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Ferdinand II ( an, Ferrando; ca, Ferran; eu, Errando; it, Ferdinando; la, Ferdinandus; es, Fernando; 10 March 1452 – 23 January 1516), also called Ferdinand the Catholic (Spanish: ''el Católico''), was
King of Aragon This is a list of the kings and queens of Aragon. The Kingdom of Aragon was created sometime between 950 and 1035 when the County of Aragon, which had been acquired by the Kingdom of Navarre in the tenth century, was separated from Navarre ...
and
Sardinia Sardinia ( ; it, Sardegna, label=Italian, Corsican and Tabarchino ; sc, Sardigna , sdc, Sardhigna; french: Sardaigne; sdn, Saldigna; ca, Sardenya, label=Algherese and Catalan) is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after ...
from 1479, King of Sicily from 1468,
King of Naples The following is a list of rulers of the Kingdom of Naples, from its first separation from the Kingdom of Sicily to its merger with the same into the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Kingdom of Naples (1282–1501) House of Anjou In 1382, the Kin ...
(as Ferdinand III) from 1504 and
King of Navarre This is a list of the kings and queens of Pamplona, later Navarre. Pamplona was the primary name of the kingdom until its union with Aragon (1076–1134). However, the territorial designation Navarre came into use as an alternative name in the ...
(as Ferdinand I) from 1512 until his death in 1516. He was also the nominal
Duke Duke is a male title either of a monarch ruling over a duchy, or of a member of royalty, or nobility. As rulers, dukes are ranked below emperors, kings, grand princes, grand dukes, and sovereign princes. As royalty or nobility, they are rank ...
of the ancient
Duchies A duchy, also called a dukedom, is a medieval country, territory, fief, or domain ruled by a duke or duchess, a ruler hierarchically second to the king or queen in Western European tradition. There once existed an important difference between " ...
of
Athens Athens ( ; el, Αθήνα, Athína ; grc, Ἀθῆναι, Athênai (pl.) ) is both the capital and largest city of Greece. With a population close to four million, it is also the seventh largest city in the European Union. Athens dominates ...
and
Neopatria The Duchy of Neopatras ( ca, Ducat de Neopàtria; scn, Ducatu di Neopatria; gr, Δουκάτο Νέων Πατρών; la, Ducatus Neopatriae) was a principality in southern Thessaly, established in 1319. Officially part of the Kingdom of Sici ...
. He was King of Castile and León (as Ferdinand V) from 1475 to 1504, alongside his wife
Queen Isabella I Isabella I ( es, Isabel I; 22 April 1451 – 26 November 1504), also called Isabella the Catholic (Spanish: ''la Católica''), was Queen of Castile from 1474 until her death in 1504, as well as Queen consort of Aragon from 1479 until 1504 b ...
. From 1506 to 1516, he was the
Regent A regent (from Latin : ruling, governing) is a person appointed to govern a state '' pro tempore'' (Latin: 'for the time being') because the monarch is a minor, absent, incapacitated or unable to discharge the powers and duties of the monarchy ...
of the Crown of Castile, making him the effective ruler of Castile. From 1511 to 1516, he styled himself as ''Imperator totius Africa'' (Emperor of All Africa) after having conquered
Tlemcen Tlemcen (; ar, تلمسان, translit=Tilimsān) is the second-largest city in northwestern Algeria after Oran, and capital of the Tlemcen Province. The city has developed leather, carpet, and textile industries, which it exports through the p ...
and making the Zayyanid Sultan,
Abu Abdallah V Abu Abdallah V () (ruled 1504–1517) was a Sultan of the Kingdom of Tlemcen in Algeria. He was a son of Abu Abdallah IV. In the beginning of his reign the Oran Fatwa The Oran fatwa was a ''responsum'' fatwa, or an Islamic legal opinion, iss ...
, his vassal. He was also the Grandmaster of the Spanish Military Orders of
Santiago Santiago (, ; ), also known as Santiago de Chile, is the capital and largest city of Chile as well as one of the largest cities in the Americas. It is the center of Chile's most densely populated region, the Santiago Metropolitan Region, whose ...
(1499-1516), Calatrava (1487-1516), Alcantara (1492-1516) and Montesa (1499-1516), after he permanently annexed them into the Spanish Crown. He reigned jointly with Isabella over a dynastically unified
Spain , image_flag = Bandera de España.svg , image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg , national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond") , national_anthem = (English: "Royal March") , i ...
; together they are known as the
Catholic Monarchs The Catholic Monarchs were Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, whose marriage and joint rule marked the ''de facto'' unification of Spain. They were both from the House of Trastámara and were second cousins, being bot ...
. Ferdinand is considered the ''
de facto ''De facto'' ( ; , "in fact") describes practices that exist in reality, whether or not they are officially recognized by laws or other formal norms. It is commonly used to refer to what happens in practice, in contrast with ''de jure'' ("by la ...
'' first King of Spain, and was described as such during his reign ( la, Rex Hispaniarum; es, Rey de España). The
Crown of Aragon The Crown of Aragon ( , ) an, Corona d'Aragón ; ca, Corona d'Aragó, , , ; es, Corona de Aragón ; la, Corona Aragonum . was a composite monarchy ruled by one king, originated by the dynastic union of the Kingdom of Aragon and the County of ...
that Ferdinand inherited in 1479 included the kingdoms of
Aragon Aragon ( , ; Spanish and an, Aragón ; ca, Aragó ) is an autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. In northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces (from north to sou ...
,
Valencia Valencia ( va, València) is the capital of the autonomous community of Valencia and the third-most populated municipality in Spain, with 791,413 inhabitants. It is also the capital of the province of the same name. The wider urban area al ...
, Majorca,
Sardinia Sardinia ( ; it, Sardegna, label=Italian, Corsican and Tabarchino ; sc, Sardigna , sdc, Sardhigna; french: Sardaigne; sdn, Saldigna; ca, Sardenya, label=Algherese and Catalan) is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after ...
, and
Sicily (man) it, Siciliana (woman) , population_note = , population_blank1_title = , population_blank1 = , demographics_type1 = Ethnicity , demographics1_footnotes = , demographi ...
, as well as the
principality of Catalonia The Principality of Catalonia ( ca, Principat de Catalunya, la, Principatus Cathaloniæ, oc, Principat de Catalonha, es, Principado de Cataluña) was a Middle Ages, medieval and early modern state (polity), state in the northeastern Iberian P ...
. His marriage to Queen Isabella I of Castile is regarded as the "cornerstone in the foundation of the Spanish monarchy". Ferdinand played a major role in the
European colonization of the Americas During the Age of Discovery, a large scale European colonization of the Americas took place between about 1492 and 1800. Although the Norse had explored and colonized areas of the North Atlantic, colonizing Greenland and creating a short ter ...
, from drawing up the
Capitulations of Santa Fe The Capitulations of Santa Fe between Christopher Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs, Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, were signed in Santa Fe, Granada on April 17, 1492. They granted Columbus the titles of admiral ...
(anticipating a rogue
Columbus Columbus is a Latinized version of the Italian surname "''Colombo''". It most commonly refers to: * Christopher Columbus (1451-1506), the Italian explorer * Columbus, Ohio, capital of the U.S. state of Ohio Columbus may also refer to: Places ...
) to having his personal accountant, Luis de Santangel, undertake more than half the cost (2 million maravedis of the 3 million total) of sponsoring Christopher Columbus' first voyage in 1492 (ensuring the Crown was virtually risk-free in this great gamble) to prudently negotiating the terms with
John II of Portugal John II ( pt, João II; ; 3 March 1455 – 25 October 1495), called the Perfect Prince ( pt, o Príncipe Perfeito, link=no), was King of Portugal from 1481 until his death in 1495, and also for a brief time in 1477. He is known for re-establishi ...
for the
Treaty of Tordesillas The Treaty of Tordesillas, ; pt, Tratado de Tordesilhas . signed in Tordesillas, Spain on 7 June 1494, and authenticated in Setúbal, Portugal, divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between the Portuguese Empire and the Spanish Emp ...
. That same year, the couple defeated
Granada Granada (,, DIN 31635, DIN: ; grc, Ἐλιβύργη, Elibýrgē; la, Illiberis or . ) is the capital city of the province of Granada, in the autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Andalusia, Spain. Granada is located at the fo ...
, the last Muslim state in
Western Europe Western Europe is the western region of Europe. The region's countries and territories vary depending on context. The concept of "the West" appeared in Europe in juxtaposition to "the East" and originally applied to the ancient Mediterranean ...
, thus completing the centuries-long
Reconquista The ' (Spanish, Portuguese and Galician for "reconquest") is a historiographical construction describing the 781-year period in the history of the Iberian Peninsula between the Umayyad conquest of Hispania in 711 and the fall of the Nasrid ...
. Ferdinand was King of the Crown of Castile until Isabella's death in 1504, when their daughter
Joanna Joanna is a feminine given name deriving from from he, יוֹחָנָה, translit=Yôḥānāh, lit=God is gracious. Variants in English include Joan, Joann, Joanne, and Johanna. Other forms of the name in English are Jan, Jane, Janet, Janice ...
became Queen. That year, after a war with France, Ferdinand conquered the
Kingdom of Naples The Kingdom of Naples ( la, Regnum Neapolitanum; it, Regno di Napoli; nap, Regno 'e Napule), also known as the Kingdom of Sicily, was a state that ruled the part of the Italian Peninsula south of the Papal States between 1282 and 1816. It was ...
. In 1506, he became
Regent of Castile This is a list of kings and queens of the Kingdom and Crown of Castile. For their predecessors, see List of Castilian counts. Kings and Queens of Castile Jiménez dynasty House of Ivrea The following dynasts are descendants, in the ...
(as ''Rey Señor de Castilla'') on behalf of his mentally unstable daughter Joanna. In 1505, as part of a treaty with France, Ferdinand married
Germaine of Foix Ursula Germaine of Foix (french: Ursule-Germaine de Foix; ca, Úrsula Germana de Foix; ; c. 1488 – 15 October 1536) was an early modern French noblewoman from the House of Foix. By marriage to King Ferdinand II of Aragon, she was Queen of Ar ...
, niece of King Louis XII of France and sister of Gaston of Foix (the Thunderbolt of Italy). Ferdinand and Germaine's only child, John, died shortly after his birth. In 1512, Ferdinand conquered the Kingdom of Navarre, ruling all the territories comprising modern-day Spain until his death in 1516. He was succeeded by his eldest surviving child, Joanna and his grandson Charles. Ferdinand's great-grandson Philip II of Spain, while staring at a portrait of him, is recorded to have said "We owe everything to him". Modern historian Sir John H. Elliott concluded "in so far as it he_establishment_of_the_Spanish_Empire.html" ;"title="Spanish_Empire.html" ;"title="he establishment of the Spanish Empire">he establishment of the Spanish Empire">Spanish_Empire.html" ;"title="he establishment of the Spanish Empire">he establishment of the Spanish Empirecan be attributed to any particular set of policies and actions, they were those of King Ferdinand and Cardinal Cisneros."


Early life

Ferdinand was born on 10 March 1452, in the town of Sos del Rey Católico,
Aragon Aragon ( , ; Spanish and an, Aragón ; ca, Aragó ) is an autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. In northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces (from north to sou ...
, as the son of
John John is a common English name and surname: * John (given name) * John (surname) John may also refer to: New Testament Works * Gospel of John, a title often shortened to John * First Epistle of John, often shortened to 1 John * Secon ...
,
Duke of Montblanc Duke of Montblanc ( ca, Duc de Montblanc, es, Duque de Montblanc) is a noble Spanish title which since the 15th century has been preserved as one of the titles of the heir apparent to, first, the Aragonese crown and, later and currently, the Spa ...
, and Joanna Enríquez, 5th Lady of Casarrubios del Monte. He was a nephew of King Alfonso V of Aragon, and the largest foreign landholders of feudal Castile, the
infante ''Infante'' (, ; f. ''infanta''), also anglicised as Infant or translated as Prince, is the title and rank given in the Iberian kingdoms of Spain (including the predecessor kingdoms of Aragon, Castile, Navarre, and León) and Portugal to th ...
s
Henry, Duke of Villena Infante Henry of Aragon (1400 – 15 June 1445), 1st Duke of Villena, 4th Count of Alburquerque, Count of Ampurias, was the Grand Master of the Order of Santiago. Childhood A member of the House of Trastamara, Henry was the third son of Ki ...
, and Peter, Count of Albuquerque. Ferdinand grew in the shade of his headstrong mother, whom her much older husband loved and indulged. From the very beginning, she seemed to have brought up her son to ascend to the throne of Aragon. It began by her putting off his baptism for nearly a year until King Alfonso named his brother John as regent, thus making it possible to hold Ferdinand's baptism in the
Cathedral-Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar :''See Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar (Buenos Aires) for the church in Buenos Aires'' The Cathedral-Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar ( es, Catedral-Basílica de Nuestra Señora del Pilar) is a Roman Catholic church in the city of Zaragoz ...
in the capitol city of
Zaragoza Zaragoza, also known in English as Saragossa,''Encyclopædia Britannica'"Zaragoza (conventional Saragossa)" is the capital city of the Zaragoza Province and of the autonomous community of Aragon, Spain. It lies by the Ebro river and its tributari ...
with all the pomp afforded to an Aragonese Infante. The child was named after his paternal grandfather, Ferdinand I, the first Trastamara king of Aragon. King Ferdinand I was the foremost Iberian hero of the wars against the
Moors The term Moor, derived from the ancient Mauri, is an exonym first used by Christian Europeans to designate the Muslim inhabitants of the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Sicily and Malta during the Middle Ages. Moors are not a distinct or ...
in recent memory. In 1458, Ferdinand's uncle died with no legitimate children and his father became King John II of Aragon. Ferdinand's father hailed him as a child prodigy. It is said that by the time Ferdinand was eight years old, he managed to beat his parents, his mentor
Joan Margarit i Pau Joan Margarit i Pau, or in Spanish Juan Margarit y Pau (died 21 November 1484), was a prominent Catalan prelate, a bishop of Girona and a cardinal. Biography Joan Margarit i Pau was born in Girona, around 1424, the son of an aristocratic fami ...
, and other members of the court every single time they played chess or checkers. As a child, he excelled at many of the physical activities required of a royal prince. In the words of
Hernando del Pulgar Hernando del Pulgar (1436 – c. 1492) was a Castilian royal secretary, historian, and writer. He first served in the administration of Enrique IV of Castile and later was appointed by Isabel I to serve as her royal chronicler. His best known wor ...
: " erdinandwas a very good equestrian, jouster and lance thrower, and did all the things that a Prince ought to with such ease and with such skill, that no one his age, in all his kingdoms, did it better." From a very young age, he seemed to have developed a great sense of humility and respect toward people of "low birth" (especially his constant servants).


