The Dzungar Khanate, also written as the Zunghar Khanate, was an
Inner Asia
Inner Asia refers to the northern and landlocked regions spanning North, Central and East Asia. It includes parts of western and northeast China, as well as southern Siberia. The area overlaps with some definitions of 'Central Asia', mostly the ...
n
khanate of
Oirat Mongol
The Mongols ( mn, Монголчууд, , , ; ; russian: Монголы) are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, Inner Mongolia in China and the Buryatia Republic of the Russian Federation. The Mongols are the principal member ...
origin. At its greatest extent, it covered an area from southern
Siberia
Siberia ( ; rus, Сибирь, r=Sibir', p=sʲɪˈbʲirʲ, a=Ru-Сибирь.ogg) is an extensive region, geographical region, constituting all of North Asia, from the Ural Mountains in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east. It has been a ...
in the north to present-day
Kyrgyzstan
Kyrgyzstan,, pronounced or the Kyrgyz Republic, is a landlocked country in Central Asia. Kyrgyzstan is bordered by Kazakhstan to the north, Uzbekistan to the west, Tajikistan to the south, and the People's Republic of China to the ea ...
in the south, and from the
Great Wall of China
The Great Wall of China (, literally "ten thousand ''li'' wall") is a series of fortifications that were built across the historical northern borders of ancient Chinese states and Imperial China as protection against various nomadic gro ...
in the east to present-day
Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan, officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a transcontinental country located mainly in Central Asia and partly in Eastern Europe. It borders Russia to the north and west, China to the east, Kyrgyzstan to the southeast, Uzbeki ...
in the west. The core of the Dzungar Khanate is today part of northern
Xinjiang
Xinjiang, SASM/GNC: ''Xinjang''; zh, c=, p=Xīnjiāng; formerly romanized as Sinkiang (, ), officially the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (XUAR), is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China (PRC), located in the northwest ...
, also called
Dzungaria
Dzungaria (; from the Mongolian words , meaning 'left hand') is a geographical subregion in Northwest China that corresponds to the northern half of Xinjiang. It is thus also known as Beijiang, which means "Northern Xinjiang". Bounded by the ...
.
About 1620 the western Mongols, known as the
Oirats, united in
Dzungaria
Dzungaria (; from the Mongolian words , meaning 'left hand') is a geographical subregion in Northwest China that corresponds to the northern half of Xinjiang. It is thus also known as Beijiang, which means "Northern Xinjiang". Bounded by the ...
. In 1678,
Galdan received from the
Dalai Lama
Dalai Lama (, ; ) is a title given by the Tibetan people to the foremost spiritual leader of the Gelug or "Yellow Hat" school of Tibetan Buddhism, the newest and most dominant of the four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism. The 14th and current D ...
the title of ''Boshogtu
Khan'', making the
Dzungar
Dzungar may refer to:
*Dzungar people, Oirat tribes in the Dzungar Khanate
*Dzungar Khanate, a historical empire
* Jungar Banner, an administrative division of China
*Junggar Basin
The Junggar Basin () is one of the largest sedimentary basins in ...
s the leading tribe within the
Oirats. The Dzungar rulers used the title of
Khong Tayiji
Khong Tayiji ( mn, , хун тайж; ), also spelled Qong Tayiji, was a title of the Mongols, derived from the Chinese term ''Huangtaizi'' (皇太子; "crown prince").
At first it also meant crown prince in the Mongolian language. It was origina ...
, which translates into English as "crown prince". Between 1680 and 1688, the Dzungars conquered the
Tarim Basin
The Tarim Basin is an endorheic basin in Northwest China occupying an area of about and one of the largest basins in Northwest China.Chen, Yaning, et al. "Regional climate change and its effects on river runoff in the Tarim Basin, China." Hydr ...
, which is now southern Xinjiang, and defeated the
Khalkha
The Khalkha (Mongolian script, Mongolian: mn, Халх, Halh, , zh, 喀爾喀) have been the largest subgroup of Mongols, Mongol people in modern Mongolia since the 15th century. The Khalkha, together with Chahars, Ordos Mongols, Ordos and Tum ...
Mongols to the east. In 1696, Galdan was defeated by the
Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-spea ...
and lost
Outer Mongolia. In 1717 the Dzungars conquered
Tibet
Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa, Taman ...
, but were driven out a year later by the Qing. In 1755, Qing China took advantage of a Dzungar civil war to
conquer Dzungaria and
destroyed the Dzungars as a people. The destruction of the Dzungars led to the
Qing conquest of Mongolia,
Tibet
Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa, Taman ...
, and the creation of
Xinjiang
Xinjiang, SASM/GNC: ''Xinjang''; zh, c=, p=Xīnjiāng; formerly romanized as Sinkiang (, ), officially the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (XUAR), is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China (PRC), located in the northwest ...
as a political administrative unit.
Etymology
"Dzungar" is a compound of the
Mongolian word ''jegün'' (züün), meaning "left" or "east" and ''γar'' meaning "hand" or "wing". The region of
Dzungaria
Dzungaria (; from the Mongolian words , meaning 'left hand') is a geographical subregion in Northwest China that corresponds to the northern half of Xinjiang. It is thus also known as Beijiang, which means "Northern Xinjiang". Bounded by the ...
derives its name from this confederation. Although the Dzungars were located west of the
Khalkas
The Khalkha ( Mongolian: mn, Халх, Halh, , zh, 喀爾喀) have been the largest subgroup of Mongol people in modern Mongolia since the 15th century. The Khalkha, together with Chahars, Ordos and Tumed, were directly ruled by Borjigin kha ...
, the derivation of their name has been attributed to the fact that they represented the left wing of the
Oirats. In the early 17th century, the head of the Oirat confederation was the leader of the Khoshut, Gushi Khan. When Gushi Khan decided to invade Tibet to replace the local
Tsangpa
Tsangpa (; ) was a dynasty that dominated large parts of Tibet from 1565 to 1642. It was the last Tibetan royal dynasty to rule in their own name. The regime was founded by Karma Tseten, a low-born retainer of the prince of the Rinpungpa Dynasty ...
khan in favor of rule by the
Gelug
240px, The 14th Dalai Lama (center), the most influential figure of the contemporary Gelug tradition, at the 2003 Bodhgaya (India).
The Gelug (, also Geluk; "virtuous")Kay, David N. (2007). ''Tibetan and Zen Buddhism in Britain: Transplantati ...
, the Oirat army was organized into left and right wing. The right wing consisting of Khoshuts and Torguts remained in Tibet while the Choros and Khoid of the Left wing retreated north into the Tarim basin, since then the powerful empire of the Choros became known as the Left Wing, i.e. Zuungar.
History
Origin
![Mongolia in 1636](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Mongolia_in_1636.svg)
The Oirats were originally from the area of
Tuva
Tuva (; russian: Тува́) or Tyva ( tyv, Тыва), officially the Republic of Tuva (russian: Респу́блика Тыва́, r=Respublika Tyva, p=rʲɪˈspublʲɪkə tɨˈva; tyv, Тыва Республика, translit=Tyva Respublika ...
during the early 13th century. Their leader,
Quduqa Bäki, submitted to
Genghis Khan in 1208 and his house intermarried with all four branches of the Genghisid line. During the
Toluid Civil War
The Toluid Civil War was a war of succession fought between Kublai Khan and his younger brother, Ariq Böke, from 1260 to 1264. Möngke Khan died in 1259 with no declared successor, precipitating infighting between members of the Tolui family ...
