Frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) is a pathological process that occurs in
frontotemporal dementia
Frontotemporal dementia (FTD), or frontotemporal degeneration disease, or frontotemporal neurocognitive disorder, encompasses several types of dementia involving the progressive degeneration of frontal and temporal lobes. FTDs broadly present as ...
. It is characterized by atrophy in the
frontal lobe
The frontal lobe is the largest of the four major lobes of the brain in mammals, and is located at the front of each cerebral hemisphere (in front of the parietal lobe and the temporal lobe). It is parted from the parietal lobe by a groove betwe ...
and
temporal lobe
The temporal lobe is one of the four Lobes of the brain, major lobes of the cerebral cortex in the brain of mammals. The temporal lobe is located beneath the lateral fissure on both cerebral hemispheres of the mammalian brain.
The temporal lobe ...
of the
brain
A brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals. It is located in the head, usually close to the sensory organs for senses such as vision. It is the most complex organ in a v ...
, with sparing of the
parietal and
occipital lobe
The occipital lobe is one of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex in the brain of mammals. The name derives from its position at the back of the head, from the Latin ''ob'', "behind", and ''caput'', "head".
The occipital lobe is the vi ...
s.
Common
proteinopathies that are found in FTLD include the accumulation of
tau protein
The tau proteins (abbreviated from tubulin associated unit) are a group of six highly soluble protein isoforms produced by alternative splicing from the gene ''MAPT'' (microtubule-associated protein tau). They have roles primarily in maintaining ...
s and
TAR DNA-binding protein 43 (TDP-43). Mutations in the ''
C9orf72
C9orf72 (chromosome 9 open reading frame 72) is a protein which in humans is encoded by the gene ''C9orf72''.
The human ''C9orf72'' gene is located on the short (p) arm of chromosome 9 open reading frame 72, from base pair 27,546,546 to base pai ...
'' gene have been established as a major genetic contribution of FTLD, although defects in the
granulin
Granulin is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''GRN'' gene. Each granulin protein is cleaved from the precursor progranulin, a 593 amino-acid-long and 68.5 kDa protein. While the function of progranulin and granulin have yet to be deter ...
(GRN) and
microtubule-associated protein In cell biology, microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) are proteins that interact with the microtubules of the cellular cytoskeleton. MAPs are integral to: the stability of the cell and its internal structures and the transport of components within ...
s (MAPs) are also associated with it.
Classification
There are 3 main histological subtypes found at post-mortem:
* FTLD-tau is characterised by
tau
Tau (uppercase Τ, lowercase τ, or \boldsymbol\tau; el, ταυ ) is the 19th letter of the Greek alphabet, representing the voiceless dental or alveolar plosive . In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of 300.
The name in English ...
positive
inclusion bodies
Inclusion bodies are aggregates of specific types of protein found in neurons, a number of tissue cells including red blood cells, bacteria, viruses, and plants. Inclusion bodies of aggregations of multiple proteins are also found in muscle cells ...
often referred to as Pick-bodies.
Examples of FTLD-tau include;
Pick's disease
Frontotemporal dementia (FTD), or frontotemporal degeneration disease, or frontotemporal neurocognitive disorder, encompasses several types of dementia involving the progressive degeneration of frontal and temporal lobes. FTDs broadly present as ...
,
corticobasal degeneration
Corticobasal degeneration (CBD) is a rare neurodegenerative disease involving the cerebral cortex and the basal ganglia. CBD symptoms typically begin in people from 50 to 70 years of age, and the average disease duration is six years. It is chara ...
,
progressive supranuclear palsy
Progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) is a late-onset degenerative disease involving the gradual deterioration and death of specific volumes of the brain. The condition leads to symptoms including loss of balance, slowing of movement, difficulty ...
.