A Prince of the Sword

Ferdinand was born during a period of turbulence, with King John II and his son,
Charles, Prince of Viana Charles, Prince of Viana ( eu, Karlos IV.a) (29 May 1421 – 23 September 1461), sometimes called Charles IV of Navarre, was the son of King John II of Aragon and Queen Blanche I of Navarre. Background His mother was the daughter and heiress of C ...
(Ferdinand's elder half-brother) embroiled in open conflict. Ferdinand was by no means meant to inherit the
Crown of Aragon The Crown of Aragon ( , ) an, Corona d'Aragón ; ca, Corona d'Aragó, , , ; es, Corona de Aragón ; la, Corona Aragonum . was a composite monarchy ruled by one king, originated by the dynastic union of the Kingdom of Aragon and the County of ...
. That privilege was reserved for Charles but John II was not having it. Within the Crown of Aragon, John had the support of
Aragon Aragon ( , ; Spanish and an, Aragón ; ca, Aragó ) is an autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. In northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces (from north to sou ...
,
Sardinia Sardinia ( ; it, Sardegna, label=Italian, Corsican and Tabarchino ; sc, Sardigna , sdc, Sardhigna; french: Sardaigne; sdn, Saldigna; ca, Sardenya, label=Algherese and Catalan) is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after ...
,
Sicily (man) it, Siciliana (woman) , population_note = , population_blank1_title = , population_blank1 = , demographics_type1 = Ethnicity , demographics1_footnotes = , demographi ...
, Majorca and the Remences of Catalonia while Charles had the support of
Catalonia Catalonia (; ca, Catalunya ; Aranese Occitan: ''Catalonha'' ; es, Cataluña ) is an autonomous community of Spain, designated as a ''nationality'' by its Statute of Autonomy. Most of the territory (except the Val d'Aran) lies on the north ...
and
Navarre Navarre (; es, Navarra ; eu, Nafarroa ), officially the Chartered Community of Navarre ( es, Comunidad Foral de Navarra, links=no ; eu, Nafarroako Foru Komunitatea, links=no ), is a foral autonomous community and province in northern Spain, ...
.
Valencia Valencia ( va, València) is the capital of the autonomous community of Valencia and the third-most populated municipality in Spain, with 791,413 inhabitants. It is also the capital of the province of the same name. The wider urban area al ...
chose to remain neutral while Louis XI of France and
Henry IV of Castile Henry IV of Castile ( Castilian: ''Enrique IV''; 5 January 1425 – 11 December 1474), King of Castile and León, nicknamed the Impotent, was the last of the weak late-medieval kings of Castile and León. During Henry's reign, the nobles became ...
allied with John and Charles respectively. After Charles' unexpected death on 23 September 1461, Ferdinand was made John's undisputed heir. In February 1462, war broke out in Catalonia with the commencement of the
First War of the Remences The Rebellion of the Remences or War of the Remences was a popular revolt in late medieval Europe against seignorial pressures that began in the Principality of Catalonia in 1462 and ended a decade later without definitive result. Ferdinand ...
led by
Francesc de Verntallat Francesc de Verntallat (Sant Privat d'en Bas, 1426 or 1428 - Sant Feliu de Pallerols, 1498 or 1499) was a Catalan nobleman who captained the Remensa Army in the War of the Remences, a conflict overshadowed by the Catalan Civil War. For this reas ...
. The peasants revolted against the Consell del Principat with the hope of receiving royal support. On 11 March, Queen Joanna sensing danger, departed
Barcelona Barcelona ( , , ) is a city on the coast of northeastern Spain. It is the capital and largest city of the autonomous community of Catalonia, as well as the second most populous municipality of Spain. With a population of 1.6 million within ci ...
for
Girona Girona (officially and in Catalan , Spanish: ''Gerona'' ) is a city in northern Catalonia, Spain, at the confluence of the Ter, Onyar, Galligants, and Güell rivers. The city had an official population of 103,369 in 2020. Girona is the capital ...
, with the 10-year old Prince Ferdinand in tow. They hoped to receive protection from the French garrison stationed in Girona. In May, the deputy leader of the Consell, Francesc Pallarès, along with two other former leaders, were executed by the
Generalitat Generalitat (, literally in English 'Generality') is the name of two major medieval and early modern political institutions and their modern-day analogues in Kingdom of Spain. The ancient Principality of Catalonia and the Kingdom of Valencia were ...
for colluding with the Queen. This meant civil war, once more. An army of the Consell was formed and placed under the command of Hug Roger III, Count of Pallars Sobira. After besieging and capturing
Hostalric Hostalric is a village in the province of Girona and autonomous community of Catalonia, Spain , image_flag = Bandera de España.svg , image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg , national_motto = ''Plus ultra' ...
on 23 May, Roger marched on Girona, where he was received warmly on 6 June while the Queen and the Prince took refuge in the citadel, Força Vella, all throughout June.
Gaston IV, Count of Foix Gaston IV (27 November 1422 – 25 or 28 July 1472) was the sovereign Viscount of Béarn and the Count of Foix and Bigorre in France from 1436 to 1472. He also held the viscounties of Marsan, Castelbon, Nébouzan, Villemeur and Lautrec and was ...
, leading a French army, took Girona on 23 July and rescued the Queen and Prince. By this time, King John II and King Louis XI had signed the Treaty of Sauveterre (3 May) and the Treaty of Bayonne (9 May) in which Louis pledged 4,200 French Knights to John's cause in return for 200,000 escut as payment. And until the payment was made, Louis received Roussillon and
Cerdagne Cerdanya () or often La Cerdanya ( la, Ceretani or ''Ceritania''; french: Cerdagne; es, Cerdaña), is a natural comarca and historical region of the eastern Pyrenees divided between France and Spain. Historically it was one of the counties ...
as collateral, along with the right to garrison Perpignan and Cotlliure. With this, the Consell named John II "an enemy of Catalonia" and offered the Principality to three different foreigners;
Henry IV of Castile Henry IV of Castile ( Castilian: ''Enrique IV''; 5 January 1425 – 11 December 1474), King of Castile and León, nicknamed the Impotent, was the last of the weak late-medieval kings of Castile and León. During Henry's reign, the nobles became ...
, Peter of Coimbra and
René of Anjou René of Anjou ( it, Renato; oc, Rainièr; ca, Renat; 1409–1480) was Duke of Anjou and Count of Provence from 1434 to 1480, who also reigned as King of Naples as René I from 1435 to 1442 (then deposed as the preceding dynasty was restored t ...
. When the General Cortés was convened, at Zaragoza on 6 February 1468, Queen Joanna, afflicted with late-stage breast cancer, was too sick to preside over. So, the now sixteen year old Ferdinand did so instead. He handled the sessions as if he was a well-seasoned veteran politician in his 60s. The Queen could not have been more proud of her son, but just two weeks later her serene highness died, which to say devastated Ferdinand would be an understatement.
Diego de Valera Mosén Diego de Valera (1412–1488) was a Spanish nobleman, author, and historian who has been described as having had "chivalrous adventures" that took him "as far as Bohemia" where he was a participant in the Hussite Wars. He authored letter ...
insists that a wonderful odor arose from her corpse, implying she was a Saint. King John II was then battling the French in the north, and it was Ferdinand who saw to his mother's funeral arrangements. Then, in Valencia, where the regional Cortés was indifferent to the ongoing war, Ferdinand addressed the city's nobility with tears streaming down his face. He first paid his due reverence to his deceased mother and said: "Lords, you are well aware of the hardships my lady mother underwent to keep Catalonia within the
House of Aragon House of Aragon may refer to: *the branch of the Jiménez dynasty that ruled Aragon as kings between 1035 and 1162 *the House of Barcelona, which ruled Aragon between 1137 and 1410, united Aragon and Catalonia and ruled Sicily from 1282 until 1409 ...
. I see my lord father old and myself very young. Therefore I place myself in your warm and capable hands and ask you to please embrace and guide me as if I were your own son." The speech received an ecstatic response with some Nobles swearing oaths of fealty then and there. With this, Valencia; the most prosperous kingdom within the Crown of Aragon at the time, joined the war on the side of the royalists and the war waged on until John II and Prince Ferdinand entered Barcelona in 1471 and the Consell signed the Capitulation of Pedralbes. Here, Ferdinand displayed his magnanimity by convincing his father to issue a general pardon to all their former opponents (except Hugh Roger III). In between 1463 and 1469, Ferdinand had managed to bag multiple victories against all manner of foes (the French led by the
Duke of Lorraine The rulers of Lorraine have held different posts under different governments over different regions, since its creation as the kingdom of Lotharingia by the Treaty of Prüm, in 855. The first rulers of the newly established region were kings of ...
, the Castilians led by John of Beaumont, the Portuguese led by the
Constable of Portugal {{Short description, Defunct office created by King Ferdinand I of Portugal Constable of Portugal ( pt, Condestável de Portugal) was an office created by King Ferdinand I of Portugal in 1382, to substitute the High Standard-bearer ('' Alferes-Mor'' ...
and the Catalans led by the Count of Pallars Sobira). Some of his notable victories were at Vildamat,
Berga Berga () is the capital of the ''comarca'' (county) of Berguedà, in the province of Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. It is bordered by the municipalities of Cercs, Olvan, Avià, Capolat and Castellar del Riu. History Berga derives its name f ...
, Alt Emporda, Els Prats del Rei, Bellegarde,
Collioure Collioure (; ca, Cotlliure, ) is a commune in the southern French department of Pyrénées-Orientales. Geography The town of Collioure is on the Côte Vermeille (Vermilion Coast), in the canton of La Côte Vermeille and in the arrondissement ...
, and Salses. He also led the liberation of Navarre from the French, when he, along with his father, entered Perpignan on 1 February 1473 amidst jubilation. By the time he was just 17, he was a proven battlefield commander and a shrewd diplomat (earning praise from Louis XI of France himself). In 1473, he was made a
Knight of the Golden Fleece This article contains a list of knights of the Order of the Golden Fleece. Knights of the Burgundian Golden Fleece 15th Century !Year of Induction!!Name!!Born!!Died!!Notes , - , rowspan=25, 1430, , Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, , 1396, , ...
by Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. He was the last recipient of that honor from a member of the founding house: the
House of Valois-Burgundy The House of Valois-Burgundy (french: Maison de Valois-Bourgogne, nl, Huis van Valois-Bourgondië), or the Younger House of Burgundy, was a noble French family deriving from the royal House of Valois. It is distinct from the Capetian House of Bur ...
, before the death of Charles at the
Battle of Nancy The Battle of Nancy was the final and decisive battle of the Burgundian Wars, fought outside the walls of Nancy on 5 January 1477 by Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, against René II, Duke of Lorraine, and the Swiss Confederacy. René's ...
in 1477 ended its male-line permanently.