, the
Four Oirat
The Four Oirat ( Mongolian: Дөрвөн Ойрад, ''Dorben Oirad''; ); also Oirads and formerly Eleuths, alternatively known as the Alliance of the Four Oirat Tribes or the Oirat Confederation, was the confederation of the Oirat tribes which ...
(
Choros Choros may refer to:
* Choros (Oirats), a Mongolic people and historical clan
* Chôros, a series of compositions by Heitor Villa-Lobos
* Choros (dance), Greek dances
* Choros (Greek drama), an ancient Greek group of performers
* Choros District, ...
,
Torghut
The Torghut ( Mongolian: Торгууд, , Torguud), , "Guardsman" are one of the four major subgroups of the Four Oirats. The Torghut nobles traced its descent to the Keraite ruler Tooril; also many Torghuts descended from the Keraites.
Hist ...
,
Dörbet, and
Khoid
The Khoid, also Khoyd or Khoit (; "Northern ones/people") people are an Oirat subgroup of the Choros Choros may refer to:
* Choros (Oirats), a Mongolic people and historical clan
* Chôros, a series of compositions by Heitor Villa-Lobos
* Choros ...
) sided with Ariq Böke and therefore never accepted Kublaid rule. After the
Yuan dynasty
The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fift ...
's collapse, the Oirats supported the Ariq Bökid
Jorightu Khan Yesüder
Jorightu Khan ( mn, Зоригт хаан ; ), (1358–1391) was a khagan of the Northern Yuan dynasty, reigning from 1388 to 1391. The identity of Jorightu is disputed: some scholars believe that Jorightu was the same individual as Yesüder (), a ...
in seizing the
Northern Yuan
The Northern Yuan () was a dynastic regime ruled by the Mongol Borjigin clan based in the Mongolian Plateau. It existed as a rump state after the collapse of the Yuan dynasty in 1368 and lasted until its conquest by the Jurchen-led Later Jin ...
throne. The Oirats held sway over the Northern Yuan khans until the death of
Esen Taishi
Esen ( mn, Эсэн; Mongol script: ; ), (?–1454) was a powerful Oirat taishi and the ''de facto'' ruler of the Northern Yuan dynasty between 12 September 1453 and 1454. He is best known for capturing the Emperor Yingzong of Ming in 1450 in t ...
in 1455, after which they migrated west due to Khalkha Mongol aggression. In 1486, the Oirats became embroiled in a succession dispute which gave
Dayan Khan
Dayan Khan ( mn, Даян Хаан; Mongol script: ; ), born Batumöngke ( mn, Батмөнх; ), (1472–1517) was a khagan of the Northern Yuan dynasty, reigning from 1479 to 1517. During his rule, he reunited the Mongols under Chinggisid sup ...
the opportunity to attack them. In the latter half of the 16th century, the Oirats lost more territory to the
Tumed
The Tümed (Tumad, ; "The many or ten thousands" derived from Tumen) are a Mongol subgroup. They live in Tumed Left Banner, district of Hohhot and Tumed Right Banner, district of Baotou in China. Most engage in sedentary agriculture, living in m ...
.
In 1620, the leaders of the Choros and Torghut Oirats,
Kharkhul Kharkhul (, English name: Khara Khula; died 1634) was a Choros (Oirats) prince and tayishi of the Choros tribe. He is best known for forming and leading a coalition of the Four Oirats in battle against Ubasi Khun Tayishi, the Khalkha prince who rul ...
and Mergen Temene, attacked
Ubasi Khong Tayiji
Ubasi Khong Tayiji ( mn, Убаши хунтайж) was a 17th-century Mongol prince. He was the first Altan Khan of Khalkha who ruled Khotgoids in northwestern Khalkha See Altan Khan of the Khotgoid
The Altan Khans (lit. Golden Khan) ruled nort ...
, the first
Altan Khan of the Khalkha. They were defeated and Kharkhul lost his wife and children to the enemy. An all out war between Ubasi and the Oirats lasted until 1623 when Ubasi was killed. In 1625, a conflict erupted between the Khoshut chief Chöükür and his uterine brother Baibaghas over inheritance issues. Baibaghas was killed in the fight. However, his younger brothers
Güshi Khan
Güshi Khan (1582 – 14 January 1655; ) was a Khoshut prince and founder of the Khoshut Khanate, who supplanted the Tumed descendants of Altan Khan as the main benefactor of the Dalai Lama and the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism. In 1637, Güshi ...
and Köndölön Ubashi took up the fight and pursued Chöükür from the
Ishim River
The Ishim (russian: Иши́м, Ishim; kk, Есіл, Esil) is a river running through Kazakhstan and Russia. It is long, and has a drainage basin of . Its average discharge is . It is a left tributary of the Irtysh. The Ishim is partly navig ...
to the
Tobol River
The Tobol (russian: Тобол, kk, Тобыл ''Tobyl'') is a river in Western Siberia (in Kazakhstan and Russia) and the main (left) tributary of the Irtysh. Its length is , and the area of its drainage basin is .
History
The Tobol River wa ...
, attacking and killing his tribal followers in 1630. The infighting among the Oirats caused the Torghut chief
Kho Orluk to migrate westwards until they came into conflict with the
Nogai Horde
The Nogai Horde was a confederation founded by the Nogais that occupied the Pontic–Caspian steppe from about 1500 until they were pushed west by the Kalmyks and south by the Russians in the 17th century. The Mongol tribe called the Manghuds co ...
, which they destroyed. The Torghuts founded the
Kalmyk Khanate
The Kalmyk Khanate ( xal-RU, Хальмг хана улс, ''Xal'mg xana uls'') was an Oirat khanate on the Eurasian steppe. It extended over modern Kalmykia and surrounding areas in the North Caucasus, including Stavropol and Astrakhan. Duri ...
but still stayed in contact with the Oirats in the east. Every time a great assembly was called, they sent representatives to attend.
In 1632, the
Gelug
240px, The 14th Dalai Lama (center), the most influential figure of the contemporary Gelug tradition, at the 2003 Bodhgaya (India).
The Gelug (, also Geluk; "virtuous")Kay, David N. (2007). ''Tibetan and Zen Buddhism in Britain: Transplantati ...
Yellow Hat sect in
Qinghai
Qinghai (; alternately romanized as Tsinghai, Ch'inghai), also known as Kokonor, is a landlocked province in the northwest of the People's Republic of China. It is the fourth largest province of China by area and has the third smallest po ...
was being repressed by the Khalkha
Choghtu Khong Tayiji
Tümengken Tsoghtu Khong Tayiji (Classical Mongolian: , ''Tümengken čoγtu qong tayiǰi''; modern Mongolian: , , Tümenkhen Tsogt Khun Taij; ; 1581–1637), was a noble in Northern Khalkha. He expanded into Amdo (present-day Qinghai) to help ...
