=Cai , first2=Lei , last3=Yao , first3=Yijian , title=Overview of nomenclature novelties of fungi in the world and China (2020) , journal=Biodiversity Science , volume=29 , issue=8 , year=2021 , doi=10.17520/biods.2021202 , pages=1064–1072 , s2cid=240568551]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Willensdorfer M , s2cid=39155292 , title=On the evolution of differentiated multicellularity , journal=Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution , volume=63 , issue=2 , pages=306–23 , date=February 2009 , pmid=19154376 , doi=10.1111/j.1558-5646.2008.00541.x , arxiv=0801.2610]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Ward PD, Botha J, Buick R, De Kock MO, Erwin DH, Garrison GH, Kirschvink JL, Smith R , s2cid=46198018 , title=Abrupt and gradual extinction among Late Permian land vertebrates in the Karoo basin, South Africa , journal=Science (journal), Science , volume=307 , issue=5710 , pages=709–14 , date=February 2005 , pmid=15661973 , doi=10.1126/science.1107068 , bibcode=2005Sci...307..709W , citeseerx=10.1.1.503.2065]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Xu H, Andi B, Qian J, West AH, Cook PF , s2cid=22370361 , title=The alpha-aminoadipate pathway for lysine biosynthesis in fungi , journal=Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics , volume=46 , issue=1 , pages=43–64 , year=2006 , pmid=16943623 , doi=10.1385/CBB:46:1:43]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Wu S, Schalk M, Clark A, Miles RB, Coates R, Chappell J , s2cid=23358348 , title=Redirection of cytosolic or plastidic isoprenoid precursors elevates terpene production in plants , journal=Nature Biotechnology , volume=24 , issue=11 , pages=1441–7 , date=November 2006 , pmid=17057703 , doi=10.1038/nbt1251]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Zabriskie TM, Jackson MD , title=Lysine biosynthesis and metabolism in fungi , journal=Natural Product Reports , volume=17 , issue=1 , pages=85–97 , date=February 2000 , pmid=10714900 , doi=10.1039/a801345d]
[{{cite journal , last1=Zhuo , first1=Rui , last2=Fan , first2=Fangfang , title=A comprehensive insight into the application of white rot fungi and their lignocellulolytic enzymes in the removal of organic pollutants , journal=Science of the Total Environment , volume=778 , year=2021 , pages=146132 , doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146132 , pmid=33714829 , bibcode=2021ScTEn.778n6132Z , s2cid=232230208]
[{{cite journal , vauthors=Li Y, Steenwyk JL, Chang Y, Wang Y, James TY, Stajich JE, Spatafora JW, Groenewald M, Dunn CW, Hittinger CT, Shen X, Rokas, A , date=2021 , title=A genome-scale phylogeny of the kingdom Fungi , journal=Current Biology , volume=31 , issue=8 , pages=1653–1665 , doi=10.1016/j.cub.2021.01.074 , pmid=33607033 , pmc=8347878]
Cited literature
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* {{cite book , vauthors=Ainsworth GC , title=Introduction to the History of Mycology , publisher=Cambridge University Press , location=Cambridge, UK , year=1976 , isbn=978-0-521-11295-6
* {{cite book , vauthors=Alexopoulos CJ, Mims CW, Blackwell M , title=Introductory Mycology , year=1996 , publisher=John Wiley & Sons , isbn=978-0-471-52229-4
* {{cite book , vauthors=Deacon J , title=Fungal Biology , publisher=Blackwell Publishers , location=Cambridge, Massachusetts , year=2005 , isbn=978-1-4051-3066-0
* {{cite book , vauthors=Hall IR , title=Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms of the World , publisher=Timber Press , location=Portland, Oregon , year=2003 , isbn=978-0-88192-586-9
* {{cite book , vauthors=Hanson JR , title=The Chemistry of Fungi , year=2008 , publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry , isbn=978-0-85404-136-7
* {{cite book , vauthors=Jennings DH, Lysek G , title=Fungal Biology: Understanding the Fungal Lifestyle , year=1996 , publisher=Bios Scientific Publishers Ltd , location=Guildford, UK , isbn=978-1-85996-150-6
* {{cite book , vauthors=Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA , title=Dictionary of the Fungi , edition=10th , publisher=CAB International , location=Wallingford, UK , year=2008 , isbn=978-0-85199-826-8
* {{cite book , vauthors=Taylor EL, Taylor TN , title=The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants , publisher=Prentice Hall , location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey , year=1993 , isbn=978-0-13-651589-0
{{refend
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