Appearance and personality


Marriage and Accession


King of Castile

As heir apparent to the Crown of Aragon, Ferdinand was the subject of many royal matches. A notable one being a marriage proposal made by
Charles the Bold Charles I (Charles Martin; german: Karl Martin; nl, Karel Maarten; 10 November 1433 – 5 January 1477), nicknamed the Bold (German: ''der Kühne''; Dutch: ''de Stoute''; french: le Téméraire), was Duke of Burgundy from 1467 to 1477. ...
, Duke of Burgundy for his daughter,
Mary of Burgundy Mary (french: Marie; nl, Maria; 13 February 1457 – 27 March 1482), nicknamed the Rich, was a member of the House of Valois-Burgundy who ruled a collection of states that included the duchies of Limburg, Brabant, Luxembourg, the counties of ...
. He eventually married
Isabella Isabella may refer to: People and fictional characters * Isabella (given name), including a list of people and fictional characters * Isabella (surname), including a list of people Places United States * Isabella, Alabama, an unincorpor ...
, the half-sister and heir presumptive of
Henry IV of Castile Henry IV of Castile ( Castilian: ''Enrique IV''; 5 January 1425 – 11 December 1474), King of Castile and León, nicknamed the Impotent, was the last of the weak late-medieval kings of Castile and León. During Henry's reign, the nobles became ...
, on 19 October 1469 in
Valladolid Valladolid () is a municipality in Spain and the primary seat of government and de facto capital of the autonomous community of Castile and León. It is also the capital of the province of the same name. It has a population around 300,000 peop ...
,
Kingdom of Castile and Leon The Kingdom of Castile (; es, Reino de Castilla, la, Regnum Castellae) was a large and powerful state on the Iberian Peninsula during the Middle Ages. Its name comes from the host of castles constructed in the region. It began in the 9th cent ...
. Since the marriage was done against Henry's wishes, Isabella's status as his heir presumptive was revoked and she was disinherited in favour of Henry's daughter; Princess Joanna. Although Isabella never gave up her claim to the title;
Princess of Asturias Prince or Princess of Asturias ( es, link=no, Príncipe/Princesa de Asturias; ast, Príncipe d'Asturies) is the main substantive title used by the heir apparent or heir presumptive to the throne of Spain. According to the Spanish Constitution ...
, from 1469 to 1475, they had to rely on Ferdinand's regal title; King of Sicily. Before the marriage, Ferdinand was asked to sign the humiliating Capitulations of Cervera on 5 March 1469. Most people, like Alfonso de Palencia,
Pedro de Peralta Pedro de Peralta (c. 1584 – 1666) was Governor of New Mexico between 1610 and 1613 at a time when it was a province of New Spain. He formally founded the city of Santa Fe, New Mexico in 1610. In August 1613 he was arrested and jailed for almo ...
, Archbishop Margarit and even Castilians like Archbishop Carrillo,
Gutierre de Cardenas Gutierre is an old Spanish male given name. The surname Gutiérrez is derived from this name. Notable people Notable people with the name include: * Gutierre Álvarez de Toledo, Spanish priest * Gutierre de Cetina (1519–1554), Spanish poet and s ...
and
Juan Pacheco Juan Pacheco, 1st Duke of Escalona (1419 – 1 October 1474), better known as Juan Pacheco, Marquess of Villena, was a Castilian noble of Portuguese descent who rose to power in the last years of the reign of Juan II of Castile and came to d ...
, wondered why a royal prince would even contemplate signing such a document. But Ferdinand, as a shrewd politician, was playing the long game. On 12 December 1474, Henry died in
Madrid Madrid ( , ) is the capital and most populous city of Spain. The city has almost 3.4 million inhabitants and a metropolitan area population of approximately 6.7 million. It is the second-largest city in the European Union (EU), and ...
. When news reached
Segovia Segovia ( , , ) is a city in the autonomous community of Castile and León, Spain. It is the capital and most populated municipality of the Province of Segovia. Segovia is in the Inner Plateau ('' Meseta central''), near the northern slopes of t ...
, where Isabella was residing, she immediately convened the Courts of Castile the following day, disinherited her niece Joanna and proclaimed herself Queen of Castile with Ferdinand as her "''legitimate husband''". Ferdinand was not present for all this because, at the time, he was campaigning against the French occupying Roussillon. When he got word, he was incandescent with fury. He immediately rode for Segovia, where he was given a royal entry on 2 January 1475. Immediately, a new agreement of understanding was drafted with Archbishop Carillo representing the interests of Ferdinand and Cardinal Mendoza representing the interests of Isabella. The Concord of Segovia, completed on 5 January, was not an agreement between husband and wife but one between two rival political parties. In it, Ferdinand renounced all claims to the throne of Castile as closest male heir of the
House of Trastamara A house is a single-unit residential building. It may range in complexity from a rudimentary hut to a complex structure of wood, masonry, concrete or other material, outfitted with plumbing, electrical, and heating, ventilation, and air condi ...
. Isabella was recognized as sole owner of the Kingdom with it passing to her descendants at the time of her death. All official documents, the coin, the seal and the proclamations will be headed by the names of both with Ferdinand taking precedence over Isabella. Both their arms were merged into one with Isabella's
Eagle of Saint John The Eagle of Saint John ( es, Águila de San Juan) is a heraldry, heraldic eagle associated mostly with the Catholic Monarchs which was later prominently used during Francoist Spain (1939–77) and the Spanish transition to democracy (1977–81). I ...
and Ferdinand's motto " Tanto Monta" ("''it amounts to the same'' 'cutting as untying'') added in. It was decided that the arms of the House of Trastamara; the arms of Castile y Leon, would take precedence over the arms of Aragon y Sicily in their new joint heraldry. Ferdinand was recognized jure uxoris King of Castile as Ferdinand V of Castile, with near equal powers to those of Isabella. Identical equal powers (with the added benefit of being made the supreme authority on the joint Crown's foreign, military and social policies) were ceded by Isabella to Ferdinand on 28 April 1475, at the outbreak of the
Castilian War of Succession The War of the Castilian Succession was the military conflict contested from 1475 to 1479 for the succession of the Crown of Castile fought between the supporters of Joanna 'la Beltraneja', reputed daughter of the late monarch Henry IV of Casti ...
. This document, nullifying the separation of monarchical powers established in the Concord of Segovia, signified the commencement of a reign of true equals.


War with Portugal and King of Spain

Shortly after Ferdinand and Isabella were invested as the Monarchs of Castile, Queen Joanna's husband; King
Afonso V of Portugal Afonso V () (15 January 1432 – 28 August 1481), known by the sobriquet the African (), was King of Portugal from 1438 until his death in 1481, with a brief interruption in 1477. His sobriquet refers to his military conquests in Northern Afri ...
, declared Isabella a usurper and took up his wife's cause. According to him, she was the legitimate heir of Henry IV, and as her husband, he, the legitimate ''jure uxoris'' King of Castile (as Alfonso XII). Isabella had no option but to reciprocate by claiming the throne of Portugal (as the daughter of Isabella of Portugal) and declaring war on Afonso. On one side was the Crown of Aragon and the pro-Isabella faction of Castile. On the other, the Kingdom of Portugal and the pro-Joanna faction of Castile. The 3 most powerful Houses of Northern Castile (the House of Enriquez, the
House of Mendoza The Mendoza family was a powerful line of Spanish nobles. Members of the family wielded considerable power, especially from the 14th to the 17th centuries in Castile. The family originated from the village of Mendoza (Basque ''mendi+oza'', 'c ...
and the
House of Alvarez de Toledo A house is a single-unit residential building. It may range in complexity from a rudimentary hut to a complex structure of wood, masonry, concrete or other material, outfitted with plumbing, electrical, and heating, ventilation, and air condi ...
) formed the pro-Isabella faction because of their familial ties to Ferdinand. The lesser ''Hidalgos'' (who made up 2/3 of Castile's nobility) led by the
House of Pacheco-Giron A house is a single-unit residential building. It may range in complexity from a rudimentary hut to a complex structure of wood, masonry, concrete or other material, outfitted with plumbing, electrical, and heating, ventilation, and air condit ...
, the House of Zuniga and the
Archbishop of Toledo This is a list of Bishops and Archbishops of Toledo ( la, Archidioecesis Metropolitae Toletana).
(the supreme ecclesiastical authority of Castile) formed the pro-Joanna faction. France supported Afonso and Joanna (because of a wider war raging in Roussillon,
Cerdagne Cerdanya () or often La Cerdanya ( la, Ceretani or ''Ceritania''; french: Cerdagne; es, Cerdaña), is a natural comarca and historical region of the eastern Pyrenees divided between France and Spain. Historically it was one of the counties ...
and the Italian Peninsula with Aragon) and Burgundy supported Ferdinand and Isabella (for the same reason France supports Portugal). The Kingdom of Navarre was going through a civil war, so it, along with the
Taifa of Granada The Taifa of Granada ( ar, طائفة غرناطة, rtl=yes, , es, Taifa de Granada) or Zirid Kingdom of Granada was a Berber Muslim kingdom which was formed in al-Andalus in 1013, following the deposition of Caliph Hisham II in 1009. The king ...
and the
Kingdom of Galicia The Kingdom of Galicia ( gl, Reino de Galicia, or ''Galiza''; es, Reino de Galicia; pt, Reino da Galiza; la, Galliciense Regnum) was a political entity located in southwestern Europe, which at its territorial zenith occupied the entire north ...
, chose to remain neutral. Ferdinand, as
Captain-General Captain general (and its literal equivalent in several languages) is a high military rank of general officer grade, and a gubernatorial title. History The term "Captain General" started to appear in the 14th century, with the meaning of Command ...
, led the Castilian-Aragonese army while Afonso and the " Perfect Prince" led the Castilian-Portuguese army. Under the leadership of Ferdinand, the pro-Isabella Castilians won some decisive battles in Trujillo,
Burgos Burgos () is a city in Spain located in the autonomous community of Castile and León. It is the capital and most populated municipality of the province of Burgos. Burgos is situated in the north of the Iberian Peninsula, on the confluence of ...
,
Cantalapiedra Cantalapiedra is a village and municipality in the province of Salamanca, western Spain, part of the autonomous community of Castile and León. It is located from the city of Salamanca and has a population of 1250 people. The municipality covers ...
,
Castronuño Castronuño is a municipality located in the province of Valladolid, Castile and León, Spain. According to the 2004 census A census is the procedure of systematically acquiring, recording and calculating information about the members of a give ...
, Sieteiglesias, Cubillas,
Villalonso Villalonso is a municipality located in the province of Zamora, Castile and León, Spain. According to the 2004 census (INE), the municipality has a population of 116 inhabitants. In 1147 Osorio Martínez granted a ''fuero'' to Villalonso with ...
, Portillo, Villaba and Zamora. On 1 March 1476, Ferdinand (along with Cardinal Mendoza and the
Duke of Alba Duke of Alba de Tormes ( es, Duque de Alba de Tormes), commonly known as Duke of Alba, is a title of Spanish nobility that is accompanied by the dignity of Grandee of Spain. In 1472, the title of ''Count of Alba de Tormes'', inherited by ...
) secured a major victory at the
Battle of Toro The Battle of Toro was part of the War of the Castilian Succession, fought on 1 March 1476, near the city of Toro, between the Castilian-Aragonese troops of the Catholic Monarchs and the Portuguese-Castilian forces of Afonso V and Prince John ...
, which essentially crushed all hopes of a Portuguese victory on land. After signing a Treaty with Afonso V on 23 September 1475, Louis XI of France sent a wave of French armies under
Alain I of Albret Alain I of Albret (1440–1522), called "The Great", was a powerful French aristocrat. He was 16th Lord of Albret, Viscount of Tartas, the 2nd Count of Graves and the Count of Castres. He was the son of Catherine de Rohan and Jean I of Albret.Ach ...
, all throughout March–June 1476, to push into Castile via
Hondarribia es, fuenterribense , population_note = , population_density_km2 = auto , blank_name_sec1 = Official language(s) , blank_info_sec1 = Basque, Spanish , timezone = CET , utc_offset = +1 , ti ...
. Ferdinand not only crushed this French invasion but also managed to gain a foothold in the Kingdom of Navarre by conquering Viana and
Puente La Reina Puente la Reina (Spanish meaning literally the "bridge of the Queen"; eu, Gares) is a town and municipality located in the autonomous community of Navarre, in northern Spain. Puente la Reina lies between Pamplona and Estella on the Way of St. ...
. He then acted as arbitrator between the warring factions of Navarre while gaining the right to station 1,000 men-at-arms in
Pamplona Pamplona (; eu, Iruña or ), historically also known as Pampeluna in English, is the capital city of the Chartered Community of Navarre, in Spain. It is also the third-largest city in the greater Basque cultural region. Lying at near above ...
. This victory shielded Aragon and Castile from any future French offensives. Although Ferdinand was winning on land, at sea, the Portuguese, along with Norman pirates led by
Guillaume Coullon Guillaume may refer to: People * Guillaume (given name), the French equivalent of William * Guillaume (surname) Other uses * Guillaume (crater) See also * '' Chanson de Guillaume'', an 11th or 12th century poem * Guillaume affair, a Cold War espi ...
, were gaining the upper hand (especially after the Battle of Guinea and the Battle of Elmina). On 9 October 1478, Ferdinand pressured Louis XI to sign the Treaties of Saint-Jean-de-Luz and Guadalupe, in which France recognized Ferdinand and Isabella as the legal Monarchs of Castile in return for Ferdinand breaking all ties with Maximilian I, Duke of Burgundy. Emboldened by the victory at Elmina,
Afonso V Afonso V () (15 January 1432 – 28 August 1481), known by the sobriquet the African (), was King of Portugal from 1438 until his death in 1481, with a brief interruption in 1477. His sobriquet refers to his military conquests in Northern Africa ...
decided to undertake a last-ditch invasion of Castile. In February 1479, a Castilian-Portuguese army commanded by Garcia de Meneses, Bishop of Evora, penetrated into
Extremadura Extremadura (; ext, Estremaúra; pt, Estremadura; Fala: ''Extremaúra'') is an autonomous community of Spain. Its capital city is Mérida, and its largest city is Badajoz. Located in the central-western part of the Iberian Peninsula, it ...
. The objective was to occupy and reinforce the strongholds of Mérida and Medellin, controlled by
Beatriz Pacheco Beatriz (, ) is a Spanish, Galician and Portuguese female first name. It corresponds to the Latin name Beatrix and the English and Italian name Beatrice. The name in Latin means 'brings joy' and in other languages also means 'she who brings oth ...
, Countess of Medellin and supporter of
Joanna Joanna is a feminine given name deriving from from he, יוֹחָנָה, translit=Yôḥānāh, lit=God is gracious. Variants in English include Joan, Joann, Joanne, and Johanna. Other forms of the name in English are Jan, Jane, Janet, Janice ...
. Ferdinand immediately dispatched Alonso de Cardenas, Master of the Order of Santiago, with a Castilian-Aragonese army, to face this threat. On 24 February, near the hill of
Albuera La Albuera is a village southeast of Badajoz, Extremadura, Spain. it had a population of c. 2,000 inhabitants. History It was scene of the Battle of Albuera (16 May 1811) between Spanish, Portuguese and British troops under William Carr Beresf ...
, the two forces jostled for dominance. Despite Cardenas having been outnumbered 2:1, he completely routed the invasion force and Ferdinand quickly put Mérida and Medellin under siege. In June 1479, Ferdinand launched an offensive against the rebel
Archbishop of Toledo This is a list of Bishops and Archbishops of Toledo ( la, Archidioecesis Metropolitae Toletana).
, who was forced to surrender. This signified the end of hostilities towards Ferdinand and Isabella within Castile. The pro-Joanna faction disintegrated, with its leaders; the Marquis of Villena, the Marquis of Cadiz and the
Count of Ureña Duke of Osuna is a Spanish noble title Traditional rank amongst European royalty, peers, and nobility is rooted in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Although they vary over time and among geographic regions (for example, one region's ...
, submitting themselves to the
Queen Queen or QUEEN may refer to: Monarchy * Queen regnant, a female monarch of a Kingdom ** List of queens regnant * Queen consort, the wife of a reigning king * Queen dowager, the widow of a king * Queen mother, a queen dowager who is the mother ...
's mercy. All that remained was Portugal itself and with Pope Sixtus VI revoking his papal dispensation for the marriage between Afonso and his niece, Joanna, the legitimacy of Afonso V as King of Castile fell by its foundations. The document that put an end to the war, the Treaty of Alcáçovas-Toldeo, was drafted on 4 September 1479. It was ratified by
Afonso V of Portugal Afonso V () (15 January 1432 – 28 August 1481), known by the sobriquet the African (), was King of Portugal from 1438 until his death in 1481, with a brief interruption in 1477. His sobriquet refers to his military conquests in Northern Afri ...
in Alcáçovas on 8 September 1479 and by Ferdinand and Isabella in Toledo on 6 March 1480. In it, Afonso renounced all claims to the throne of Castile and Isabella did the same to the throne of Portugal. The treaty wasn't harsh on any party apart from Queen Joanna herself, who was required to renounce all regal claims associated with Henry IV and retire to a nunnery for the rest of her life. On 20 February 1479, Ferdinand's father, King
John II of Aragon John II ( Spanish: ''Juan II'', Catalan: ''Joan II'', Aragonese: ''Chuan II'' and eu, Joanes II; 29 June 1398 – 20 January 1479), called the Great (''el Gran'') or the Faithless (''el Sense Fe''), was King of Aragon from 1458 until his death ...
, died and that same year Ferdinand succeeded him as King. Now, he was King of Castile, Leon, Aragon, Sicily and Count of Barcelona. And on 14 April 1481, in the Cortes of Calatayud, he granted his wife Isabella, the same powers that he had received on 28 April 1475, designating her as co-regent, governor and administrator of the kingdoms of the Crown of Aragon. This signified the symbolic union of the Crown of Castile and the
Crown of Aragon The Crown of Aragon ( , ) an, Corona d'Aragón ; ca, Corona d'Aragó, , , ; es, Corona de Aragón ; la, Corona Aragonum . was a composite monarchy ruled by one king, originated by the dynastic union of the Kingdom of Aragon and the County of ...
into one: the
Crown of Spain , coatofarms = File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Spanish_Monarch.svg , coatofarms_article = Coat of arms of the King of Spain , image = Felipe_VI_in_2020_(cropped).jpg , incumbent = Felipe VI , incumbentsince = 19 Ju ...
. In the words of a letter drafted by the
Town Council of Barcelona A town is a human settlement. Towns are generally larger than villages and smaller than cities, though the criteria to distinguish between them vary considerably in different parts of the world. Origin and use The word "town" shares an ori ...
to the
Town Council of Seville A town is a human settlement. Towns are generally larger than villages and smaller than cities, though the criteria to distinguish between them vary considerably in different parts of the world. Origin and use The word "town" shares an ori ...
: "''Now...we are brothers''."