, so they invited Güshi Khan to come and deal with him. In 1636, Güshi led 10,000 Oirats in an invasion of Qinghai which resulted in the defeat of a 30,000 strong enemy army and the death of Choghtu. He then entered Central Tibet, where he received from the
5th Dalai Lama
Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso (; ; 1617–1682) was the 5th Dalai Lama and the first Dalai Lama to wield effective temporal and spiritual power over all Tibet. He is often referred to simply as the Great Fifth, being a key religious and temporal leader ...
the title of Bstan-'dzin Choskyi Rgyal-po (the Dharma King Who Upholds the Religion). He then claimed the title of
Khan, the first non-Genghisid Mongol to do so, and summoned the Oirats to completely conquer Tibet, creating the
Khoshut Khanate
The Khoshut Khanate was a Mongol Oirat khanate based on the Tibetan Plateau from 1642 to 1717. Based in modern Qinghai, it was founded by Güshi Khan in 1642 after defeating the opponents of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism in Tibet. The r ...
. Among those involved was Kharkhul's son,
Erdeni Batur
Erdeni Batur (in modern Mongolian: Эрдэнэбаатар, Erdenebaatar; ; d. 1653) was a Choros-Oirat prince generally considered to be the founder of the Dzungar Khanate, centered in the Dzungaria region, currently in north-westernmost part o ...
, who was granted the title of Khong Tayiji, married the khan's daughter Amin Dara, and sent back to establish the Dzungar Khanate on the upper
Emil River
The Emil ( kz, Еміл, ''Emıl''; russian: Эмель ''Emel'') or Emin (), also spelled Emel, Imil, etc., is a river in China and Kazakhstan. It flows through Tacheng (Tarbagatay) Prefecture of China's Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region and the ...
south of the
Tarbagatai Mountains
The Tarbagatai Mountains ( mn, , , translit. ''Tarvagatai nuruu'', literally: "range with marmots"; ; kk, Тарбағатай жотасы, ''Tarbağatai jotasy'') are a range of mountains located in the north-western parts of Xinjiang, China, ...
. Batur returned to Dzungaria with the title Erdeni (given by the
Dalai Lama
Dalai Lama (, ; ) is a title given by the Tibetan people to the foremost spiritual leader of the Gelug or "Yellow Hat" school of Tibetan Buddhism, the newest and most dominant of the four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism. The 14th and current D ...
) and much booty. During his reign he made three expeditions against the
Kazakhs. The conflicts by the Dzungars are remembered in a Kazakh ballad ''Elim-ai''. The Dzungars also went to war against the
Kyrgyz,
Tajiks
Tajiks ( fa, تاجيک، تاجک, ''Tājīk, Tājek''; tg, Тоҷик) are a Persian-speaking Iranian ethnic group native to Central Asia, living primarily in Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Tajiks are the largest ethnicity in Taj ...
, and
Uzbeks
The Uzbeks ( uz, , , , ) are a Turkic ethnic group native to the wider Central Asian region, being among the largest Turkic ethnic group in the area. They comprise the majority population of Uzbekistan, next to Kazakh and Karakalpak mino ...
when they invaded deep into Central Asia to
Yasi (Turkestan) and
Tashkent
Tashkent (, uz, Toshkent, Тошкент/, ) (from russian: Ташкент), or Toshkent (; ), also historically known as Chach is the capital and largest city of Uzbekistan. It is the most populous city in Central Asia, with a population of 2 ...
in 1643.
Succession dispute (1653–1677)
In 1653,
Sengge
Sengge (; died 1671) was a Choros-Oirat prince and the chosen successor of his father Erdeni Batur to rule over the Dzungar. Sengge ruled over a section of the Dzungar from 1653 until his murder in 1671 by his two older half-brothers Tsetsen ...
succeeded his father Batur, but he faced dissent from his half brothers. With the support of
Ochirtu Khan
Ochirtu Khan (died 1676 or 1677) was a nephew of Güshi Khan and a leader of the Khoshut tribe of the Lake Zaisan area. Ochirtu Khan was killed in battle by the Dzungar forces of his son-in-law, Galdan Boshugtu Khan
Erdeniin Galdan (1644–1697 ...
of the Khoshut, this strife ended with Sengge's victory in 1661. In 1667 he captured
Erinchin Lobsang Tayiji
Erinchin Lobsang Tayiji ( mn, Ринчин Лувсан тайж) was a prince of the Khalkha
The Khalkha (Mongolian script, Mongolian: mn, Халх, Halh, , zh, 喀爾喀) have been the largest subgroup of Mongols, Mongol people in modern Mo ...
, the third and last Altan Khan. However, he himself was assassinated by his half-brothers Chechen Tayiji and Zotov in a
coup in 1670.
Sengge's younger brother
Galdan Boshugtu Khan
Erdeniin Galdan (1644–1697, mn, Галдан Бошигт хаан, , ), known as Galdan Boshugtu Khan (in Mongolian script: ) was a Choros Dzungar- Oirat Khan of the Dzungar Khanate. As fourth son of Erdeni Batur, founder of the Dzungar ...
had been residing in Tibet at the time. Upon his birth in 1644 he was recognized as the reincarnation of a Tibetan
lama who had died the previous year. In 1656 he left for Tibet, where he received education from
Lobsang Chökyi Gyaltsen, 4th Panchen Lama
Losang Chö kyi Gyaltsen () (1570–1662) was the fourth Panchen Lama of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism and the first to be accorded this title during his lifetime.
Losang Chö kyi Gyaltsen was the teacher and close ally of the 5th Dalai ...
and the 5th Dalai Lama. Upon learning of his brother's death, he immediately returned from Tibet and took revenge on Chechen. Allied with Ochirtu Sechen of the Khoshut, Galdan defeated Chechen, and drove Zotov out of Dzungaria. In 1671 The Dalai Lama bestowed the title of Khan on Galdan. Sengge's two sons Sonom Rabdan and
Tsewang Rabtan
Tsewang Rabtan (from ''Tsewang Rapten''; ; ; 1643–1727) was a Choros (Oirats) prince and the Khong Tayiji of the Dzungar Khanate from 1697 (following the death of his uncle and rival Galdan Boshugtu Khan) until his death in 1727. He was mar ...
revolted against Galdan but they were defeated. Although, already married
Anu-Dara, granddaughter of Ochirtu, he came into conflict with his grandfather in law. Fearing Galdan's popularity, Ochirtu supported his uncle and rival Choqur Ubashi who refused to recognize Galdan's title. The victory over Ochirtu in 1677 resulted Galdan's domination of the Oirats. In the next year the Dalai Lama gave the highest title of Boshoghtu (or Boshughtu) Khan to him,
Conquest of the Yarkent Khanate (1678–1680)
From the late 16th century onward, the
Yarkent Khanate
The Yarkent Khanate, also known as the Yarkand Khanate and the Kashghar Khanate, was a Sunni Muslim Turkic state ruled by the Mongol descendants of Chagatai Khan. It was founded by Sultan Said Khan in 1514 as a western offshoot of Moghulistan, ...
fell under the influence of the
Khojas
The Khojas ( sd}; gu, ખોજા, hi, ख़ोजा) are a mainly Nizari Isma'ili Shia community of people originating in Gujarat, India.
