An echocardiography, echocardiogram, cardiac echo or simply an echo, is an
ultrasound
Ultrasound is sound waves with frequencies higher than the upper audible limit of human hearing. Ultrasound is not different from "normal" (audible) sound in its physical properties, except that humans cannot hear it. This limit varies ...
of the
heart
The heart is a muscular organ in most animals. This organ pumps blood through the blood vessels of the circulatory system. The pumped blood carries oxygen and nutrients to the body, while carrying metabolic waste such as carbon dioxide to t ...
.
It is a type of medical imaging of the heart, using standard ultrasound or
Doppler ultrasound
Doppler ultrasonography is medical ultrasonography that employs the Doppler effect to perform imaging of the movement of tissues and body fluids (usually blood), and their relative velocity to the probe. By calculating the frequency shift of a ...
.
Echocardiography has become routinely used in the diagnosis, management, and follow-up of patients with any suspected or known heart diseases. It is one of the most widely used diagnostic imaging modalities in cardiology. It can provide a wealth of helpful information, including the size and shape of the heart (internal chamber size quantification), pumping capacity, location and extent of any tissue damage, and assessment of valves. An echocardiogram can also give physicians other estimates of heart function, such as a calculation of the cardiac output,
ejection fraction
An ejection fraction (EF) is the volumetric fraction (or portion of the total) of fluid (usually blood) ejected from a chamber (usually the heart) with each contraction (or heartbeat). It can refer to the cardiac atrium, ventricle, gall bladder, ...
, and
diastolic
Diastole ( ) is the relaxed phase of the cardiac cycle when the chambers of the heart are re-filling with blood. The contrasting phase is systole when the heart chambers are contracting. Atrial diastole is the relaxing of the atria, and ventricu ...
function (how well the heart relaxes).
Echocardiography is an important tool in assessing wall motion abnormality in patients with suspected cardiac disease. It is a tool which helps in reaching an early diagnosis of
myocardial infarction
A myocardial infarction (MI), commonly known as a heart attack, occurs when blood flow decreases or stops to the coronary artery of the heart, causing damage to the heart muscle. The most common symptom is chest pain or discomfort which may ...
, showing regional wall motion abnormality. Also, it is important in treatment and follow-up in patients with heart failure, by assessing
ejection fraction
An ejection fraction (EF) is the volumetric fraction (or portion of the total) of fluid (usually blood) ejected from a chamber (usually the heart) with each contraction (or heartbeat). It can refer to the cardiac atrium, ventricle, gall bladder, ...
.
Echocardiography can help detect
cardiomyopathies
Cardiomyopathy is a group of diseases that affect the heart muscle. Early on there may be few or no symptoms. As the disease worsens, shortness of breath, feeling tired, and swelling of the legs may occur, due to the onset of heart failure. A ...
, such as hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, dilated cardiomyopathy, and many others. The use of stress echocardiography may also help determine whether any chest pain or associated symptoms are related to heart disease. The biggest advantage of echocardiography is that it is not invasive (does not involve breaking the skin or entering body cavities) and has no known risks or side effects.
Not only can an echocardiogram create ultrasound images of heart structures, but it can also produce accurate assessment of the blood flowing through the heart by Doppler echocardiography, using pulsed- or continuous-wave Doppler ultrasound. This allows assessment of both normal and abnormal blood flow through the heart. Color Doppler, as well as spectral Doppler, is used to visualize any abnormal communications between the left and right sides of the heart, any leaking of blood through the valves (valvular regurgitation), and estimate how well the valves open (or do not open in the case of valvular stenosis). The Doppler technique can also be used for tissue motion and velocity measurement, by
tissue Doppler echocardiography
Tissue Doppler echocardiography (TDE) is a medical ultrasound technology, specifically a form of echocardiography that measures the velocity of the heart muscle (myocardium) through the phases of one or more heartbeats by the Doppler effect (freque ...
.
Echocardiography was also the first ultrasound subspecialty to use intravenous contrast. Echocardiography is performed by cardiac sonographers, cardiac physiologists (UK), or physicians trained in echocardiography.
Recognized as the "Father of Echocardiography", the Swedish physician
Inge Edler
Inge Gudmar Edler (17 March 1911 – 6 March 2001) was a Swedish cardiologist, who in collaboration with Carl Hellmuth Hertz developed medical ultrasonography and echocardiography
An echocardiography, echocardiogram, cardiac echo or simply a ...