Reign

Emulating what the ancient Kings of Aragon did with their newly acquired Muslim communities, especially in Valencia, Ferdinand imposed the extremely liberal
Treaty of Granada (1491) The Treaty of Granada, also known as the Capitulation of Granada or simply the Capitulations, was signed and ratified on November 25, 1491, between Boabdil, the sultan of Granada, and Ferdinand and Isabella, the King and Queen of Castile, Leó ...
on Granada on its capitulation. The treaty proved extremely favourable to the Muslims, who got to retain their faith, customs, and attire. The new Archbishop of Granada,
Hernando de Talavera Hernando de Talavera, O.S.H. (c. 1430 – 14 May 1507) was a Spanish clergyman and councilor to Queen Isabel of Castile. He began his career as a monk of the Order of Saint Jerome, was appointed the queen's confessor and with her support and ...
, was an ardent supporter of the treaty and much like the king, he wanted to win hearts and minds, resulting in a slow but resolute process of conversion. This all changed when the Archbishop of Toledo,
Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros, OFM (1436 – 8 November 1517), spelled Ximenes in his own lifetime, and commonly referred to today as simply Cisneros, was a Spanish cardinal, religious figure, and statesman. Starting from humble beginning ...
, settled in Granada in 1499. He carried out a policy of heavy-handed forced conversion, in gross violation of the initial treaty. This resulted in the
Rebellion of the Alpujarras (1499–1501) The First Rebellion of the Alpujarras (; 1499–1501) were a series of uprisings by the Muslim population of the Kingdom of Granada, Crown of Castile (formerly, the Emirate of Granada) against their Catholic rulers. They began in 1499 in the cit ...
which saw swaths of Muslim communities up in arms. Ferdinand crushed the rebellion with brutal efficiency and in that same year, along with Isabella I, issued an edict of conversion. All Muslims residing in the Crown of Castile were to convert to Christianity or face expulsion. Most did convert, nominally, while the remaining few emigrated to North Africa. Muslims in the
Crown of Aragon The Crown of Aragon ( , ) an, Corona d'Aragón ; ca, Corona d'Aragó, , , ; es, Corona de Aragón ; la, Corona Aragonum . was a composite monarchy ruled by one king, originated by the dynastic union of the Kingdom of Aragon and the County of ...
were safe under Ferdinand, but they too suffered the same fate under his
grandson Family (from la, familia) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its ...
in 1526. The later part of Ferdinand's life was largely taken up with disputes with successive kings of France over control of Italy, the
Italian Wars The Italian Wars, also known as the Habsburg–Valois Wars, were a series of conflicts covering the period 1494 to 1559, fought mostly in the Italian peninsula, but later expanding into Flanders, the Rhineland and the Mediterranean Sea. The pr ...
. In 1494, Charles VIII of France invaded Italy and expelled
Alfonso II of Naples Alfonso II (4 November 1448 – 18 December 1495) was Duke of Calabria and ruled as King of Naples from 25 January 1494 to 23 January 1495. He was a soldier and a patron of Renaissance architecture and the arts. Heir to his father Fer ...
, Ferdinand's first cousin once removed and step nephew, from the throne of Naples. Ferdinand allied with various Italian princes and with
Emperor Maximilian I Maximilian I (22 March 1459 – 12 January 1519) was King of the Romans from 1486 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1508 until his death. He was never crowned by the pope, as the journey to Rome was blocked by the Venetians. He proclaimed himself Ele ...
to expel the French by 1496 and install Alfonso's son, Ferdinand II, on the Neapolitan throne. In 1501, following Ferdinand II's death and the accession of his uncle
Frederick Frederick may refer to: People * Frederick (given name), the name Nobility Anhalt-Harzgerode *Frederick, Prince of Anhalt-Harzgerode (1613–1670) Austria * Frederick I, Duke of Austria (Babenberg), Duke of Austria from 1195 to 1198 * Frederick ...
, Ferdinand signed an agreement with Charles VIII's successor,
Louis XII Louis XII (27 June 14621 January 1515), was King of France from 1498 to 1515 and King of Naples from 1501 to 1504. The son of Charles, Duke of Orléans, and Maria of Cleves, he succeeded his 2nd cousin once removed and brother in law at the tim ...
, who had just successfully asserted his claims to the Duchy of Milan, to partition Naples between them, with
Campania Campania (, also , , , ) is an administrative Regions of Italy, region of Italy; most of it is in the south-western portion of the Italian peninsula (with the Tyrrhenian Sea to its west), but it also includes the small Phlegraean Islands and the i ...
and the Abruzzi, including Naples itself, going to the French and Ferdinand taking Apulia and
Calabria , population_note = , population_blank1_title = , population_blank1 = , demographics_type1 = , demographics1_footnotes = , demographics1_title1 = , demographics1_info1 = , demographics1_title2 ...
. The agreement soon fell apart and, over the next several years, Ferdinand's great general
Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba (1 September 1453 – 2 December 1515) was a Spanish general and statesman who led successful military campaigns during the Conquest of Granada and the Italian Wars. His military victories and widespread po ...
fought to take Naples from the French, finally succeeding by 1504. Some time before 1502
Andreas Palaiologos Andreas Palaiologos or Palaeologus ( el, Ἀνδρέας Παλαιολόγος; 17 January 1453 – June 1502), sometimes anglicized to Andrew, was the eldest son of Thomas Palaiologos, Despot of the Morea. Thomas was a brother of Constantine& ...
, the last surviving male heir of Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos, bestowed his titles and rights to the Byzantine throne to Ferdinand in his last will. This move was primarily influenced by Ferdinand's successful military campaigns against the Ottoman Empire in
Otranto Otranto (, , ; scn, label=Salentino, Oṭṛàntu; el, label= Griko, Δερεντό, Derentò; grc, Ὑδροῦς, translit=Hudroûs; la, Hydruntum) is a coastal town, port and ''comune'' in the province of Lecce (Apulia, Italy), in a ferti ...
and
Cephalonia Kefalonia or Cephalonia ( el, Κεφαλονιά), formerly also known as Kefallinia or Kephallenia (), is the largest of the Ionian Islands in western Greece and the 6th largest island in Greece after Crete, Euboea, Lesbos, Rhodes and Chios. It i ...
. But Ferdinand never used the titles during his lifetime, feeling that they would ''obligate'' him to launch an expensive crusade.