Derived from the Persian Khwaja, a term of honor, the word Khoja is used to refer to Lohana Rajp ...
. The Khojas were
Naqshbandi Sufis who claimed descent from the prophet
Muhammad
Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد; 570 – 8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the mo ...
or from the first four Arab
caliphs
A caliphate or khilāfah ( ar, خِلَافَة, ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with the title of caliph (; ar, خَلِيفَة , ), a person considered a political-religious successor to th ...
. By the reign of
Sultan Said Khan
Sultan Said Khan (; 1487–1533) ruled the Yarkent Khanate from September 1514 to July 1533. He was born in the late 15th century in Moghulistan, and he was a direct descendant of the first Moghul Khan, Tughlugh Timur, who had founded the state ...
in the early 16th century, the Khojas already had a strong influence in court and over the khan. In 1533, an especially influential Khoja named Makhdum-i Azam arrived in Kashgar, where he settled and had two sons. These two sons hated each other and they passed down their mutual hatred down to their children. The two lineages came to dominate large parts of the khanate, splitting it between two factions: the Aq Taghliq (White Mountain) in Kashgar and the Qara Taghliq (Black Mountain) in Yarkand. Yulbars patronized the Aq Taghliqs and suppressed the Qara Taghliqs, which caused much resentment, and resulted in his assassination in 1670. He was succeeded by his son who ruled from only a brief period before
Ismail Khan
Mohammad Ismail Khan (Dari/Pashto: محمد اسماعیل خان) (born 1946) is an Afghan former politician who served as Minister of Energy and Water from 2005 to 2013 and before that served as the governor of Herat Province. Originally a cap ...
was enthroned. Ismail reversed the power struggle between the two Muslim factions and drove out the Aq Taghliq leader,
Afaq Khoja
Afaq Khoja ( ug, ئاپاق خوجا), born Hidayat Allah ( ug, هدایتالله; ), also known as Apaq Xoja or more properly Āfāq Khwāja ( fa, آفاق خواجه), was a Naqshbandi īshān and political leader with the title of Khwaja ...
. Afaq fled to
Tibet
Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa, Taman ...
, where the
5th Dalai Lama
Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso (; ; 1617–1682) was the 5th Dalai Lama and the first Dalai Lama to wield effective temporal and spiritual power over all Tibet. He is often referred to simply as the Great Fifth, being a key religious and temporal leader ...
aided him in enlisting the help of
Galdan Boshugtu Khan
Erdeniin Galdan (1644–1697, mn, Галдан Бошигт хаан, , ), known as Galdan Boshugtu Khan (in Mongolian script: ) was a Choros Dzungar- Oirat Khan of the Dzungar Khanate. As fourth son of Erdeni Batur, founder of the Dzungar ...
.
In 1680, Galdan led 120,000
Dzungars
The Dzungar people (also written as Zunghar; from the Mongolian words , meaning 'left hand') were the many Mongol Oirat tribes who formed and maintained the Dzungar Khanate in the 17th and 18th centuries. Historically they were one of major tr ...
into the Yarkent Khanate. They were aided by the Aq Taghliqs and
Hami
Hami (Kumul) is a prefecture-level city in Eastern Xinjiang, China. It is well known as the home of sweet Hami melons. In early 2016, the former Hami county-level city was merged with Hami Prefecture to form the Hami prefecture-level city with t ...
and
Turpan
Turpan (also known as Turfan or Tulufan, , ug, تۇرپان) is a prefecture-level city located in the east of the autonomous region of Xinjiang, China. It has an area of and a population of 632,000 (2015).
Geonyms
The original name of the cit ...
, which had already submitted to the Dzungars. Ismail's son Babak Sultan died in the resistance against in the battle for Kashgar. The general Iwaz Beg died in the defense of Yarkand. The Dzungars defeated the Moghul forces without much difficulty and took Ismail and his family prisoner. Galdan installed
Abd ar-Rashid Khan II {{unreferenced, date=August 2014
Abd ar-Rashid Khan II was Khan of Yarkand and Turpan from 1680–1682. He was son of Baba Khan or Babak Khan.
Baba Khan was son of Ismail Khan (Moghul khan).
Dzungar's appointment of the khan
After Galdan Bosh ...
, son of Babak, as puppet khan.
First Kazakh war (1681–1685)
In 1681, Galdan invaded the north of Tengeri Mountain and attacked the
Kazakh Khanate but failed to take
Sayram. In 1683 Galdan's armies under
Tsewang Rabtan
Tsewang Rabtan (from ''Tsewang Rapten''; ; ; 1643–1727) was a Choros (Oirats) prince and the Khong Tayiji of the Dzungar Khanate from 1697 (following the death of his uncle and rival Galdan Boshugtu Khan) until his death in 1727. He was mar ...
took
Tashkent
Tashkent (, uz, Toshkent, Тошкент/, ) (from russian: Ташкент), or Toshkent (; ), also historically known as Chach is the capital and largest city of Uzbekistan. It is the most populous city in Central Asia, with a population of 2 ...
and
Sayram. They reached the
Syr Darya and crushed two Kazakh armies. After that Galdan subjugated the Black Kyrgyz and ravaged the
Fergana Valley
The Fergana Valley (; ; ) in Central Asia lies mainly in eastern Uzbekistan, but also extends into southern Kyrgyzstan and northern Tajikistan.
Divided into three republics of the former Soviet Union, the valley is ethnically diverse and in the ...
. His general Rabtan took
Taraz
Taraz ( kz, Тараз, تاراز, translit=Taraz ; known to Europeans as Talas) is a city and the administrative center of Jambyl Region in Kazakhstan, located on the Talas (Taraz) River in the south of the country near the border with Kyrgyzs ...
city. From 1685 Galdan's forces aggressively pushed westward, forcing the Kazakhs ever further west. The Dzungars established dominion over the
Baraba Tatars
The Baraba (Siberian Tatar: параба, бараба, барама, бараба татарлар) are a sub-group of Siberian Tatars and the indigenous people of the Ob-Irtysh interfluve. After a strenuous resistance to Russian conquest and m ...
and extracted yasaq (tribute) from them. Converting to
Orthodox Christianity
Orthodoxy (from Greek: ) is adherence to correct or accepted creeds, especially in religion.
Orthodoxy within Christianity refers to acceptance of the doctrines defined by various creeds and ecumenical councils in Antiquity, but different Chur ...
and becoming Russian subjects was a tactic by the Baraba to find an excuse not to pay yasaq to the Dzungars.
Khalkha war (1687–1688)
![Map-Qing Dynasty 1689-en](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Map-Qing_Dynasty_1689-en.jpg)
The Oirats had established peace with the
Khalkha Mongols
The Khalkha ( Mongolian: mn, Халх, Halh, , zh, 喀爾喀) have been the largest subgroup of Mongol people in modern Mongolia since the 15th century. The Khalkha, together with Chahars, Ordos and Tumed, were directly ruled by Borjigin khan ...
since
Ligdan Khan
Khutugtu Khan ( mn, Хутагт Хаан; ), born Ligdan ( mn, Лигдэн; ), (1588–1634) was a khagan of the Northern Yuan dynasty, reigning from 1604 to 1634. During his reign, he vigorously attempted to reunify the divided Mongol Empire, a ...
died in 1634 and the Khalkhas were preoccupied with the rise of the
Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-spea ...