* FTLD-TDP (or FTLD-U ) is characterised by
ubiquitin
Ubiquitin is a small (8.6 kDa) regulatory protein found in most tissues of eukaryotic organisms, i.e., it is found ''ubiquitously''. It was discovered in 1975 by Gideon Goldstein and further characterized throughout the late 1970s and 1980s. Fo ...
and TDP-43 positive, tau negative,
FUS negative inclusion bodies. The pathological histology of this subtype is so diverse it is subdivided into four subtypes based on the detailed histological findings:
:*Type A presents with many small neurites and neuronal cytoplasmic inclusion bodies in the upper (superficial) cortical layers. Bar-like neuronal intranuclear inclusions can also be seen they are fewer in number.
:*Type B presents with many neuronal and
glial cytoplasmic inclusions in both the upper (superficial) and lower (deep) cortical layers, and lower motor neurons. However neuronal intranuclear inclusions are rare or absent. This is often associated with
ALS
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as motor neuron disease (MND) or Lou Gehrig's disease, is a neurodegenerative disease that results in the progressive loss of motor neurons that control voluntary muscles. ALS is the most com ...
and
C9ORF72
C9orf72 (chromosome 9 open reading frame 72) is a protein which in humans is encoded by the gene ''C9orf72''.
The human ''C9orf72'' gene is located on the short (p) arm of chromosome 9 open reading frame 72, from base pair 27,546,546 to base pai ...
mutations (see next section).
:*Type C presents many long neuritic profiles found in the superficial cortical laminae, very few or no neuronal cytoplasmic inclusions, neuronal intranuclear inclusions or glial cytoplasmic inclusions. This is often associated with
semantic dementia
Semantic dementia (SD), also known as semantic variant primary progressive aphasia (svPPA), is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by loss of semantic memory in both the verbal and non-verbal domains. However, the most common p ...
.
:*Type D presents with many neuronal intranuclear inclusions and dystrophic neurites, and an unusual absence of inclusions in the
granule cell layer of the hippocampus. Type D is associated with VCP mutations.
:*Type E presents with neuronal granulofilamentous inclusions and abundant fine grains involving upper (superficial) and lower (deep) cortical layers. This has been associated with behavioral variant of frontotemporal dementia with a rapid clinical course.
Two groups independently categorized the various forms of TDP-43 associated disorders. Both classifications were considered equally valid by the medical community, but the physicians and researchers in question have jointly proposed a compromise classification to avoid confusion.
* FTLD-FUS; which is characterised by
FUS positive cytoplasmic inclusions, intra nuclear inclusions, and neuritic threads. All of which are present in the cortex,
medulla
Medulla or Medullary may refer to:
Science
* Medulla oblongata, a part of the brain stem
* Renal medulla, a part of the kidney
* Adrenal medulla, a part of the adrenal gland
* Medulla of ovary, a stroma in the center of the ovary
* Medulla of t ...
,
hippocampus
The hippocampus (via Latin from Greek , 'seahorse') is a major component of the brain of humans and other vertebrates. Humans and other mammals have two hippocampi, one in each side of the brain. The hippocampus is part of the limbic system, a ...
, and motor cells of the spinal cord and XIIth
cranial nerve
Cranial nerves are the nerves that emerge directly from the brain (including the brainstem), of which there are conventionally considered twelve pairs. Cranial nerves relay information between the brain and parts of the body, primarily to and ...
.
In December 2021 the structure of TDP-43 was resolved with
cryo-EM
Cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM) is a cryomicroscopy technique applied on samples cooled to cryogenic temperatures. For biological specimens, the structure is preserved by embedding in an environment of vitreous ice. An aqueous sample sol ...
but shortly after it was argued that in the context of
FTLD-TDP the protein involved could be
TMEM106B Transmembrane protein 106B is a protein that is encoded by the ''TMEM106B'' gene. It is found primarily within Neuron, neurons and Oligodendrocyte, oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system with its subcellular location being in Lysosome, lysos ...
(which has been also resolved with cryo-EM), rather than of TDP-43.