The 1504-1506 Castilian Interregnum

On 12 October 1504, Ferdinand's wife and queen proprietor of Castile;
Isabella I Isabella I ( es, Isabel I; 22 April 1451 – 26 November 1504), also called Isabella the Catholic (Spanish: ''la Católica''), was Queen of Castile from 1474 until her death in 1504, as well as Queen consort of Aragon from 1479 until 1504 by ...
, had her last will drafted and notarized, in which she named their daughter
Joanna Joanna is a feminine given name deriving from from he, יוֹחָנָה, translit=Yôḥānāh, lit=God is gracious. Variants in English include Joan, Joann, Joanne, and Johanna. Other forms of the name in English are Jan, Jane, Janet, Janice ...
as "''the true queen, natural lady and universal successor''". On 23 November that same year, she signed a codicil in which she declared that if Joanna was not physically present in the Kingdom or "''being in them, she does not want to or cannot attend the governorship''" it was to pass over to Ferdinand and no other; he in turn was to set up a regency headed by him for their grandson, Prince Charles, until he reached the legal age of 20. With this, Isabella set up a contingency plan in case Joanna's diagnosis was accurate and also sidelined her son-in-law,
Archduke Philip Philip the Handsome, es, Felipe, french: Philippe, nl, Filips (22 July 1478 – 25 September 1506), also called the Fair, was ruler of the Burgundian Netherlands and titular Duke of Burgundy from 1482 to 1506, as well as the first Habsburg Ki ...
, who was already bitter about Isabella outright rejecting his request of being afforded the same title as her husband: ''
de jure uxoris ''Jure uxoris'' (a Latin phrase meaning "by right of (his) wife"), citing . describes a title of nobility used by a man because his wife holds the office or title ''suo jure'' ("in her own right"). Similarly, the husband of an heiress could becom ...
''
King of Castile This is a list of kings and queens of the Kingdom and Crown of Castile. For their predecessors, see List of Castilian counts. Kings and Queens of Castile Jiménez dynasty House of Ivrea The following dynasts are descendants, in the ...
. The will made it crystal clear that Philip was simply Prince-consort of Castile with no position in the line of succession or any hand in Castile's government. This was all on paper, while the real situation was anything but this clear-cut. Three days after signing the codicil, Isabella died. Since Joanna was in
Flanders Flanders (, ; Dutch: ''Vlaanderen'' ) is the Flemish-speaking northern portion of Belgium and one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium. However, there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to culture, ...
, this started the first regency of Ferdinand. Regardless of what the will stipulated, Ferdinand's position in Castile was precarious. Despite having become King of Castile even before he became King of Aragon, and having channeled a good portion of his prime (35 years in total) for matters pertaining to Castile (the skirmishes with Henry IV, the
War of the Castilian Succession The War of the Castilian Succession was the military conflict contested from 1475 to 1479 for the succession of the Crown of Castile fought between the supporters of Joanna 'la Beltraneja', reputed daughter of the late monarch Henry IV of Castile ...
, the pacification of Galicia, the
Granada War The Granada War ( es, Guerra de Granada) was a series of military campaigns between 1482 and 1491 during the reign of the Catholic Monarchs, Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, against the Nasrid dynasty's Emirate of Granada. It e ...
, Columbus' expeditions etc...), he was still legally a foreigner. And after Isabella's death, his legal role in Castile was limited to temporarily presiding over the government until Joanna's arrival. Since Ferdinand had spearheaded the centrist policies that saw many of the Castilian nobility deprived of their feudal lands, rights, and privileges, from their perspective this was the ideal time for payback. And it was in their best interest to swiftly replace this seasoned monarch with a novice while they had the law on their side. Coincidentally, these were all the same nobles that joined the anti-Isabelline faction during the
War of the Castilian Succession The War of the Castilian Succession was the military conflict contested from 1475 to 1479 for the succession of the Crown of Castile fought between the supporters of Joanna 'la Beltraneja', reputed daughter of the late monarch Henry IV of Castile ...
. They, led by Diego Lopez de Pacheco, Marquess of Villena, Pedro Fernandez de Cordoba y Pacheco, Marquess of Priego, Juan Alonso Pérez de Guzmán, Duke of Medina Sidonia, and Juan Téllez-Girón, Count of Ureña demanded Ferdinand immediately vacate Castile. This was when the Marquess of Villena uttered the most infamous words: "''¡Viejo Catalanote, vuélvete a tu tierra!''" (Old Catalan, go back to your country!). Ferdinand only had a handful of nobles, albeit powerful, on his side. They included: Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alba, Íñigo López de Mendoza, Count of Tendilla, Fadrique Enríquez, Admiral of Castile, Bernardino Fernández de Velasco, Constable of Castile and Diego Fernández de Córdoba y Mendoza, Count of Cabra. With their backing, he sought to empower the regency clause stipulated in Isabella's will by having Joanna declared "''incapable of governing the realm''" in front of the Castilian Cortés convened at Toro. This didn't go as planned but a curious opportunity presented itself that proved greatly beneficial to Ferdinand's political aspirations: it seems Joanna's mental state had worsened while in Flanders, thus preventing Philip from immediately sailing over to Castile and establishing himself via his wife because up until then, Joanna's mental health issues were merely rumor. But if the Castilian nobles were to witness first hand her true state, everything could go wrong for Philip. On top of all this, Philip was forced to attend to the plight of Guelders, which was then occupied by Charles of Egmont. But all through this, Philip always had one staunch ally; his father, the Emperor Maximilian. But for whatever reason, Philip opted to also ally himself with Maximilian's enemy, Louis XII of France (possibly to encourage him to threaten Ferdinand in the Pyrenees front) early that year by signing the
Treaty of Blois (1504 The Treaty of Blois can refer to one of the four treaties signed in the French city of Blois, in the early sixteenth century, between the Spanish kingdoms and France: * Treaty of Blois (1504) (1st Treaty of Blois), of September 22, 1504, which prop ...
on 24 September, in which Philip recognized Louis' claims to the Duchy of Milan. The treaty also included a marriage between Philip's son Charles, and Louis' daughter Claude. This infuriated Maximilian and also forced Ferdinand to make an alliance of his own. On 12 October, Ferdinand and Louis signed the
Treaty of Blois (1505) The Treaty of Blois can refer to one of the four treaties signed in the French city of Blois, in the early sixteenth century, between the Spanish kingdoms and France: * Treaty of Blois (1504) (1st Treaty of Blois), of September 22, 1504, which prop ...
, which was an alliance strengthened by marriage. This treaty basically overwrote the previous treaty with Philip, and it stipulated that Ferdinand would marry Louis' niece,
Germaine of Foix Ursula Germaine of Foix (french: Ursule-Germaine de Foix; ca, Úrsula Germana de Foix; ; c. 1488 – 15 October 1536) was an early modern French noblewoman from the House of Foix. By marriage to King Ferdinand II of Aragon, she was Queen of Ar ...
, and restore the seized assets and titles of the Angevin party of Naples, and in return, Louis would transfer his disputed claims to Southern Italy and the throne of Jerusalem to her while also ensuring any military action taken by the Archduke or the Emperor against either Ferdinand or Louis would have to overcome a joint French-Aragonese force. This devastated Philip, who in just one day, had lost both his allies (Maximilian and Louis) and possibly the Crown of Aragon (because any male children born to Ferdinand and Germaine would bypass Joanna). This wasn't all beneficial to Ferdinand either. His second marriage, to a French princess no less, cost him the approval of Castile's majority population, who unlike the nobility, had lauded Ferdinand as their King. The people saw it as a blatant betrayal of Isabella. Ferdinand basically handed his political opponents material to further discredit him. But in the end, it was Philip who was mauled. So he entered into fresh negotiations with Ferdinand. On 24 November 1505, a concord was signed between Ferdinand and Philip (represented by Filiberto de Veyre) at
Salamanca Salamanca () is a city in western Spain and is the capital of the Province of Salamanca in the autonomous community of Castile and León. The city lies on several rolling hills by the Tormes River. Its Old City was declared a UNESCO World Herit ...
. In it, Ferdinand recognized Joanna's and by extension, Philip's, right to rule in Castile. While the couple would be invested as ''jure uxoris'' King and Queen proprietor of Castile, Ferdinand would run the realm's everyday affairs as "''Governor''". The royal income would be split in half between the couple and Ferdinand. Isabella's half of the Indies would pass over to the couple while Ferdinand retained his half as per the papal bull ''
Inter caetera ''Inter caetera'' ('Among other orks) was a papal bull issued by Pope Alexander VI on the 4 May () 1493, which granted to the Catholic Monarchs King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile all lands to the "west and south" of ...
'', and royal appointments were to be agreed upon by both parties. This treaty didn't last long and finally, on 8 January 1506, Philip and Joanna set sail from Flanders towards Castile. The nobles that sided with Ferdinand tried to convince him to confront Philip on the battlefield. Those that sided with Philip (especially the
Duke of Medina Sidonia Duke of Medina Sidonia ( es, Duque de Medina Sidonia) is a peerage grandee title of Spain in Medina-Sidonia, holding the oldest extant dukedom in the kingdom, first awarded by King John II of Castile in 1380.Juan Manuel, Lord of Belmonte Juan Manuel de Villena y de la Vega (died 1543) was a Castilian nobleman, third lord of Belmonte, member of the Order of the Golden Fleece, ''Contador mayor'' of Castile, reeve of Burgos, Segovia, Plasencia, Jaén and Atienza. Biography He w ...
(who would soon become the ''de facto'' Prime Minister of Castile under Philip) discouraged Philip from taking any such rash action. After a brief shipwreck in England, where Philip was forced to make concessions to Henry VII in return for his freedom, he initially planned to land in
Biscay Biscay (; eu, Bizkaia ; es, Vizcaya ) is a province of Spain and a historical territory of the Basque Country, heir of the ancient Lordship of Biscay, lying on the south shore of the eponymous bay. The capital and largest city is Bilbao. B ...
, which strongly rebuffed him, saying "''the land is loyal to the one sanctioned under the tree; the
Lord of Biscay The Lordship of Biscay ( es, Señorío de Vizcaya, Basque: ''Bizkaiko jaurerria'') was a region under feudal rule in the region of Biscay in the Iberian Peninsula between 1040 and 1876, ruled by a political figure known as the Lord of Biscay. On ...
''". So he opted for Corunna instead. He landed there at the head of an army of German mercenaries on 26 April 1506. The Castilian nobility was quick to flock to him. A curious event was Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros, Archbishop of Toledo, switching sides from Ferdinand to Philip. Nobody knew at the time this was orchestrated by Ferdinand himself. Both parties agreed to settle their disputes in a peaceful manner with the Archbishop serving as mediator. On 20 June 1506, the two men met for the first time since 1504 at Remesal, where Ferdinand promised to give up all "''claims and aspirations''" to the Castilian throne. On 27 and 28 June, the
Treaty of Villafáfila The Treaty of Villafáfila is a treaty signed by Ferdinand the Catholic in Villafáfila on 27 June 1506 and by Philip the Handsome in Benavente, Zamora, on 28 June. The treaty recognised the incapacity of Ferdinand's daughter and Philip's wife, J ...
was ratified in Benavente and
Villafáfila Villafáfila is a municipality located in the province of Zamora, Castile and León, Spain. According to the 2004 census (INE INE, Ine or ine may refer to: Institutions * Institut für Nukleare Entsorgung, a German nuclear research center * ...
respectively. In it, Ferdinand politically ceded to Philip, who was recognized as "''King and Governor of Castile''" and also "''Lord of the Indies''" although the rents and legal ownership of the Indies were split equally between Ferdinand and Philip. Most importantly, they agreed to keep Joanna away from running the Kingdom and if any tried to change this, both men would prevent it. With this, Philip's position in Castile was solid and Ferdinand departed Castile for the Crown of Aragon. Philip was invested by the Cortés of Valladolid as Philip I of Castile, and the nobles that sided with Ferdinand were forced to take oaths of fealty. But the Grand Tendilla vehemently refused, claiming that Mendozas couldn't and wouldn't serve "''a pretender''". After Ferdinand departed Castile, and Philip established himself there by making huge concessions to the nobility that supported him, it seemed as if the makeup of the Iberian peninsula had turned into what it was prior to 1475. Castile and Aragon were again, two separate realms, ruled by two separate monarchs who were hostile towards each other. Although Philip's reign was short (just shy of three months), a lot happened in that short period that threatened to eradicate everything Ferdinand and Isabella had worked for for 29 years. The conflict started with Ferdinand publicly renouncing every concession he had made in the Treaty of Villafáfila as soon as he was back in Aragon. He said that he was "coerced" into making them and contrary to what the treaty says, his daughter Joanna was the one and only Monarch of Castile, and he would staunchly defend his daughter's god-given rights if any were to impede on them. This was the signal for the nobles who had sided with Ferdinand early on to start rebelling from inside Philip's government. The
Admiral of Castile Admiral of Castile was the representative of the King of Castile at the head of the Navy. It was a dignity created in 1247 that lasted until 1705. Admiral of Castile The title of Admiral of Castile was created by King Ferdinand III the Saint in ...
(a cousin of Ferdinand) and the
Constable of Castile Constable of Castile ( es, Condestable de Castilla) was a title created by John I, King of Castile in 1382, to substitute the title ''Alférez Mayor del Reino''. The constable was the second person in power in the kingdom, after the King, and h ...
pressured Philip to let Joanna accompany him at every public event and co-sign every one of his decrees since she was the legal "''reina propietaria''". Thus Philip's grasp on Castile wasn't as secure as he thought. But he wasn't going to take this lying down. Philip started with refusing to extradite Cesare Borgia, who was imprisoned at the time in the
Castle of La Mota The Castle of La Mota or Castillo de La Mota is a medieval fortress, located in the town of Medina del Campo, province of Valladolid, Spain. It is so named because of its location on an elevated hill, a ''mota'' (in Spanish), from where it domin ...
, to Aragon despite him being an Aragonese POW. He then barred merchants from the Crown of Aragon from dealing with the
Casa de Contratación The ''Casa de Contratación'' (, House of Trade) or ''Casa de la Contratación de las Indias'' ("House of Trade of the Indies") was established by the Crown of Castile, in 1503 in the port of Seville (and transferred to Cádiz in 1717) as a cr ...
in Seville or from sponsoring direct expeditionary fleets into the Indies. This was basically a trade blockade. Ferdinand replied in kind by sponsoring privateer raids from Biscay targeting Flemish merchant vessels. He also expelled Castilians from the
Kingdom of Naples The Kingdom of Naples ( la, Regnum Neapolitanum; it, Regno di Napoli; nap, Regno 'e Napule), also known as the Kingdom of Sicily, was a state that ruled the part of the Italian Peninsula south of the Papal States between 1282 and 1816. It was ...
. A notable one was the Grand Captain (although Ferdinand and him remained life-long friends and Ferdinand bestowed on him with the most number of ducal titles held by any one man in all of Spain). Philip was being pressured on all sides but things were not over yet. A grain shortage hit Castile in 1506, coincidentally corresponding with the time Philip was invested as King. A deficiency in harvest was there since 1501 but this was the culmination of poor harvests and hoarding. In 1486, as part of his overall agrarian reforms, Ferdinand imposed a ceiling price of 124 maravedis per
fanega The fanega or Spanish bushel was an old measure of dry capacity in Spanish-speaking countries. It was generally used in an agricultural context to measure quantities of grain. The measure varied greatly, but in Castile, it was equivalent to ...
on wheat. This was revoked by Philip in 1506 as part of the aforementioned concessions made to the nobility. Little did he know the nobles had started to buy what little wheat was left and hoard it to artificially inflate the prices. This spiraled into a famine and the entire country was restless. But Philip wouldn't be alive to see that. On 16 September 1506, Philip had fallen dangerously ill after drinking a glass of cold water following a game of ball. It is recorded he did get better and went about his affairs comparatively well until he suddenly fell dead on 25 September while residing at the Casa del Cordón in Burgos. A rumor spread that the owner of the aforementioned residence, the
Constable of Castile Constable of Castile ( es, Condestable de Castilla) was a title created by John I, King of Castile in 1382, to substitute the title ''Alférez Mayor del Reino''. The constable was the second person in power in the kingdom, after the King, and h ...
(who also happened to be Ferdinand's son-in-law), had poisoned the King at the behest of Ferdinand. An autopsy was carried out that put these rumors to rest. Immediately following Philip's death, Joanna became beyond delirious, even prohibiting Philip's remains from being interred. After his last rites, a regency council was created presided over by the
Archbishop of Toledo This is a list of Bishops and Archbishops of Toledo ( la, Archidioecesis Metropolitae Toletana).
. He in turn sent word to Ferdinand to return and take over the regency as was stipulated in Isabella's will. Ferdinand refused until the request was co-signed by the Cortés of Castile, which it was. This started the second regency of Ferdinand.