(1911–2001), a graduate of
Lund University
, motto = Ad utrumque
, mottoeng = Prepared for both
, established =
, type = Public research university
, budget = SEK 9 billion Floyd Firestone had developed to detect defects in metal castings. In fact, Edler in 1953 produced the first echocardiographs using an industrial Firestone-Sperry Ultrasonic Reflectoscope. In developing echocardiography, Edler worked with the physicist
Carl Hellmuth Hertz
Carl Hellmuth Hertz (also written Carl Helmut Hertz, October 15, 1920 – April 29, 1990) was a German physicist known primarily for being involved in the development of inkjet technology and ultrasound technology. He was the son of Gustav Lud ...
Gustav Hertz
Gustav Ludwig Hertz (; 22 July 1887 – 30 October 1975) was a German experimental physicist and Nobel Prize winner for his work on inelastic electron collisions in gases, and a nephew of Heinrich Rudolf Hertz.
Biography
Hertz was born in Hamb ...
and grandnephew of
Heinrich Rudolph Hertz
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz ( ; ; 22 February 1857 – 1 January 1894) was a German physicist who first conclusively proved the existence of the electromagnetic waves predicted by James Clerk Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism. The unit ...
.
Medical uses
Health societies recommend the use of echocardiography for initial diagnosis when a change in the patient's clinical status occurs and when new data from an echocardiogram would result in the physician changing the patient's care. Health societies do not recommend routine testing when the patient has no change in clinical status or when a physician is unlikely to change care for the patient based on the results of testing.
A common example of overuse of echocardiography when not indicated is the use of routine testing in response to a patient diagnosis of mild
valvular heart disease
Valvular heart disease is any cardiovascular disease process involving one or more of the four valves of the heart (the aortic and mitral valves on the left side of heart and the pulmonic and tricuspid valves on the right side of heart). These ...
. In this case, patients are often asymptomatic for years before the onset of deterioration and the results of the echocardiogram would not result in a change in care without other change in clinical status.
Echocardiography now has a vast role in pediatrics, diagnosing patients with valvular heart disease and other congenital abnormalities. An emerging branch is
fetal echocardiography
Fetal echocardiography, or Fetal echocardiogram, is the name of the test used to diagnose cardiac conditions in the fetal stage. Cardiac defects are amongst the most common birth defects.
Their diagnosis is important in the fetal stage as it might ...
, which involves echocardiography of an unborn fetus.
Types
There are three primary types of echocardiography: transthoracic, transesophageal, and intracardic.
Stress testing utilizes tranthoracic echo in combination with an exercise modality (e.g., a treadmill).
Intravascular ultrasound is included below, but is as the name indicates more "ultrasound" than "echocardiography" as it is imaging the walls of a vessel rather than the heart.
Transthoracic echocardiogram
A standard echocardiogram is also known as a transthoracic echocardiogram (TTE) or cardiac ultrasound; and it is used for rapid evaluation of a patient at their bedside. In this case, the echocardiography transducer (or probe) is placed on the chest wall (or
thorax
The thorax or chest is a part of the anatomy of humans, mammals, and other tetrapod animals located between the neck and the abdomen. In insects, crustaceans, and the extinct trilobites, the thorax is one of the three main divisions of the cre ...
) of the subject, and images are taken through the chest wall. This is a non-invasive, highly accurate, and quick assessment of the overall health of the heart.
Transesophageal echocardiogram
A transesophageal echocardiogram is an alternative way to perform an echocardiogram. A specialized probe containing an ultrasound transducer at its tip is passed into the patient's
esophagus
The esophagus ( American English) or oesophagus (British English; both ), non-technically known also as the food pipe or gullet, is an organ in vertebrates through which food passes, aided by peristaltic contractions, from the pharynx to ...
, allowing image and Doppler evaluation from a location directly behind the heart. It is most often used when transthoracic images are suboptimal and when a clearer and more precise image is needed for assessment. This test is performed in the presence of a cardiologist, registered nurse, and ultrasound technologist. Conscious sedation and/or localized numbing medication may be used to make the patient more comfortable during the procedure.