. However, when the Jasaghtu Khan Shira lost part of his subjects to the
Tüsheet Khan
Tüsheet Khan ( Mongolian: Түшээт хан; ) refers to the territory as well as the Chingizid dynastic rulers of the Tüsheet Khanate, one of four Khalka khanates that emerged from remnants of the Mongol Empire after the death of Dayan Khan ...
Chikhundorj, Galdan moved his
orda near the
Altai Mountains to prepare an attack. Chikhundorj attacked the right wing of the Khalkhas and killed Shira in 1687. In 1688, Galdan dispatched troops under his younger brother Dorji-jav against Chikhundorj but they were eventually defeated. Dorji-jav was killed in battle. Chikhundorj then murdered Degdeehei Mergen Ahai of the Jasaghtu Khan who was on the way to Galdan. To avenge the death of his brother, Galdan established friendly relations with the Russians who were already at war with Chikhundorj over territories near
Lake Baikal. Armed with Russian firearms, Galdan led 30,000 Dzungar troops into Khalkha Mongolia in 1688 and defeated Chikhundorj in three days. The
Siberian Cossacks
Siberian Cossacks were Cossacks who settled in the Siberian region of Russia from the end of the 16th century, following Yermak Timofeyevich's conquest of Siberia. In early periods, practically the whole Russian population in Siberia, especially ...
, meanwhile, attacked and defeated a Khalkha army of 10,000 near Lake Baikal. After two bloody battles with the Dzungars near
Erdene Zuu Monastery
The Erdene Zuu Monastery ( mn, Эрдэнэ Зуу хийд , Chinese:光顯寺, Tibetan:ལྷུན་གྲུབ་བདེ་ཆེན་གླིང་) is probably the earliest surviving Buddhist monastery in Mongolia. Located in Övörkh ...
and Tomor, Chakhundorji and his brother
Jebtsundamba Khutuktu
The Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, , ; zh, c=哲布尊丹巴呼圖克圖, p=Zhébùzūn Dānbā Hūtúkètú; bo, རྗེ་བཙུན་དམ་པ་ཧུ་ཐུག་ཐུ་, Jetsün Dampa Hutuktu; "Venerable Excellent incarnate lama" ar ...
Zanabazar
Öndör Gegeen Zanabazar, , , "High Saint Zanabazar"; 1635–1723 (born Eshidorji) was the sixteenth '' Jebtsundamba Khutuktu'' and the first ''Bogd Gegeen'' or supreme spiritual authority, of the Gelugpa (Yellow Hat) lineage of Tibetan Buddhism ...
fled across the
Gobi Desert to the Qing dynasty and submitted to the
Kangxi Emperor
The Kangxi Emperor (4 May 1654– 20 December 1722), also known by his temple name Emperor Shengzu of Qing, born Xuanye, was the third emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the second Qing emperor to rule over China proper, reigning from 1661 to ...
.
First Qing war (1690–1696)
Late in the summer of 1690, Galdan crossed the
Kherlen River
Kherlen River (also known as Kern or Kerülen; ; ) is a 1,254 km river in Mongolia and China.
Course
The river originates in the south slopes of the Khentii mountains, near the Burkhan Khaldun mountain in the Khan Khentii Strictly Protec ...
with a force of 20,000 and engaged a
Qing army at
Battle of Ulan Butung 350 kilometers north of
Beijing
}
Beijing ( ; ; ), alternatively romanized as Peking ( ), is the capital of the People's Republic of China. It is the center of power and development of the country. Beijing is the world's most populous national capital city, with over 21 ...
near the western headwaters of the
Liao River. Galdan was forced to retreat and escaped total destruction because the Qing army did not have the supplies or ability to pursue him. In 1696, the
Kangxi Emperor
The Kangxi Emperor (4 May 1654– 20 December 1722), also known by his temple name Emperor Shengzu of Qing, born Xuanye, was the third emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the second Qing emperor to rule over China proper, reigning from 1661 to ...
led 100,000 troops into
Mongolia
Mongolia; Mongolian script: , , ; lit. "Mongol Nation" or "State of Mongolia" () is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south. It covers an area of , with a population of just 3.3 million, ...
. Galdan fled from the Kherlen only to be caught by another Qing army attacking from the west. He was defeated in the ensuing
Battle of Jao Modo
The Battle of Jao Modo ( mn, Зуунмод-Тэрэлжийн тулалдаан; ) also known as the Battle of Zuunmod (literally "Battle of the Hundred Trees"), was fought on June 12, 1696 on the banks of the upper Terelj river east of the m ...
near the upper
Tuul River
, , "to wade through"
, nickname = Queen Tuul
, image = Tuul River Mongolia.JPG
, image_size =
, image_caption = The Tuul flowing through the Gorkhi-Terelj National Park
, map = Toula (riv ...
. Galdan's wife,
Anu, was killed and the Qing army captured 20,000 cattle and 40,000 sheep. Galdan fled with a small handful of followers. In 1697 he died in the Altai Mountains near
Khovd on 4 April. Back in Dzungaria, his nephew
Tsewang Rabtan
Tsewang Rabtan (from ''Tsewang Rapten''; ; ; 1643–1727) was a Choros (Oirats) prince and the Khong Tayiji of the Dzungar Khanate from 1697 (following the death of his uncle and rival Galdan Boshugtu Khan) until his death in 1727. He was mar ...
, who had revolted in 1689, was already in control as of 1691.
Chagatai rebellion (1693–1705)
Galdan installed
Abd ar-Rashid Khan II {{unreferenced, date=August 2014
Abd ar-Rashid Khan II was Khan of Yarkand and Turpan from 1680–1682. He was son of Baba Khan or Babak Khan.
Baba Khan was son of Ismail Khan (Moghul khan).
Dzungar's appointment of the khan
After Galdan Bosh ...
, son of Babak, as puppet khan in the
Yarkent Khanate
The Yarkent Khanate, also known as the Yarkand Khanate and the Kashghar Khanate, was a Sunni Muslim Turkic state ruled by the Mongol descendants of Chagatai Khan. It was founded by Sultan Said Khan in 1514 as a western offshoot of Moghulistan, ...
. The new khan forced
Afaq Khoja
Afaq Khoja ( ug, ئاپاق خوجا), born Hidayat Allah ( ug, هدایتالله; ), also known as Apaq Xoja or more properly Āfāq Khwāja ( fa, آفاق خواجه), was a Naqshbandi īshān and political leader with the title of Khwaja ...
to flee again, but Abd ar-Rashid's reign was also ended unceremoniously two years later when riots erupted in Yarkand. He was replaced by his brother Muhammad Imin Khan. Muhammad sought help from the
Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-spea ...