La Empresa de África

When the Cortés of Castile sent word for Ferdinand to take over the regency, he was in
Naples Naples (; it, Napoli ; nap, Napule ), from grc, Νεάπολις, Neápolis, lit=new city. is the regional capital of Campania and the third-largest city of Italy, after Rome and Milan, with a population of 909,048 within the city's adminis ...
undertaking much needed reform in the new Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and its accompanying island-states (like
Malta Malta ( , , ), officially the Republic of Malta ( mt, Repubblika ta' Malta ), is an island country in the Mediterranean Sea. It consists of an archipelago, between Italy and Libya, and is often considered a part of Southern Europe. It lies ...
). As such, he endorsed Joanna to rule the best she could until he came over. The situation in Castile was not looking good. Apart from the aforementioned famine, the nobles having been emboldened by Philip's concessions, had set out to carve out semi-autonomous states of their own at the expense of the central government. Ferdinand sent over one of his most trusted military commanders; Pedro Navarro, Count of Oliveto to assess the situation and take necessary countermeasures. By 1507, after having limited the nobles to Seville, Navarro was to kickstart the long anticipated "''La Empresa de África''" campaign with the end goal being the Spanish standard flying over the Holy Land. In 1508, Ferdinand set his eyes on the newly established Kingdom of Bardis, which had gained its independence from the Kingdom of Fez in January that year with the help of the Venetians. Bardis was a corsair state that was accused of raiding the coastline of
Granada Granada (,, DIN 31635, DIN: ; grc, Ἐλιβύργη, Elibýrgē; la, Illiberis or . ) is the capital city of the province of Granada, in the autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Andalusia, Spain. Granada is located at the fo ...
and this was the casus belli Ferdinand intended to use. On 23 July 1508, a fleet led by Count Navarro conquered Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera. The Wattasid Sultan besought the neighbouring Muslim kings to intervene on his behalf but none did. But there was one that was furious at this blatant attempt at conquest; Ferdinand's son-in-law Manuel, King of Portugal, because this was rightfully the Portuguese area of influence as was established in the
Treaty of Tordesillas The Treaty of Tordesillas, ; pt, Tratado de Tordesilhas . signed in Tordesillas, Spain on 7 June 1494, and authenticated in Setúbal, Portugal, divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between the Portuguese Empire and the Spanish Emp ...
. Ironically, the Wattasid Sultan managed to bring the Spaniards and the Portuguese together when he tried to bite more than he could chew by besieging
Asilah Asilah (; ar, أزيلا or أصيلة; pt, Arzila; es, Arcila) is a fortified town on the northwest tip of the Atlantic coast of Morocco, about south of Tangier. Its ramparts and gateworks remain fully intact. History The town's history da ...
in 1508, which was at the time, part of the Portuguese Maritime Empire. Navarro was quick to send reinforcements from Vélez de la Gomera to break the siege. This unofficial alliance was made official by both Ferdinand and Manuel in 1509 by signing the
Treaty of Sintra A treaty is a formal, legally binding written agreement between actors in international law. It is usually made by and between sovereign states, but can include international organizations, individuals, business entities, and other legal perso ...
. The treaty established that, on the one hand, Portugal desist from any idea of conquest of the rock of Vélez de la Gomera and the rest of the territories that extended to the east, which would correspond to Spain because it was in the jurisdiction of the Kingdom of Fez, thus leaving
Melilla Melilla ( , ; ; rif, Mřič ; ar, مليلية ) is an autonomous city of Spain located in north Africa. It lies on the eastern side of the Cape Three Forks, bordering Morocco and facing the Mediterranean Sea. It has an area of . It was par ...
(already in Spanish hands since 1497) and
Cazaza Cazaza was a Spanish enclave on the western coast of Cape Three Forks, in what is today Morocco, around 18 km from Melilla. It was here that the exiled Boabdil, last Emir of Granada, landed when he left the Iberian Peninsula in 1492. In 15 ...
protected against any Portuguese claims. On the other hand, Spain recognized Portuguese sovereignty over the North African territories between Vélez and
Cape Bojador Cape Bojador ( ar, رأس بوجادور, trans. ''Rā's Būjādūr''; ber, ⴱⵓⵊⴷⵓⵔ, ''Bujdur''; Spanish and pt, Cabo Bojador; french: Cap Boujdour) is a headland on the west coast of Western Sahara, at 26° 07' 37"N, 14° 29' 57"W ...
(on the Atlantic coast). Additionally, it was agreed that whoever violated the terms of the treaty should pay a fine of 100,000 gold doubloons. This treaty was never violated or amended even with the 1529
Treaty of Zaragoza The Treaty of Zaragoza, also called the Capitulation of Zaragoza (alternatively spelled Saragossa) was a peace treaty between Castile and Portugal, signed on 22 April 1529 by King John III of Portugal and the Castilian emperor Charles V, in the ...
. This was basically the green light for the Spanish conquest of North Africa. An Aragonese armada under the command of Admiral Ramón de Cardona (rumoured to have been a bastard son of Ferdinand), carrying a joint Castilian-Aragonese army under the command of Diego Fernández de Córdoba y Arellano, Marquis of Comares, all under the spiritual guidance of
Cardinal Cisneros Cardinal or The Cardinal may refer to: Animals * Cardinal (bird) or Cardinalidae, a family of North and South American birds **'' Cardinalis'', genus of cardinal in the family Cardinalidae **''Cardinalis cardinalis'', or northern cardinal, t ...
had already conquered
Mers El Kébir Mers El Kébir ( ar, المرسى الكبير, translit=al-Marsā al-Kabīr, lit=The Great Harbor ) is a port on the Mediterranean Sea, near Oran in Oran Province, northwest Algeria. It is famous for the attack on the French fleet in 1940, in t ...
, which was then a part of the
Kingdom of Tlemcen The Kingdom of Tlemcen or Zayyanid Kingdom of Tlemcen ( ar, الزيانيون) was a Berber kingdom in what is now the northwest of Algeria. Its territory stretched from Tlemcen to the Chelif bend and Algiers, and at its zenith reached Sijil ...
, on 13 September 1505. This was to serve as a launchpad into the Kingdom of Tlemcen. All was ready for the
Spanish conquest of Oran (1509) The conquest of Oran by the Spanish Empire took place on May 1509, when an army led by Pedro Navarro on behalf of the Cardinal Cisneros seized the North African city, which was controlled by the Kingdom of Tlemcen. Background The Spanish captur ...
. On 16 May 1509, a large fleet carrying a total of 16,000 fighting men, that cost Ferdinand a whopping 40 million maravedis, set sail from Cartagena to Mers El Kébir. From there, the Spanish under the command of Pedro Navarro, launched an amphibious assault on the city of
Oran Oran ( ar, وَهران, Wahrān) is a major coastal city located in the north-west of Algeria. It is considered the second most important city of Algeria after the capital Algiers, due to its population and commercial, industrial, and cultural ...
which was quickly followed by an all-out ground assault on the 18th. The city fell within a day and on the 20th, Cardinal Cisneros entered the city amidst jubilation. This was followed by a string of victories at
Béjaïa Béjaïa (; ; ar, بجاية‎, Latn, ar, Bijāya, ; kab, Bgayet, Vgayet), formerly Bougie and Bugia, is a Mediterranean port city and commune on the Gulf of Béjaïa in Algeria; it is the capital of Béjaïa Province, Kabylia. Béjaïa is ...
,
Algiers Algiers ( ; ar, الجزائر, al-Jazāʾir; ber, Dzayer, script=Latn; french: Alger, ) is the capital and largest city of Algeria. The city's population at the 2008 Census was 2,988,145Census 14 April 2008: Office National des Statistiques ...
,
Tunis ''Tounsi'' french: Tunisois , population_note = , population_urban = , population_metro = 2658816 , population_density_km2 = , timezone1 = CET , utc_offset1 ...
,
Tlemcen Tlemcen (; ar, تلمسان, translit=Tilimsān) is the second-largest city in northwestern Algeria after Oran, and capital of the Tlemcen Province. The city has developed leather, carpet, and textile industries, which it exports through the p ...
, and
Tripoli Tripoli or Tripolis may refer to: Cities and other geographic units Greece *Tripoli, Greece, the capital of Arcadia, Greece * Tripolis (region of Arcadia), a district in ancient Arcadia, Greece * Tripolis (Larisaia), an ancient Greek city in ...
. By 1510, Ferdinand was master of a network of presidios along a 2,500-mile stretch of Maghribi coastline, from Cape Bojador on the Atlantic to Tripoli on the Mediterranean. The Italian humanist; Peter Matyr wrote: On 8 September 1510, Emery d’Amboise, Grandmaster of the Order of the Knights Hospitaller, based at
Rhodes Rhodes (; el, Ρόδος , translit=Ródos ) is the largest and the historical capital of the Dodecanese islands of Greece. Administratively, the island forms a separate municipality within the Rhodes regional unit, which is part of the So ...
, wrote to Ferdinand congratulating him on his recent victories in the African cities of Bougie and Tripoli. The Knights of Saint John had ordered solemn processions to mark the conquest of Tripoli, he related, and he expressed confidence that the Spanish would soon reach Mamluk Egypt, where Amboise's military order would join forces with them to “liberate” the Holy Land. He wrote: Much like the Grandmaster, some Spaniards (most notably Cardinal Cisneros) did hold evangelizing aspirations in Africa and worked towards that end. And Ferdinand was happy to represent his African conquest as a crusade, as a war undertaken for the faith and one that led inevitably toward a Christian recovery of the Holy Land. This, of course, allowed him to make use of the funds that were raised through the cruzada levy. For at least fifteen years, this continued to be the light in which Ferdinand's African enterprise was cast. In March 1510
Pope Julius II Pope Julius II ( la, Iulius II; it, Giulio II; born Giuliano della Rovere; 5 December 144321 February 1513) was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 1503 to his death in February 1513. Nicknamed the Warrior Pope or th ...
issued the solemn papal bull "''Sacrosanctae Romane''", in which he praised Ferdinand's efforts “''to bring an end, through blood and fire, to the perfidious sect of Islam''.” Julius went on to express optimism that the African expedition that Ferdinand was planning for that summer would lead, eventually, to the ultimate “''destruction of all vestiges of the impious superstition''
slam Slam, SLAM or SLAMS may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Fictional elements * S.L.A.M. (Strategic Long-Range Artillery Machine), a fictional weapon in the ''G.I. Joe'' universe * SLAMS (Space-Land-Air Missile Shield), a fictional anti-ball ...
. Pope Julius's words do not indicate whether he envisioned the conversion of African Muslims and the salvation of their souls or merely their death or subjugation as the geographical boundaries of Christendom were extended. For all the lip service Ferdinand paid to the ideals of crusade and (possibly) evangelization, in practice on the ground the King proved flexible and pragmatic, ever willing to work out an
ad hoc Ad hoc is a Latin phrase meaning literally 'to this'. In English, it typically signifies a solution for a specific purpose, problem, or task rather than a generalized solution adaptable to collateral instances. (Compare with '' a priori''.) C ...
system to preserve his conquered territories, even if that entailed abdicating the evangelical responsibilities imposed by a papal bull. Two months following Julius's Sacrosanctae Romane, Ferdinand wrote to Pedro Navarro, giving the commander instructions on how to negotiate terms with Muley Abdallah, the emir of recently conquered Bougie. What Ferdinand proposed was a condominium of sorts: he suggested that he would populate the African cities along the coast with Christians, but that the defeated emir would be allowed to control as much of the hinterland as he desired, maintaining control over his subjects, as well as all “rents, goods, and jurisdiction” (rentas, bienes, jurisdicción), while the coast should belong to Ferdinand and his successors. Along the coast, Ferdinand would enjoy complete jurisdiction over both the Christian and Muslim populations. Ferdinand would now be "Imperator totius Africa". In recognition of his vassalage, the Muslim ruler would pay an annual tribute to Ferdinand. The arrangement allowed for the possibility of Ferdinand's acquiring new Muslim subjects. While Spanish men of the cloth may have held evangelizing aspirations in Africa, such a mission does not appear to have been a priority for Ferdinand. If one were to look for Iberian analogues to this arrangement, it might be useful to think of Muley Abdallah as a ta’ifa king entering into a relationship of vassalage with Ferdinand. Seven months later, in December of the same year, Ferdinand wrote to Navarro again, this time giving him instructions to execute an attack on Tunis the following summer (1511). Ferdinand expressed hope that Navarro's expedition might conquer a large swath of land stretching into the interior. In the event that that should occur, wrote the king, he would "''receive the Muslims of the interior as
mudéjar Mudéjar ( , also , , ca, mudèjar , ; from ar, مدجن, mudajjan, subjugated; tamed; domesticated) refers to the group of Muslims who remained in Iberia in the late medieval period despite the Christian reconquest. It is also a term for ...
subjects''". This represented a significant departure from the injunctions to evangelize that were present in Sacrosanctae Romane and the earlier "''Ineffabilis et summi''". It seems that, by late 1510, Ferdinand had opted for a more traditionally medieval Iberian custom of allowing ongoing Islamic practice, by a mudéjar population now subject to a Christian ruler. As Tlemcen was incorporated into the Crown of Aragon, Ferdinand's policy vis-à-vis Muslim subjects was really no different from his policy within the
Crown of Aragon The Crown of Aragon ( , ) an, Corona d'Aragón ; ca, Corona d'Aragó, , , ; es, Corona de Aragón ; la, Corona Aragonum . was a composite monarchy ruled by one king, originated by the dynastic union of the Kingdom of Aragon and the County of ...
proper. That region of eastern Iberia would have a Muslim population up until his grandson;
Charles I Charles I may refer to: Kings and emperors * Charlemagne (742–814), numbered Charles I in the lists of Holy Roman Emperors and French kings * Charles I of Anjou (1226–1285), also king of Albania, Jerusalem, Naples and Sicily * Charles I of ...
, applied the edict mandating conversion or exile in 1526. Even as it accorded with his policy in Aragon, Ferdinand's approach in Africa stands in sharp contrast to the policies being simultaneously implemented in Granada. In 1511, Pedro Navarro was restationed to Italy with the Holy League declaring war on France. With that came the end of "La Empresa de África". The campaign was a massive success and although this process of Mediterranean expansion is less well known today than the contemporaneous incursions into the Americas, in the early sixteenth century it occupied a position of utmost importance in royal policy and, not unlike its American counterpart, Spain's Mediterranean expansion required legal buttressing in order to fend off European competitors and this would later serve as the blueprint for the Scramble for Africa.