Stress echocardiography
A stress echocardiogram, also known as a stress echo, uses ultrasound imaging of the heart to assess the wall motion in response to physical stress. First, images of the heart are taken "at rest" to acquire a baseline of the patient's wall motion at a resting heart rate. The patient then walks on a treadmill or uses another exercise modality to increase the heart rate to his or her target heart rate, or 85% of the age-predicted maximum heart rate (220 − patient's age). Finally, images of the heart are taken "at stress" to assess wall motion at the peak heart rate. A stress echo assesses wall motion of the heart; it does not, however, create an image of the coronary arteries directly. Ischemia of one or more coronary arteries could cause a wall motion abnormality, which could indicate coronary artery disease. The gold standard test to directly create an image of the coronary arteries and directly assess for stenosis or occlusion is a cardiac catheterization. A stress echo is not invasive and is performed in the presence of a licensed medical professional, such as a cardiologist, and a cardiac sonographer.
Intracardiac echocardiography
Intracardiac echocardiography (ICE) is specialized form of echocardiography that uses catheters to insert the ultrasound probe inside the heart to view structures in 2D.
ICE is often used as a part of the cardiac procedure of crossing the
interatrial septum
The interatrial septum is the wall of tissue that separates the right and left atria of the heart.
Structure
The interatrial septum is a that lies between the left atrium and right atrium of the human heart. The interatrial septum lies at angl ...
with a transseptal puncture to permit catheter access from the right atrium to the left atrium.
ICE has the benefit over transthoracic echocardiography in that an operator who is performing a sterile procedure can also operate the ICE catheter and ICE is not limited to visibility problems that can arise with transthoracic echo.
ICE is often inserted through the femoral vein and into the right atrium.
From the right atrium, visualization of the interatrial septum, all four cardiac chambers, all four valves, and the pericardial space (for an effusion) can be readily visualized.
Intravascular ultrasound
Intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) is a specialized form of echocardiography that uses a catheter to insert the ultrasound probe inside blood vessels. This is commonly used to measure the size of blood vessels and to measure the internal diameter of the blood vessel. For example, this can be used in a
coronary angiogram
A coronary catheterization is a minimally invasive procedure to access the coronary circulation and blood filled chambers of the heart using a catheter. It is performed for both diagnostic and interventional (treatment) purposes.
Coronary cathe ...
to assess the narrowing of the coronary artery. If the catheter is retraced in a controlled manner, then an internal map can be generated to see the contour of the vessel and its branches.
Modes
The various modes listed below essentially describe how the ultrasound crystals are used to obtain information.
These modes are common to all types of echocardiography.
A-mode
Amplitude mode is not a mode used in modern echocardiography.
B-mode / 2D
Brightness mode is often synonymous with "2D" and is very commonly used in echocardiography.
M-mode
Motion mode is infrequently used in modern echocardiography. It has specific uses and has the benefit of very high temporal fidelity (e.g., measuring LV size at end diastole).
Strain rate imaging is an ultrasound method for imaging regional differences in contraction (dyssynergy) in for instance ischemic heart disease or dyssynchrony due to
Bundle branch block
A bundle branch block is a defect in one the bundle branches in the electrical conduction system of the heart.
Anatomy and physiology
The heart's electrical activity begins in the sinoatrial node (the heart's natural pacemaker), which is situat ...
. Strain rate imaging measures either regional systolic deformation (strain) or the rate of regional deformation (strain rate). The methods used are either
tissue Doppler
Tissue Doppler echocardiography (TDE) is a medical ultrasound technology, specifically a form of echocardiography that measures the velocity of the heart muscle ( myocardium) through the phases of one or more heartbeats by the Doppler effect (fre ...
or
Speckle tracking echocardiography
In the fields of cardiology and medical imaging, speckle tracking echocardiography (STE) is an echocardiographic imaging technique. It analyzes the motion of tissues in the heart by using the naturally occurring speckle pattern in the myocardium ...
.
Three-dimensional echocardiography
Three-dimensional echocardiography (also known as
four-dimensional
A four-dimensional space (4D) is a mathematical extension of the concept of three-dimensional or 3D space. Three-dimensional space is the simplest possible abstraction of the observation that one only needs three numbers, called ''dimensions'', ...
echocardiography when the picture is moving) is now possible, using a matrix array ultrasound probe and an appropriate processing system. It enables detailed anatomical assessment of cardiac pathology, particularly valvular defects, and cardiomyopathies. The ability to slice the virtual heart in infinite planes in an anatomically appropriate manner and to reconstruct three-dimensional images of anatomic structures make it unique for the understanding of the congenitally malformed heart. Real-time three-dimensional echocardiography can be used to guide the location of bioptomes during right ventricular endomyocardial biopsies, placement of catheter-delivered valvular devices, and in many other intraoperative assessments.