,
Khanate of Bukhara, and the
Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire was an early-modern empire that controlled much of South Asia between the 16th and 19th centuries. Quote: "Although the first two Timurid emperors and many of their noblemen were recent migrants to the subcontinent, the d ...
in combating the Dzungars. In 1693, Muhammad conducted a successful attack on the Dzungar Khanate, taking 30,000 captives. Unfortunately Afaq Khoja appeared again and overthrew Muhammad in a revolt led by his followers. Afaq's son Yahiya Khoja was enthroned but his reign was cut short in 1695 when both he and his father were killed while suppressing local rebellions. In 1696,
Akbash Khan Akbash Khan ( literally ''White Head Khan'' in Uyghur) of the Yarkent Khanate was a Central Asian Khan in the beginning of 18th century. He was the last Khan of Yarkent Khanate. He is known as one of the "later Chagatai princes"(察合台後王) in ...
was placed on the throne, but the
begs of Kashgar refused to recognize him, and instead allied with the
Kyrgyz to attack Yarkand, taking Akbash prisoner. The begs of Yarkand went to the Dzungars, who sent troops and ousted the Kyrgyz in 1705. The Dzungars installed a non-Chagatayid ruler Mirza Alim Shah Beg, thereby ending the rule of Chagatai khans forever. Abdullah Tarkhan Beg of
Hami
Hami (Kumul) is a prefecture-level city in Eastern Xinjiang, China. It is well known as the home of sweet Hami melons. In early 2016, the former Hami county-level city was merged with Hami Prefecture to form the Hami prefecture-level city with t ...
also rebelled in 1696 and defected to the
Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-spea ...
. In 1698, Qing troops were stationed in Hami.
Second Kazakh war (1698)
In 1698 Galdan's successor Tsewang Rabtan reached Tengiz lake and Turkestan, and the Dzungars
controlled Zhei-Su and Tashkent until 1745. The Dzungars' war on the Kazakhs pushed them into seeking aid from Russia.
Second Qing war (1718–1720)
Tsewang Rabtan
Tsewang Rabtan (from ''Tsewang Rapten''; ; ; 1643–1727) was a Choros (Oirats) prince and the Khong Tayiji of the Dzungar Khanate from 1697 (following the death of his uncle and rival Galdan Boshugtu Khan) until his death in 1727. He was mar ...
's brother Tseren Dondup invaded the
Khoshut Khanate
The Khoshut Khanate was a Mongol Oirat khanate based on the Tibetan Plateau from 1642 to 1717. Based in modern Qinghai, it was founded by Güshi Khan in 1642 after defeating the opponents of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism in Tibet. The r ...
in 1717, deposed
Yeshe Gyatso Yeshe Gyatso'' () (1686–1725) was a pretender for the position of the 6th Dalai Lama of Tibet. Declared by Lha-bzang Khan of the Khoshut Khanate on June 28, 1707, he was the only unofficial Dalai Lama. While praised for his personal moral qualiti ...
, killed
Lha-bzang Khan
Lha-bzang Khan (; Mongolian: ''Lazang Haan''; alternatively, Lhazang or Lapsangn or Lajang; d.1717) was the ruler of the Khoshut (also spelled Qoshot, Qośot, or Qosot) tribe of the Oirats. He was the son of Tenzin Dalai Khan (1668–1701) and g ...
, and looted
Lhasa
Lhasa (; Lhasa dialect: ; bo, text=ལྷ་ས, translation=Place of Gods) is the urban center of the prefecture-level Lhasa City and the administrative capital of Tibet Autonomous Region in Southwest China. The inner urban area of Lhas ...
. The
Kangxi Emperor
The Kangxi Emperor (4 May 1654– 20 December 1722), also known by his temple name Emperor Shengzu of Qing, born Xuanye, was the third emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the second Qing emperor to rule over China proper, reigning from 1661 to ...
retaliated in 1718, but his military expedition was annihilated by the Dzungars in the
Battle of the Salween River
The Battle of the Salween River () was fought in September 1718 close to the Nagqu (i.e., Salween River) in Tibet, between an expedition of the Qing dynasty to Lhasa and a Dzungar Khanate force that blocked its path.
After Tsering Dhondup conque ...
, not far from Lhasa. A
second and larger expedition sent by Kangxi expelled the Dzungars from
Tibet
Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa, Taman ...
in 1720. They brought
Kälzang Gyatso with them from Kumbum to Lhasa and installed him as the 7th Dalai Lama in 1721. The people of
Turpan
Turpan (also known as Turfan or Tulufan, , ug, تۇرپان) is a prefecture-level city located in the east of the autonomous region of Xinjiang, China. It has an area of and a population of 632,000 (2015).
Geonyms
The original name of the cit ...
and
Pichan took advantage of the situation to rebel under a local chief, Amin Khoja, and defected to the Qing dynasty.
Galdan Tseren (1727–1745)
Tsewang Rabtan
Tsewang Rabtan (from ''Tsewang Rapten''; ; ; 1643–1727) was a Choros (Oirats) prince and the Khong Tayiji of the Dzungar Khanate from 1697 (following the death of his uncle and rival Galdan Boshugtu Khan) until his death in 1727. He was mar ...
died suddenly in 1727 and was succeeded by his son
Galdan Tseren
Galdan Tseren (; ?–1745) was a Choros (Oirats) prince and the ''Khong Tayiji'' of the Dzungar Khanate from 1727 until his death in 1745.
Galdan Tseren was the eldest son of Tsewang Rabtan. After the assassination of his father by rival faction ...
. Galdan Tseren drove out his half-brother Lobszangshunu. He continued the war against the Kazakhs and the Kalkha Mongols. In retaliation against attacks against his Khalkha subjects, the
Yongzheng Emperor
The Yongzheng Emperor (13 December 1678 – 8 October 1735), also known by his temple name Emperor Shizong of Qing, born Yinzhen, was the fourth Emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the third Qing emperor to rule over China proper. He reigned from ...
of the
Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-spea ...
sent an invasion force of 10,000, which the Dzungars defeated near the
Khoton Lake. The next year however, the Dzungars suffered a defeat against the Khalkhas near
Erdene Zuu Monastery
The Erdene Zuu Monastery ( mn, Эрдэнэ Зуу хийд , Chinese:光顯寺, Tibetan:ལྷུན་གྲུབ་བདེ་ཆེན་གླིང་) is probably the earliest surviving Buddhist monastery in Mongolia. Located in Övörkh ...
. In 1731, the Dzungars attacked Turpan, which had previously defected to the Qing dynasty. Amin Khoja led the people of Turpan in a retreat into
Gansu where they settled in
Guazhou
Guazhou County (), formerly (until 2006) Anxi County () or Ansichow, is a county in the northwest of Gansu province, the People's Republic of China. It is under the administration of Jiuquan City.
History
Emperor Wudi (140-87 BCE) had th ...
. In 1739, Galdan Tseren agreed to the boundary between Khalkha and Dzungar territory.
Collapse (1745–1755)
Galdan Tseren
Galdan Tseren (; ?–1745) was a Choros (Oirats) prince and the ''Khong Tayiji'' of the Dzungar Khanate from 1727 until his death in 1745.