Succession and Legacy


Succession

Probably Ferdinand's greatest blunder was the double marriage he jumped into with the Austrian Habsburgs on 20 January 1495, where his heir apparent, Infante John, was set to marry Emperor Maximilian's daughter, Princess Margaret. Maximilian's heir apparent,
Archduke Philip Philip the Handsome, es, Felipe, french: Philippe, nl, Filips (22 July 1478 – 25 September 1506), also called the Fair, was ruler of the Burgundian Netherlands and titular Duke of Burgundy from 1482 to 1506, as well as the first Habsburg Ki ...
, was to marry Ferdinand's daughter, Infanta Joanna (who was third-in-line to the throne at the time). In the short term, this proved greatly beneficial to both monarchs in the sense that it shook France, their immediate enemy, to its core. Any sense of danger to Ferdinand dissipated when in 1497 Infante John and Princess Margaret announced they were expecting a child, which tightly secured the Trastamara line. On 4 October 1497, while on his way to his daughter's wedding in Portugal, Ferdinand received a message that his son lay dangerously ill in
Salamanca Salamanca () is a city in western Spain and is the capital of the Province of Salamanca in the autonomous community of Castile and León. The city lies on several rolling hills by the Tormes River. Its Old City was declared a UNESCO World Herit ...
. He immediately rode to John with haste and reached his bedside moments before he died. That same day, John, Prince of Asturias and Girona, died in the arms of his father. On 8 December that same year, Princess Margaret gave birth to a stillborn daughter which effectively ended the joint-Trastamara line. Almost a year later, the next heir-apparent, Isabella of Aragon, Queen-consort of Portugal, died on 23 August 1498 in
Zaragoza Zaragoza, also known in English as Saragossa,''Encyclopædia Britannica'"Zaragoza (conventional Saragossa)" is the capital city of the Zaragoza Province and of the autonomous community of Aragon, Spain. It lies by the Ebro river and its tributari ...
while giving birth to a son, Infante Miguel da Paz. Hope was rekindled in the sense that under him, the entirety of Iberia ( Castile,
Aragon Aragon ( , ; Spanish and an, Aragón ; ca, Aragó ) is an autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. In northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces (from north to sou ...
and
Portugal Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic ( pt, República Portuguesa, links=yes ), is a country whose mainland is located on the Iberian Peninsula of Southwestern Europe, and whose territory also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of ...
) could be united. This proved fleeting because on 19 July 1500, he too died in
Granada Granada (,, DIN 31635, DIN: ; grc, Ἐλιβύργη, Elibýrgē; la, Illiberis or . ) is the capital city of the province of Granada, in the autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Andalusia, Spain. Granada is located at the fo ...
, effectively paving the way for Joanna and her husband Philip to ascend to the throne of Spain. Ferdinand was adamant on keeping the Habsburgs away from the throne. And Joanna's rumored mental health issues weren't helping. He tried to convince Isabella to bypass Joanna in the Castilian line of succession in favor of their 4th child, Mary of Aragon, Queen-consort of Portugal, and her husband, Manuel, King of Portugal. He promised to do the same for the Aragonese line of succession (women weren't allowed to ascend to the Aragonese throne without amending the existing articles of succession beforehand). But Isabella was adamant about sticking to tradition and the existing articles of primogeniture. The only other option Ferdinand had left was to split the Crown of Aragon from the union, disinherit Joanna (and by extension, Philip), and name a competing heir. This was something he found himself incapable of doing to his wife (at least, while she was alive). So, in 1502, Joanna and Philip were sworn in as the Princes of Asturias and Girona before the Cortés of Castile and Aragon respectively. From this point forth, the couple's grip on Castile was solid while in Aragon, right after their swearing-in ceremony, Alonso of Aragon, Archbishop of Zaragoza and Valencia loudly proclaimed that this was purely ceremonial since the articles of succession were yet to be amended and Ferdinand was still capable of siring male offspring. Regardless, now that Joanna was heir-apparent to the throne of Spain, her rumored mental health issues rose from being mere court gossip to the center of Europe's political stage. These rumors did have teeth as is seen in Isabella's own last will and testament. On 26 November 1504, Isabella died, but not before recognizing Joanna as her ''Universal Heir'' and ''Reina Propietaria'' (Queen Proprietor) in Castile as Joanna I of Castile and by extension, Philip as ''King-consort''. But in this same will, she included a phrase where if Joanna "''proved'' ''incapable of ruling''" or she outright didn't want to rule, Ferdinand was to assume the regency until their grandson Charles reached the age of 20. Ferdinand tried to empower the regency clause, but apart from the noble houses of Alvarez Toledo led by the
Duke of Alba Duke of Alba de Tormes ( es, Duque de Alba de Tormes), commonly known as Duke of Alba, is a title of Spanish nobility that is accompanied by the dignity of Grandee of Spain. In 1472, the title of ''Count of Alba de Tormes'', inherited by ...
, Mendoza led by the Grand Tendilla, Enríquez led by the
Admiral of Castile Admiral of Castile was the representative of the King of Castile at the head of the Navy. It was a dignity created in 1247 that lasted until 1705. Admiral of Castile The title of Admiral of Castile was created by King Ferdinand III the Saint in ...
, Frias led by the
Constable of Castile Constable of Castile ( es, Condestable de Castilla) was a title created by John I, King of Castile in 1382, to substitute the title ''Alférez Mayor del Reino''. The constable was the second person in power in the kingdom, after the King, and h ...
, none of the other Hidalgos (who made up 2/3 of Castile's nobility) supported Ferdinand. In fact they, led by the
Marquess of Priego Marquess of Priego ( es, marqués de Priego) is a hereditary noble title of the Kingdom of Spain that Ferdinand the Catholic granted on 9 December 1501 to Pedro Fernández de Córdoba y Pacheco, 7th Lord of Aguilar in Córdoba, of the house of C ...
(the Grand Captain's nephew) and the
Marquess of Villena Marquess of Villena ( es, Marqués de Villena) is a hereditary title in the Peerage of Spain, granted in 1445 by John II to Juan Pacheco, Grand Master of the Order of Santiago and later also 1st Duke of Escalona. It was originally founded as a ...
, were vehemently opposed to Ferdinand staying on Castilian soil much less preside over a regency. Philip briefly contemplated the option of armed conflict against Ferdinand by landing in
Andalusia Andalusia (, ; es, Andalucía ) is the southernmost autonomous community in Peninsular Spain. It is the most populous and the second-largest autonomous community in the country. It is officially recognised as a "historical nationality". The t ...
and sweeping up from the south. But he was talked out of it by the Lord of Belmonte, saying that depriving Ferdinand of any options and pushing him into a corner would leave him only one viable path, a path that led straight through Philip himself. So, the couple opted to land in Corunna on 28 April 1506 accompanied by an army of German mercenaries. The anti-Ferdinand faction was quick to flock to Philip. Ferdinand had one of two options: 1) start a civil war and risk a possible French-Austrian offensive or 2) retire peacefully. He chose option 2 and after meeting Philip and his "entourage" at Remesal, he signed the
Treaty of Villafáfila The Treaty of Villafáfila is a treaty signed by Ferdinand the Catholic in Villafáfila on 27 June 1506 and by Philip the Handsome in Benavente, Zamora, on 28 June. The treaty recognised the incapacity of Ferdinand's daughter and Philip's wife, J ...
on 27 June 1506 and retired to Aragon where he went about restructuring and reforming the newly conquered
Kingdom of Naples The Kingdom of Naples ( la, Regnum Neapolitanum; it, Regno di Napoli; nap, Regno 'e Napule), also known as the Kingdom of Sicily, was a state that ruled the part of the Italian Peninsula south of the Papal States between 1282 and 1816. It was ...
. On 12 July 1506, the Cortés of Valladolid legitimized Philip as the new ''de jure'' King of Castile as Philip I of Castile. But he reigned for less than 3 months before succumbing to
typhoid fever Typhoid fever, also known as typhoid, is a disease caused by '' Salmonella'' serotype Typhi bacteria. Symptoms vary from mild to severe, and usually begin six to 30 days after exposure. Often there is a gradual onset of a high fever over several ...
while in
Burgos Burgos () is a city in Spain located in the autonomous community of Castile and León. It is the capital and most populated municipality of the province of Burgos. Burgos is situated in the north of the Iberian Peninsula, on the confluence of ...
on 25 September 1506. By this point, Joanna was beyond delirious and a regency council was created, presided over by the
Archbishop of Toledo This is a list of Bishops and Archbishops of Toledo ( la, Archidioecesis Metropolitae Toletana).
. But now the Hidalgos, emboldened by Philip, seized portions of the country and challenged the central government's authority. On top of this, a famine hit as a result of devastated crop yields. The Cortés of Castile begged Ferdinand to take over the regency but he didn't come back until 1509, wherein which he led an army against the Marquess' of Priego and Villena and was given a triumph in Valladolid. That same year, in the face of his daughter's growing mental health issues, he confined her to the Palace of Tordesillas. To ease her transition, he allowed her daughter, Infanta Catherine, to accompany her during her confinement. Ferdinand is recorded to have said: "Sending my daughter into Tordesillas proved more draining than facing French cannons on the battlefield." From 1506 to 1516, Ferdinand, on top of ruling the Crown of Aragon and the Indies, also ruled as Regent of the Crown of Castile. Still adamant about keeping the Habsburgs out of his own realms if possible, he fathered a son; John, Prince of Girona, who was born to his second wife; Queen Germaine of Foix, on 3 May 1509. The child didn't survive for more than a few hours and it was back to square one. Ferdinand then briefly contemplated making his namesake, Spanish-born grandson; Infante Ferdinand, with whom he even shared a birthday, his heir in direct opposition to Charles but was talked out of it by the Archbishop of Toledo. On 23 January 1516, he died in
Madrigalejo Madrigalejo is a municipality located in the province of Cáceres, Extremadura, Spain. According to the 2006 census ( INE), the municipality has a population of 2075 inhabitants. In this village, Ferdinand II of Aragon Ferdinand II ( an, Fe ...
, and his last will and testament was unveiled; in which he had named Charles and Joanna, as his heir-apparents. Joanna's appointment as co-monarch was strictly nominal (as she would not be released from her confinement until the day she died) while the 16-year old Charles was who the actual burden of governance fell on. Ferdinand even dictated Charles be considered of legal age despite him being a minor with the express purpose of him taking over immediately because by this point, Spain couldn't afford an empty throne. This Charles didn't do (at the behest of his primary councilor;
William de Croÿ William II de Croÿ, Lord of Chièvres (1458 – 28 May 1521) (also known as: Guillaume II de Croÿ, sieur de Chièvres in French; Guillermo II de Croÿ, señor de Chièvres, Xevres or Xebres in Spanish; Willem II van Croÿ, heer van Chi ...
), which cost Spain dearly because while Spain lay idle, its enemies (namely, Selim the Lion) didn't.


Legacy

Ferdinand's most notable accomplishments would be the discovery of the Americas and the completion of the
Spanish Reconquista The ' (Spanish, Portuguese and Galician for "reconquest") is a historiographical construction describing the 781-year period in the history of the Iberian Peninsula between the Umayyad conquest of Hispania in 711 and the fall of the Nasri ...
. The idea of restoring Don Rodrigo's
kingdom Kingdom commonly refers to: * A monarchy ruled by a king or queen * Kingdom (biology), a category in biological taxonomy Kingdom may also refer to: Arts and media Television * ''Kingdom'' (British TV series), a 2007 British television drama s ...
was a goal instilled on him by his childhood tutor Margarit i Pau. Ferdinand could be classified as an immensely pragmatic, liberal soul (from freeing the Catalan Remences of their "6 evil customs" and granting them
emphyteusis Emphyteusis (Greek: implanting) is a contract for land that allows the holder the right to the enjoyment of a property, often in perpetuity, on condition of proper care, payment of tax and rent. The right encompasses assignment and of descent. His ...
to actively shielding the Mudejars of Valencia from reprisals during the
Granada War The Granada War ( es, Guerra de Granada) was a series of military campaigns between 1482 and 1491 during the reign of the Catholic Monarchs, Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, against the Nasrid dynasty's Emirate of Granada. It e ...
to legalizing interracial marriages throughout the Spanish realms). He was devout as a personal follower of Christ but he never let religion dictate his secular policies. He had no problem exploiting religious institutions for the betterment of his realm. For this, he's seen as less devout than his zealous wife. Under his reign, there were upwards of 6 higher educational institutions built throughout Spain. But the
University of Valencia The University of Valencia ( ca-valencia, Universitat de València ; also known as UV) is a public research university located in the city of Valencia, Spain. It is one of the oldest surviving universities in Spain, and the oldest in the Vale ...
, established in 1502, is arguably the greatest indicator of Ferdinand's vision as to what a proper education constitutes. A contemporary description of the students of the University of Valencia: In the words of Machiavelli; he rose from being a disputed king of a divided crown to the foremost monarch of Christendom (second to not even the Holy Roman Emperor). And along with him rose Spain; from being a patchwork of kingdoms sitting at the edge of the continent to the top powerplayer of continental Europe and by extension, the World. One of Ferdinand's most infamous traits was his reluctance to keep his word. He earned many critics due to this but he was always open about this particular trait of his. His reasoning was that he, nor anyone, should be obligated to stay within self-imposed, fixed parameters in the face of a total dissolution of them. He famously said: Ferdinand recognized the importance of progress (or the lack thereof in Christian Iberia) and he appropriated innovative inventions from the hub of progress; the Italian Peninsula, and gave them his own little twist. An example would be the concept of residential ambassadors and permanent embassies. The Italian city-states possessed them in a micro scale, limited to communicating within the peninsula. In between 1480 and 1490, Ferdinand launched this in a macro scale, with resident Spanish ambassadors in all the prominent courts:
Rome , established_title = Founded , established_date = 753 BC , founder = King Romulus (legendary) , image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg , map_caption ...
,
Venice Venice ( ; it, Venezia ; vec, Venesia or ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto Regions of Italy, region. It is built on a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by over 400  ...
,
London London is the capital and largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary down to the North Sea, and has been a majo ...
,
Brussels Brussels (french: Bruxelles or ; nl, Brussel ), officially the Brussels-Capital Region (All text and all but one graphic show the English name as Brussels-Capital Region.) (french: link=no, Région de Bruxelles-Capitale; nl, link=no, Bruss ...
,
Cairo Cairo ( ; ar, القاهرة, al-Qāhirah, ) is the capital of Egypt and its largest city, home to 10 million people. It is also part of the largest urban agglomeration in Africa, the Arab world and the Middle East: The Greater Cairo metro ...
and the migratory Imperial court. The Spanish ambassador to England would also serve as the ''unofficial'' Spanish ambassador to
Scotland Scotland (, ) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Covering the northern third of the island of Great Britain, mainland Scotland has a border with England to the southeast and is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean to the ...
. The Spanish foreign service under Ferdinand was so efficient that foreign monarchs were inclined to use Spanish diplomats (like Dr. Puebla and Bishop Ayala) as their own representatives to other nations. Ferdinand was a master of Pactism. He, quite accurately, could be called the ''Father of Pactism in Spain''. In the fashion of the Roman Emperor
Augustus Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pri ...
, he ruled his many realms with an iron-grip but he never made the inhabitants feel like they were dealing with an autocrat. In Catalonia for instance, he was initially rebuffed as his father's viceroy to the principality just before the outbreak of the Catalan civil war. After winning the war, Ferdinand didn't insist upon holding his victory over the principality's head as most would. He immediately embarked upon trying to find the root of the conflict, which was threefold: 1) The Catalans were still bitter about the Compromise of Capse. 2) The Catalans were under the impression that the
House of Trastamara A house is a single-unit residential building. It may range in complexity from a rudimentary hut to a complex structure of wood, masonry, concrete or other material, outfitted with plumbing, electrical, and heating, ventilation, and air condi ...
didn't give much regard to their ancient
fuero (), (), () or () is a Spanish legal term and concept. The word comes from Latin , an open space used as a market, tribunal and meeting place. The same Latin root is the origin of the French terms and , and the Portuguese terms and ; all ...
s. 3) The Catalans blamed the Trastamaras for them losing their 12th-14th century splendor and prestige. Ferdinand couldn't change his lineage but he could change the perception of it. He undertook a number of drastic reforms that culminated with
Barcelona Barcelona ( , , ) is a city on the coast of northeastern Spain. It is the capital and largest city of the autonomous community of Catalonia, as well as the second most populous municipality of Spain. With a population of 1.6 million within ci ...
regaining its lost position as the prime spot of the western mediterranean. He enlisted the help of the Mamluk Sultan Quitbay by having him sign off on an exclusive Cairo-Barcelona trade route in 1484 that proved extremely lucrative. Now that prosperity was restored, Ferdinand set about enforcing the rule of law by first drafting the Constitució de l'Observança, which called for compliance, even by the King, to the laws of the land. Ferdinand famously said: "It would be of little value to make laws and constitutions if they were not observed." Then he established the Real Audiencia de Cataluña as the highest civil court of the land in 1492. With these, any notion of absolutism had dissipated and the Principality fully backed Ferdinand in all his endeavors. It is not like these reforms did not have its critics. Ferdinand was almost killed on the steps of the
Plaça del Rei Plaça del Rei (meaning "King's Square" in Catalan, in es, Plaza del Rey) is a 14th-century medieval public square in the Barri Gòtic of Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. http://www.fodors.com/world/europe/spain/barcelona/review-115955.html FODOR T ...
on 18, October 1492. Ferdinand's legacy, in a nutshell, would be the physical manifestation of the idea that was "Spain". By 1513, the territory that encompasses modern-day Spain had been completely acquired and it was larger than at any point in history; stretching from the Pacific coast of
Central America Central America ( es, América Central or ) is a subregion of the Americas. Its boundaries are defined as bordering the United States to the north, Colombia to the south, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. ...
to
Tripoli Tripoli or Tripolis may refer to: Cities and other geographic units Greece *Tripoli, Greece, the capital of Arcadia, Greece * Tripolis (region of Arcadia), a district in ancient Arcadia, Greece * Tripolis (Larisaia), an ancient Greek city in ...
in the
Mediterranean The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western Europe, Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa ...
. If custodianship is a valid metric, one could argue Ferdinand's Spain had a realistic foothold in the
Levant The Levant () is an approximate historical geographical term referring to a large area in the Eastern Mediterranean region of Western Asia. In its narrowest sense, which is in use today in archaeology and other cultural contexts, it is eq ...
; with Mamluk Sultan Al-Ghuri bestowing custodianship of all Christians living in
Jerusalem Jerusalem (; he, יְרוּשָׁלַיִם ; ar, القُدس ) (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names); grc, Ἱερουσαλήμ/Ἰεροσόλυμα, Hierousalḗm/Hierosóluma; hy, Երուսաղեմ, Erusałēm. i ...
,
Bethlehem Bethlehem (; ar, بيت لحم ; he, בֵּית לֶחֶם '' '') is a city in the central West Bank, Palestine, about south of Jerusalem. Its population is approximately 25,000,Amara, 1999p. 18.Brynen, 2000p. 202. and it is the capital o ...
, Ramallah and
Beirut Beirut, french: Beyrouth is the capital and largest city of Lebanon. , Greater Beirut has a population of 2.5 million, which makes it the third-largest city in the Levant region. The city is situated on a peninsula at the midpoint o ...
to Ferdinand in 1504. In his own words:


Possible Jewish ancestry

This notion was pushed into the mainstream by
Pope Julius II Pope Julius II ( la, Iulius II; it, Giulio II; born Giuliano della Rovere; 5 December 144321 February 1513) was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 1503 to his death in February 1513. Nicknamed the Warrior Pope or th ...
, who behind Ferdinand's back, addressed him as "the Marrano King". Ferdinand's inner circle that was predominantly made up of conversos certainly didn't help mitigate the accusations. But it is known that Julius was pretty prejudicial towards all Iberians and he often used such sobriquet to describe them in general. Another notable person he addressed as such would be his predecessor; Pope Alexander VI. In Ferdinand's case, however, there was some truth to it. Everything seems to point to the fact that he did indeed possess Jewish ancestry, albeit remote, from his mother's side. Ferdinand's mother; Queen Joanna Enríquez, was a Trastámara as well, although unlike her husband, she belonged to a junior cadet branch of the dynasty: the
House of Enríquez The House of Enríquez is a Spanish noble lineage of royal origin. History The House of Enríquez originated in the Crown of Castile, in the person of Frederick of Castile (Casa de Borgoña), natural son of King Alfonso XI of Castile and E ...
. This famous and powerful Castilian clan was founded by her grandfather; Alfonso Enríquez, Admiral of Castile. He was one of the bastard sons of Frederick of Castile, who was in turn the twin brother of King Henry II of Castile (both were two of many bastard children of Alfonso XI of Castile and his mistress
Eleanor de Guzmán Leonor (Eleanor) de Guzmán y Ponce de León (1310–1351) was a Castilian noblewoman. After roughly 1330, she became the long-term mistress and favourite of Alfonso XI, with whom she had the illegitimate Henry "the Fratricidal", future first mona ...
). The supporters of
Peter I of Castile Peter ( es, Pedro; 30 August 133423 March 1369), called the Cruel () or the Just (), was King of Castile and León from 1350 to 1369. Peter was the last ruler of the main branch of the House of Ivrea. He was excommunicated by Pope Urban V for ...
(Frederick's half-brother) claimed Alfonso was the fruit of an adulterous relationship between Frederick and Peter's wife; Blanche of Bourbon, Queen Blanche of Bourbon in an attempt to justify Peter's cruelty towards her. But even though scholars have not reached a consensus as far as the identity of Alonso's mother is concerned, it seems he was indeed the son of a converso woman. There is an anecdote about how Alfonso's Jewish roots proved an obstacle in obtaining the hand of a Castilian noblewoman; Juana of Mendoza, Juana de Mendoza. Galíndez de Carvajal in his additions to 'Generaciones y semblanzas' by Fernán Pérez del Pulgar, relates the famous instance of which Alfonso slapped his future bride after she declined his proposal in public, saying: "Never! Never! Doña Juana de Mendoza will never marry the son of a Jewish woman!" There is another piece of evidence pertaining to Alfonso's descent from conversos. An anonymous author in a plea to Lope de Barrientos, Lope de Barrientos, Bishop of Cuenca, protesting against looting and slaughter of Jews that happened in Toledo in 1449, describes the lineages related to Jews and conversos: "Going further up, it is not necessary to recount the children, grandchildren and great-grandchildren of the noble gentleman and of great authority, the admiral Don Alonso Henriquez, who on one side descends from Don Alfonso [Alfonso XI of Castile] and Don Henrique el Viejo [Henry II of Castile], and on the other side, comes from this [Jewish] lineage." The Portuguese chronicler Fernão Lopes, Fernao Lopes was one of the first ones to put forward a theory generally accepted by modern historians: that the Admiral was the son of a Jewish woman called 'Paloma'. Doña Paloma was apparently a converso born in Guadalcanal, Seville, Guadalcanal, who also happened to be a concubine of Frederick of Castile. Other scholars such as Diego Ortiz de Zúñiga contest her place of birth as having been Llerena, Badajoz, Llerena. According to Dr. Mario Sabán, Paloma's full name was Yonati "Paloma" Bat Gedaliah and she was the daughter of Shelomo Ha Zaken Ben David. There is also a recorded instance where while Ferdinand was engaged in Falconry, his falcon started pursuing a heron and flew out of sight before giving up to start chasing after a dove. Ferdinand, having lost track, inquired one of his accompanying nobles; Martín de Rojas, as to the whereabouts of his falcon, to which he responded "Señor, there it goes after our grandmother" ("dove" in Spanish is "paloma"). It was generally regarded that most of the then Castilian nobility were descendants of Paloma. "There is almost no gentleman who is not descended from Doña Paloma" happened to be a common ballad at the time. Another most notable house attached to Doña Paloma was the Ducal House of Alba. Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo, 2nd Duke of Alba, Frederick Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alba (a cousin of King Ferdinand and grandfather of the famous Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba, Iron Duke), was also thought to have had Jewish ancestry.


Children

With his first wife, Isabella I of Castile (whom he married on 19 October 1469), King Ferdinand had seven children: # Isabella of Aragon, Queen of Portugal, Isabel of Aragon (1470–1498), Princess of Asturias and Girona (1497–1498). She married first Afonso, Prince of Portugal, then after his death married his uncle Prince Manuel, the future Manuel I of Portugal, King Manuel I of Portugal. She died giving birth to her son, Miguel da Paz, Prince of Portugal, Miguel da Paz, Crown Prince of Portugal and Spain who, in turn, died in infancy. # A son, miscarried on 31 May 1475 in Cebreros. # John, Prince of Asturias, Juan of Aragon (1478–1497), Prince of Asturias (1478–1497) and Girona (1479–1497). He married Margaret of Habsburg. He died of tuberculosis and his posthumous child with Margaret was stillborn. # Joanna of Castile, Juana of Aragon (1479–1555), Princess of Asturias (1500–1504) and Girona (1500–1516) and Queen of Castile (1504–1555) and Aragon (1516–1555). She married
Archduke Philip Philip the Handsome, es, Felipe, french: Philippe, nl, Filips (22 July 1478 – 25 September 1506), also called the Fair, was ruler of the Burgundian Netherlands and titular Duke of Burgundy from 1482 to 1506, as well as the first Habsburg Ki ...
and was the mother of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, King Charles I of Spain (also known as Charles V). Due to her mental instability, she was confined to the Tordesillas, Palace of Tordesillas indefinitely by her father and son. # Maria of Aragon, Queen of Portugal, Maria of Aragon (1482–1517). She married King Manuel I of Portugal, the widower of her elder sister Isabella, and was the mother of John III of Portugal, King John III of Portugal and of the Henry, King of Portugal, Cardinal-King Henry I of Portugal. # The stillborn twin of Maria of Aragon, Queen of Portugal, Maria (sex disputed). Born on 1 July 1482. # Catherine of Aragon, Catalina of Aragon (1485–1536). She married first Arthur, Prince of Wales, son and heir of Henry VII of England, King Henry VII of England. After Prince Arthur's death, she married his brother Henry, Duke of York, who also became Prince of Wales and then Henry VIII of England, King Henry VIII. By marriage, she was Queen of England, and was the mother of Mary I of England, Queen Mary I of England. With his second wife,
Germaine of Foix Ursula Germaine of Foix (french: Ursule-Germaine de Foix; ca, Úrsula Germana de Foix; ; c. 1488 – 15 October 1536) was an early modern French noblewoman from the House of Foix. By marriage to King Ferdinand II of Aragon, she was Queen of Ar ...
(whom he married on 19 October 1505), King Ferdinand had one son: # Juan of Aragon, Prince of Girona, who died hours after being born on 3 May 1509. He also left several illegitimate children, two of them were born before his marriage to Isabella: With Aldonza de Ivorra, Aldonza Ruiz de Iborre y Alemany, a Catalan noblewoman from Cervera, he had: * Alonso de Aragón, Alonso of Aragón (1469–1520). Archbishop of Zaragoza and Valencia. With Joana Nicolaua, a Valencian noblewoman from Xàtiva, he had: * Juana of Aragón, Countess of Castilnuovo, Juana of Aragón (1469 – 1510). Countess of Castilnuovo and by marriage to Bernardino Fernández de Velasco, 1st Duke of Frías, Countess of Haro and Duchess of Frias. With Luisa de Estrada, an Asturian noblewoman from Llanes, he had: * Alonso de Estrada (1470-1530). Duke of Aragón, Treasurer and Governor of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. With Toda de Larrea, a Basque noblewoman from Álava, he had: * Maria Blanca of Aragon, Maria Blanca (1477 – 1537). Prioress of the :es:Convento Agustino de Extramuros (Madrigal de las Altas Torres), Monasterio de Nuestra Señora de Gracia in Ávila. With Juana Pereira of Alcáçovas, Juana Pereira, a Portuguese noblewoman from Alcântara (Lisbon), Alcântara, he had: * Maria Esperanza of Aragon, Maria Esperanza (1480 - 1548). Abbess of the :es:Convento Agustino de Extramuros (Madrigal de las Altas Torres), Monasterio de Nuestra Señora de Gracia in Ávila. With Nazari Aixa bint Muhammad, daughter of the last Nasrid Sultan, Muhammad XII of Granada, he had: * Miguel Fernandez, Knight of Granada, Miguel Fernandez (1494 – 1575). Knight of Granada, ''titular'' Prince of the New Kingdom of Granada, Kingdom of New Granada and Secretary to Francesco Melzi, Niccolò Machiavelli and Pope Adrian VI.


Ancestry


Honours

* Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece, Order of the Fleece * Knight of the Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation, Order of the Collar * Knight of the Order of the Garter * Grand Master of the Order of the Jar * Grand Master of the Order of Santiago * Grand Master of the Order of Calatrava * Grand Master of the Order of Alcantara * Grand Master of the Order of Montesa


Heraldry


Depiction in film and television


Films


TV series


See also

*
Catholic Monarchs The Catholic Monarchs were Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, whose marriage and joint rule marked the ''de facto'' unification of Spain. They were both from the House of Trastámara and were second cousins, being bot ...
*Spanish Empire


References


External links

* , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - {{DEFAULTSORT:Ferdinand 02 Of Aragon Ferdinand II of Aragon, 1452 births 1516 deaths 15th-century Castilian monarchs 16th-century Castilian monarchs 15th-century Aragonese monarchs 16th-century Aragonese monarchs 15th-century Kings of Sicily 16th-century Kings of Sicily 16th-century monarchs of Naples 16th-century Navarrese monarchs Aragonese infantes Burials at the Royal Chapel of Granada Counts of Barcelona Dukes of Montblanc Knights of the Garter Grand Masters of the Order of Santiago House of Argavieso, Ferdinand 2 House of Trastámara Jure uxoris kings Remarried royal consorts Knights of Santiago Knights of the Golden Fleece Monarchs of Majorca People from Cinco Villas, Aragon People of the Reconquista Regents of Castile Spanish Renaissance people Valencian monarchs Counts of Malta