Three-dimensional echocardiography technology may feature anatomical intelligence, or the use of organ-modeling technology, to automatically identify anatomy based on generic models. All generic models refer to a dataset of anatomical information that uniquely adapts to variability in patient anatomy to perform specific tasks. Built on feature recognition and segmentation algorithms, this technology can provide patient-specific three-dimensional modeling of the heart and other aspects of the anatomy, including the brain, lungs, liver, kidneys, rib cage, and vertebral column.
Contrast echocardiography
Contrast echocardiography or contrast-enhanced ultrasound is the addition of an ultrasound contrast medium, or imaging agent, to traditional ultrasonography. The ultrasound contrast is made up of tiny microbubbles filled with a gas core and protein shell. This allows the microbubbles to circulate through the cardiovascular system and return the ultrasound waves, creating a highly reflective image. There are multiple applications in which contrast-enhanced ultrasound can be useful. The most commonly used application is in the enhancement of LV endocardial borders for assessment of global and regional systolic function. Contrast may also be used to enhance visualization of wall thickening during stress echocardiography, for the assessment of LV thrombus, or for the assessment of other masses in the heart. Contrast echocardiography has also been used to assess blood perfusion throughout myocardium in the case of coronary artery disease.
Accreditation
Echocardiography can at many times be subjective, meaning that the person reading the echo may have personal input that affects the interpretation of the findings, leading to so-called "inter-observer variability", where different echocardiographers might produce different reports when examining the same images. It necessitated the development of accreditation programs around the world. The aim of such programs is to standardize the practice of echocardiography and to ensure that practitioners have the proper training prior to practicing echocardiography which will eventually limit inter-observer variability.
Europe
At the European level individual and laboratory accreditation is provided by the European Association of Echocardiography (EAE). There are three subspecialties for individual accreditation: Adult Transthoracic Echocardiography (TTE), Adult Transesophageal Echocardiography (TEE) and Congenital Heart Disease Echocardiography (CHD).
UK
In the UK, accreditation is regulated by the British Society of Echocardiography. Accredited radiographers, sonographers, or other professionals are required to pass a mandatory exam.
United States
The "Intersocietal Accreditation Commission for Echocardiography” (IAC) sets standards for echo labs across the US. Cardiologists and sonographers who wish to have their laboratory accredited by IAC must comply with these standards. The purpose of accreditation is to maintain quality and consistency across echocardiography labs in the United States. Accreditation is offered in adult and pediatric transthoracic and transesophageal echocardiography, as well as adult stress and fetal echo. Accreditation is a two-part process. Each facility will conduct a detailed self-evaluation, paying close attention to the IAC Standards and Guidelines. The facility will then complete the application and submit actual case studies to the board of directors for review. Once all requirements have been met, the lab will receive certification. IAC certification is a continual process and must be maintained by the facility: it may include audits or site visits by the IAC. There are several states in which Medicare and/or private insurance carriers require accreditation (credentials) of the laboratory and/or sonographer for reimbursement of echocardiograms.
There are two credentialing bodies in the United States for sonographers, the ''Cardiovascular Credentialing International'' (CCI), established in 1968, and the ''American Registry for Diagnostic Medical Sonography'' (ARDMS), established in 1975. Both CCI and ARDMS have earned the prestigious ''ANSI-ISO 17024'' accreditation for certifying bodies from the International Organization for Standardization (''ISO''). Accreditation is granted through the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Recognition of ARDMS programs in providing credentials has also earned the ARDMS accreditation with the National Commission for Certifying Agencies (NCCA). The NCCA is the accrediting arm of the National Organization for Competency Assurance (NOCA).
Under both credentialing bodies, sonographers must first document completion of prerequisite requirements, which contain both didactic and hands-on experience in the field of ultrasound. Applicants must then take a comprehensive exam demonstrating knowledge in both the physics of ultrasound and the clinical competency related to their specialty. Credentialed sonographers are then required to maintain competency in their field by obtaining a certain number of Continuing Medical Education credits, or CME's.