Genetics
There have been numerous advances in descriptions of genetic causes of FTLD, and the related disease
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as motor neuron disease (MND) or Lou Gehrig's disease, is a neurodegenerative disease that results in the progressive loss of motor neurons that control voluntary muscles. ALS is the most comm ...
.
* Mutations in the
Tau
Tau (uppercase Τ, lowercase τ, or \boldsymbol\tau; el, ταυ ) is the 19th letter of the Greek alphabet, representing the voiceless dental or alveolar plosive . In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of 300.
The name in English ...
gene (known as
MAPT
The tau proteins (abbreviated from tubulin associated unit) are a group of six highly soluble protein isoforms produced by alternative splicing from the gene ''MAPT'' (microtubule-associated protein tau). They have roles primarily in maintainin ...
or Microtubule Associated Protein Tau) can cause a FTLD presenting with tau pathology (FTLD-tau). There are over 40 known mutations at present.
* Mutations in the
Progranulin gene (PGRN) can cause a FTLD presenting with TDP-43 pathology (FTLD-TDP43). Patients with
Progranulin mutations have type 3 ubiquitin-positive, TDP-43 positive, tau-negative pathology at post-mortem. Progranulin is associated with tumorgenesis when overproduced, however the mutations seen in FTLD-TDP43 produce a haploinsufficiency, meaning that because one of the two
alleles
An allele (, ; ; modern formation from Greek ἄλλος ''állos'', "other") is a variation of the same sequence of nucleotides at the same place on a long DNA molecule, as described in leading textbooks on genetics and evolution.
::"The chro ...
is damaged, only half as much
Progranulin is produced.
* Mutations in the
CHMP2B gene are associated with a rare behavioural syndrome akin to bvFTLD (mainly in a large Jutland cohort), presenting with a
tau
Tau (uppercase Τ, lowercase τ, or \boldsymbol\tau; el, ταυ ) is the 19th letter of the Greek alphabet, representing the voiceless dental or alveolar plosive . In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of 300.
The name in English ...
negative,
TDP-43
TAR DNA-binding protein 43 (TDP-43, transactive response DNA binding protein 43 kDa) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''TARDBP'' gene.
Structure
TDP-43 is 414 amino acid residues long. It consists of 4 domains: an N-terminal d ...
negative,
FUS negative,
Ubiquitin
Ubiquitin is a small (8.6 kDa) regulatory protein found in most tissues of eukaryotic organisms, i.e., it is found ''ubiquitously''. It was discovered in 1975 by Gideon Goldstein and further characterized throughout the late 1970s and 1980s. Fo ...
positive pathology.
* Hypermorphic mutations in the
VCP gene cause a TDP-43-positive FTLD which is associated with
multisystem proteinopathy
Multisystem proteinopathy (MSP) is a dominantly inherited, pleiotropic, degenerative disorder of humans that can affect muscle, bone, and/or the central nervous system. MSP can manifest clinically as classical amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), ...
(MSP), also known as IBMPFD (inclusion body myopathy, Paget's disease and frontotemporal dementia)
* A hypomorphic mutation in the
VCP gene cause a unique type of FTLD-tau called vacuolar tauopathy with neurofibrillary tangles and neuronal vacuoles
* Mutations in the TDP-43 gene (known as
TARBP or TAR DNA-binding protein) are an exceptionally rare cause of FTLD, despite this protein being present in the pathological inclusions of many cases (FTLD-TDP43). However, mutations in TARBP are a more common cause of
ALS
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as motor neuron disease (MND) or Lou Gehrig's disease, is a neurodegenerative disease that results in the progressive loss of motor neurons that control voluntary muscles. ALS is the most com ...
, which can present with frontotemporal dementia. Since these instances are not considered a pure FTLD they are not included here.
Mutations in all of the above genes cause a very small fraction of the FTLD spectrum. Most of the cases are sporadic (no known genetic cause).