Galdan Tseren was the eldest son of Tsewang Rabtan. After the assassination of his father by rival faction ...
died in 1745, triggering widespread rebellion in the Tarim Basin, and starting a succession dispute among his sons. In 1749 Galden Tseren's son
Lama Dorji Lama Dorji, or Lama Darja (; mn, Лхамдаржаа; 1726 or 1728–1753) was a mid-eighteenth century khan or ruler of the Dzungar Khanate, a confederation of Mongol tribes that ruled over most of present-day Xinjiang and part of eastern Kazakh ...
seized the throne from his younger brother,
Tsewang Dorji Namjal
Tsewang Dorji Namjal (; Mongolian:; 1732–1750) was the mid-eighteenth century khan or ruler of the Dzungar Khanate, which covered most of present-day Xinjiang and part of eastern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and southern Siberia.
Background
Tsew ...
. He was overthrown by his cousin
Dawachi
Dawachi (; mn, Даваач; died 1759) was the last khan of the Dzungar Khanate from 1753 until his defeat at the hands of Qing and Mongol forces at Ili in 1755.
Dawachi belonged to the highest rank of Dzungar aristocracy. He traced his ance ...
and the
Khoid
The Khoid, also Khoyd or Khoit (; "Northern ones/people") people are an Oirat subgroup of the Choros Choros may refer to:
* Choros (Oirats), a Mongolic people and historical clan
* Chôros, a series of compositions by Heitor Villa-Lobos
* Choros ...
noble
Amursana
Amursana ( Mongolian ; ; 172321September 1757) was an 18th-century ''taishi'' () or prince of the Khoit- Oirat tribe that ruled over parts of Dzungaria and Altishahr in present-day northwest China. Known as the last great Oirat hero, Amursana wa ...
, but they too fought over control of the khanate. As a result of their dispute, in 1753, three of Dawachi's relatives ruling the
Dörbet and
Bayad
The bayad (''Bagrus bajad''), is a species of bagrid catfish from Africa.
Distribution
The natural habitat of the bayad are lakes and rivers in Africa. These include lakes such as Lake Chad, Lake Albert, and Lake Turkana, as well as rivers suc ...
defected to the Qing and migrated into Khalkha territory. The next year, Amursana also defected. In 1754, Yusuf, the ruler of
Kashgar, rebelled and forcefully converted the Dzungars living there to Islam. His older brother, Jahan Khoja of
Yarkand
Yarkant County,, United States National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency also Shache County,, United States National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency also transliterated from Uyghur as Yakan County, is a county in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous ...
, also rebelled but was captured by the Dzungars due to the treachery of Ayyub Khoja of
Aksu. Jahan's son Sadiq gathered 7,000 men in
Khotan
Hotan (also known as Gosthana, Gaustana, Godana, Godaniya, Khotan, Hetian, Hotien) is a major oasis town in southwestern Xinjiang, an autonomous region in Western China. The city proper of Hotan broke off from the larger Hotan County to become ...
and attacked Aksu in retaliation. In the spring of 1755, the
Qianlong Emperor sent an army of 50,000 against Dawachi. They met almost no resistance and destroyed the Dzungar Khanate within the span of 100 days.
Dawachi fled into the mountains north of Aksu but was captured by Khojis, the beg of
Uchturpan, and delivered to the Qing.
Aftermath
Amursana's rebellion (1755–1757)
After defeating the Dzungar Khanate, the Qing planned to install khans for each of the four Oirat tribes, but
Amursana
Amursana ( Mongolian ; ; 172321September 1757) was an 18th-century ''taishi'' () or prince of the Khoit- Oirat tribe that ruled over parts of Dzungaria and Altishahr in present-day northwest China. Known as the last great Oirat hero, Amursana wa ...
wanted to rule over all the Oirats. Instead the
Qianlong Emperor made him only khan of the
Khoid
The Khoid, also Khoyd or Khoit (; "Northern ones/people") people are an Oirat subgroup of the Choros Choros may refer to:
* Choros (Oirats), a Mongolic people and historical clan
* Chôros, a series of compositions by Heitor Villa-Lobos
* Choros ...
. In the summer, Amursana along with Mongol leader
Chingünjav Chingunjavi ( mn, Чингүн, ; also known as ''Admiral Chingün'', mn, Чингүн, 1710–1757) was the Khalkha prince ruler of the Khotogoids and one of the two major leaders of the 1756-57 rebellion in Outer Mongolia. Although his rebellio ...
led a revolt against the Qing. Unable to defeat the Qing, Amursana fled north to seek refuge with the
Russians
, native_name_lang = ru
, image =
, caption =
, population =
, popplace =
118 million Russians in the Russian Federation (2002 '' Winkler Prins'' estimate)
, region1 =
, pop1 ...
and died of smallpox in Russian lands. In the spring of 1762 his frozen body was brought to
Kyakhta
Kyakhta (russian: Кя́хта, ; bua, Хяагта, Khiaagta, ; mn, Хиагт, Hiagt, ) is a town and the administrative center of Kyakhtinsky District in the Republic of Buryatia, Russia, located on the Kyakhta River near the Mongolia–Rus ...
for the Manchu to see. The Russians then buried it, refusing the Manchu request that it be handed over for posthumous punishment.
Aq Taghliq rebellion (1757–1759)
When Amursana rebelled against the
Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-spea ...
, the Aq Taghliq khojas Burhanuddin and Jahan rebelled in
Yarkand
Yarkant County,, United States National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency also Shache County,, United States National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency also transliterated from Uyghur as Yakan County, is a county in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous ...
. Their rule was not popular and the people greatly disliked them for appropriating anything they needed from clothing to livestock. In February 1758, The Qing sent Yaerhashan and Zhao Hui with 10,000 troops against the Aq Taghliq regime. Zhao Hui was besieged by enemy forces at Yarkand until January 1759, but otherwise the Qing army did not encounter any difficulties on campaign. The khoja brothers fled to
Badakhshan
Badakhshan is a historical region comprising parts of modern-day north-eastern Afghanistan, eastern Tajikistan, and Taxkorgan Tajik Autonomous County in China. Badakhshan Province is one of the 34 provinces of Afghanistan. Much of historic Ba ...
where they were captured by the ruler Sultan Shah, who executed them and handed Jahan's head to the Qing. The Tarim Basin was pacified in 1759.
Genocide
According to the Qing scholar
Wei Yuan
Wei Yuan (; April23, 1794March26, 1857), born Wei Yuanda (), courtesy names Moshen () and Hanshi (), was a Chinese scholar from Shaoyang, Hunan. He moved to Yangzhou, Jiangsu in 1831, where he remained for the rest of his life. Wei obtained the ...
(1794–1857), the Dzungar population before the Qing conquest was around 600,000 in 200,000 households. Wei Yuan wrote that about 40 percent of the Dzungar households were killed by
smallpox
Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by variola virus (often called smallpox virus) which belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (WHO) c ...
, 20 percent fled to Russia or
Kazakh tribes, and 30 percent were killed by Manchu bannermen. For several thousands of
li, there were no gers except of those who had surrendered.