In 2009, New Mexico and Oregon became the first two states to require licensure of sonographers.
The
American Society of Echocardiography
The American Society of Echocardiography (ASE) is a professional organization of physicians, cardiac sonographers, nurses and scientists involved in echocardiography, the use of ultrasound to image the heart and vascular system. The organization w ...
(ASE) is a professional organization made up of physicians, sonographers, nurses, and scientists involved in the field of echocardiography. One of the most important roles that the ASE plays is providing their recommendations through the ASE Guidelines and Standards, providing resource and educational opportunities for sonographers and physicians in the field.
There have been various institutes who are working on use of
Artificial intelligence
Artificial intelligence (AI) is intelligence—perceiving, synthesizing, and inferring information—demonstrated by machines, as opposed to intelligence displayed by animals and humans. Example tasks in which this is done include speech r ...
in Echo but they are at a very early stage and still needs full development.
Terminology
The most commonly used terminology in echocardiography diagnostics are:
* BSA –
body surface area
In physiology and medicine, the body surface area (BSA) is the measured or calculated surface area of a human body. For many clinical purposes, BSA is a better indicator of metabolic mass than body weight because it is less affected by abnormal adi ...
* DT – deceleration time
* IVRT –
isovolumic relaxation time
Isovolumic relaxation time (IVRT) is an interval in the cardiac cycle, from the aortic component of the second heart sound, that is, closure of the aortic valve, to onset of filling by opening of the mitral valve."Inductance cardiography (thorac ...
* LA – left
atrium
Atrium may refer to:
Anatomy
* Atrium (heart), an anatomical structure of the heart
* Atrium, the genital structure next to the genital aperture in the reproductive system of gastropods
* Atrium of the ventricular system of the brain
* Pulmona ...
* RA – right atrium
* LV – left ventricle
* RV – right ventricle
* LVOT – left
ventricular outflow tract
A ventricular outflow tract is a portion of either the left ventricle or right ventricle of the heart through which blood passes in order to enter the great arteries.
The right ventricular outflow tract (RVOT) is an infundibular extension of ...
* RVOT – right ventricular outflow tract
* PHT – pressure half time
* TAPSE – tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion
* VC – vena contracta
* EDD – end diastolic diameter
* ESD – end systolic diameter
* IVSd – interventricular septal end diastole
* PWd – posterior wall thickness
* LVMI – left ventricular mass index
* Ao asc – ascending aorta
* ST Jxn – sinotubular junction
* LAVI – left atrial volume index
* EDV – end-diastolic volume
* ESV – end-systolic volume
* EF –
ejection fraction
An ejection fraction (EF) is the volumetric fraction (or portion of the total) of fluid (usually blood) ejected from a chamber (usually the heart) with each contraction (or heartbeat). It can refer to the cardiac atrium, ventricle, gall bladder, ...
* FS –
fractional shortening
A ventricle is one of two large chambers toward the bottom of the heart that collect and expel blood towards the peripheral beds within the body and lungs. The blood pumped by a ventricle is supplied by an atrium, an adjacent chamber in the upper ...
* RAVI – right atrial volume index
* RVOT – right ventricular outflow tract
* RVD – basal RV diameter
* IVC –
inferior vena cava
The inferior vena cava is a large vein that carries the deoxygenated blood from the lower and middle body into the right atrium of the heart. It is formed by the joining of the right and the left common iliac veins, usually at the level of th ...
E/A ratio The E/A ratio is a marker of the function of the left ventricle of the heart. It represents the ratio of peak velocity blood flow from left ventricular relaxation in early diastole (the E wave) to peak velocity flow in late diastole caused by atrial ...
See also
*
Angiogram
Angiography or arteriography is a medical imaging technique used to visualize the inside, or lumen, of blood vessels and organs of the body, with particular interest in the arteries, veins, and the heart chambers. Modern angiography is performe ...
*
Aortic valve area calculation Aortic valve area calculation is an indirect method of determining the area of the aortic valve (aortic valve area). The calculated aortic valve orifice area is currently one of the measures for evaluating the severity of aortic stenosis. A valve ar ...
Fetal echocardiography
Fetal echocardiography, or Fetal echocardiogram, is the name of the test used to diagnose cardiac conditions in the fetal stage. Cardiac defects are amongst the most common birth defects.
Their diagnosis is important in the fetal stage as it might ...