* A proportion of FTLD-TDP43 [with
ALS
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as motor neuron disease (MND) or Lou Gehrig's disease, is a neurodegenerative disease that results in the progressive loss of motor neurons that control voluntary muscles. ALS is the most com ...
] cases had shown genetic Linkage disequilibrium, linkage to a region on chromosome 9 (FTLD-TDP43/Ch9). This linkage has recently been pinned down to the
C9ORF72
C9orf72 (chromosome 9 open reading frame 72) is a protein which in humans is encoded by the gene ''C9orf72''.
The human ''C9orf72'' gene is located on the short (p) arm of chromosome 9 open reading frame 72, from base pair 27,546,546 to base pai ...
gene. Two groups published identical findings back-to-back in the journal Neuron in mid-2011, showing that a hexanucleotide repeat expansion of the GGGGCC genetic sequence within an
intron
An intron is any nucleotide sequence within a gene that is not expressed or operative in the final RNA product. The word ''intron'' is derived from the term ''intragenic region'', i.e. a region inside a gene."The notion of the cistron .e., gene. ...
of this gene was responsible. This expansion was found to be present in a large proportion of familial and sporadic cases, particularly in the Finnish population
Diagnosis
For diagnostic purposes, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and (
8Fluorodeoxyglucose) positron emission tomography (FDG-PET) are applied. They measure either atrophy or reductions in glucose utilization. The three clinical subtypes of frontotemporal lobar degeneration, frontotemporal dementia,
semantic dementia
Semantic dementia (SD), also known as semantic variant primary progressive aphasia (svPPA), is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by loss of semantic memory in both the verbal and non-verbal domains. However, the most common p ...
and
progressive nonfluent aphasia, are characterized by impairments in specific neural networks.
The first subtype with behavioral deficits, frontotemporal dementia, mainly affects a frontomedian network discussed in the context of
social cognition
Social cognition is a sub-topic of various branches of psychology that focuses on how people process, store, and apply information about other people and social situations. It focuses on the role that cognitive processes play in social interactio ...
. Semantic dementia is mainly related to the inferior temporal poles and
amygdala
The amygdala (; plural: amygdalae or amygdalas; also '; Latin from Greek, , ', 'almond', 'tonsil') is one of two almond-shaped clusters of nuclei located deep and medially within the temporal lobes of the brain's cerebrum in complex verteb ...
e; brain regions that have been discussed in the context of conceptual knowledge, semantic information processing, and
social cognition
Social cognition is a sub-topic of various branches of psychology that focuses on how people process, store, and apply information about other people and social situations. It focuses on the role that cognitive processes play in social interactio ...
, whereas progressive nonfluent aphasia affects the whole left frontotemporal network for phonological and syntactical processing.
Society
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
Senator
Pete Domenici
Pietro Vichi "Pete" Domenici (May 7, 1932 – September 13, 2017) was an American attorney and politician who served as a United States Senator from New Mexico from 1973 to 2009. A member of the Republican Party, he served six terms in the S ...
(
R-
NM) was a known sufferer of FTLD, and the illness was the main reason behind his October 4, 2007 announcement of retirement at the end of his term. American film director, producer, and screenwriter
Curtis Hanson
Curtis Lee Hanson (March 24, 1945 – September 20, 2016) was an American film director, screenwriter, and producer. His directing work included the psychological thriller ''The Hand That Rocks the Cradle (film), The Hand That Rocks the Cradle' ...
died as a result of FTLD on September 20, 2016.
See also
*
References
Bibliography
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Further reading
* Hodges, John R. The Frontotemporal Dementia Syndromes. Cambridge University P
ress. 2007
OMIM entries on FRONTOTEMPORAL DEMENTIA AND/OR AMYOTROPHIC LATERAL SCLEROSIS as well as C9ORF72 GeneReviews/NCBI/NIH/UW entry on Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Overview
External links
{{DEFAULTSORT:Frontotemporal Lobar Degeneration
Cognitive disorders
Anatomical pathology
Dementia
Frontal lobe
Temporal lobe