Wen-Djang Chu wrote that 80 percent of the 600,000 or more Dzungars were destroyed by disease and attack which Michael Clarke described as "the complete destruction of not only the Dzungar state but of the Dzungars as a people."
It's argued by the historian
Peter Perdue that the destruction of the Dzungars was the result of an explicit policy of extermination launched by the
Qianlong Emperor which lasted for two years.
His commanders were reluctant to carry out his orders, which he repeated several times using the term ''jiao'' (extermination) over and over again. The commanders Hadaha and Agui were punished for only occupying Dzungar lands but letting the people escape. The generals Jaohui and Shuhede were punished for not showing sufficient zeal in exterminating rebels. Qianlong explicitly ordered the Khalkha Mongols to "take the young and strong and massacre them." The elderly, children, and women were spared but they could not preserve their former names or titles. Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide, states that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence."
Widespread anti-Dzungar opinion by former Dzungar subjects contributed to their genocide. The Muslim
Kazakhs and former people of the
Yarkent Khanate
The Yarkent Khanate, also known as the Yarkand Khanate and the Kashghar Khanate, was a Sunni Muslim Turkic state ruled by the Mongol descendants of Chagatai Khan. It was founded by Sultan Said Khan in 1514 as a western offshoot of Moghulistan, ...
in the
Tarim Basin
The Tarim Basin is an endorheic basin in Northwest China occupying an area of about and one of the largest basins in Northwest China.Chen, Yaning, et al. "Regional climate change and its effects on river runoff in the Tarim Basin, China." Hydr ...
(now called
Uyghurs
The Uyghurs; ; ; ; zh, s=, t=, p=Wéiwú'ěr, IPA: ( ), alternatively spelled Uighurs, Uygurs or Uigurs, are a Turkic ethnic group originating from and culturally affiliated with the general region of Central and East Asia. The Uyghur ...
), were treated poorly under by the Buddhist Dzungars, who used them as slave labor, and participated in the Qing invasion and attacked the Dzungars. Uyghur leaders like Khoja Emin were granted titles within the Qing nobility, and acted as an intermediary with Muslims from the Tarim Basin. They told the Muslims that the Qing only wanted to kill Oirats and that they would leave the Muslims alone. They also convinced the Muslims to aid the Qing in killing Oirates.
Demographic change in Xinjiang
![Xinjiang regions simplified](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Xinjiang_regions_simplified.png)
After the destruction of the Dzungar Oirat people, the
Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-spea ...
sponsored the settlement of millions of Han, Hui, Xibe, Daur, Solon, Turkic Oasis people (Uyghurs) and Manchus in Dzungaria since the land had been emptied. Stanley W. Toops notes that modern Xinjiang's demographic situation still reflects the settlement initiative of the Qing dynasty. One third of Xinjiang's total population consisted of Han, Hui, and Kazakhs in the north while around two-thirds were Uyghurs in southern Xinjiang's Tarim Basin.
Some cities in northern Xinjiang such as Ürümqi and Yining were essentially made by the Qing settlement policy.
The elimination of the Buddhist Dzungars led to the rise of Islam and its Muslim Begs as the predominant moral political authority in Xinjiang. Many Muslim
Taranchi
Taranchi () is a term denoting the Muslim sedentary population living in oases around the Tarim Basin in today's Xinjiang, China, whose native language is Turkic Karluk and whose ancestral heritages include Tocharians, Iranic peoples such as ...
s also moved to northern Xinjiang. According to Henry Schwarz, "the Qing victory was, in a certain sense, a victory for Islam". Ironically, the destruction of the Dzungars by the Qing led to the consolidation of Turkic Muslim power in the region, since Turkic Muslim culture and identity was tolerated or even promoted by the Qing.
In 1759, the Qing dynasty proclaimed that the land formerly belonging to the Dzungars was now part of "China" (Dulimbai Gurun) in a Manchu memorial. The Qing ideology of unification portrayed the "outer" non-Han Chinese like the Mongols, Oirats, and Tibetans together with the "inner" Han Chinese as "one family" united in the Qing state. The Qing described the phrase "Zhong Wai Yi Jia" (中外一家) or "Nei Wai Yi Jia" (內外一家, "interior and exterior as one family"), to convey this idea of "unification" to different peoples.
Leaders of the Dzungar Khanate
![Zunghar Khanate at 1750](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Zunghar_Khanate_at_1760.jpg)
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Khara Khula, title:
Khong Tayiji
Khong Tayiji ( mn, , хун тайж; ), also spelled Qong Tayiji, was a title of the Mongols, derived from the Chinese term ''Huangtaizi'' (皇太子; "crown prince").
At first it also meant crown prince in the Mongolian language. It was origina ...
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Erdeni Batur
Erdeni Batur (in modern Mongolian: Эрдэнэбаатар, Erdenebaatar; ; d. 1653) was a Choros-Oirat prince generally considered to be the founder of the Dzungar Khanate, centered in the Dzungaria region, currently in north-westernmost part o ...
, title: Khong Tayiji
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Sengge
Sengge (; died 1671) was a Choros-Oirat prince and the chosen successor of his father Erdeni Batur to rule over the Dzungar. Sengge ruled over a section of the Dzungar from 1653 until his murder in 1671 by his two older half-brothers Tsetsen ...
, title: Khong Tayiji
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Galdan Boshugtu Khan
Erdeniin Galdan (1644–1697, mn, Галдан Бошигт хаан, , ), known as Galdan Boshugtu Khan (in Mongolian script: ) was a Choros Dzungar- Oirat Khan of the Dzungar Khanate. As fourth son of Erdeni Batur, founder of the Dzungar ...
, titles: Khong Tayiji, Boshogtu Khan
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Tsewang Rabtan
Tsewang Rabtan (from ''Tsewang Rapten''; ; ; 1643–1727) was a Choros (Oirats) prince and the Khong Tayiji of the Dzungar Khanate from 1697 (following the death of his uncle and rival Galdan Boshugtu Khan) until his death in 1727. He was mar ...
, title: Khong Tayiji, Khan
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Galdan Tseren
Galdan Tseren (; ?–1745) was a Choros (Oirats) prince and the ''Khong Tayiji'' of the Dzungar Khanate from 1727 until his death in 1745.
Galdan Tseren was the eldest son of Tsewang Rabtan. After the assassination of his father by rival faction ...
, title: Khong Tayiji
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Tsewang Dorji Namjal
Tsewang Dorji Namjal (; Mongolian:; 1732–1750) was the mid-eighteenth century khan or ruler of the Dzungar Khanate, which covered most of present-day Xinjiang and part of eastern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and southern Siberia.
Background
Tsew ...
, title: Khong Tayiji
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Lama Dorji Lama Dorji, or Lama Darja (; mn, Лхамдаржаа; 1726 or 1728–1753) was a mid-eighteenth century khan or ruler of the Dzungar Khanate, a confederation of Mongol tribes that ruled over most of present-day Xinjiang and part of eastern Kazakh ...
, title: Khong Tayiji
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Dawachi
Dawachi (; mn, Даваач; died 1759) was the last khan of the Dzungar Khanate from 1753 until his defeat at the hands of Qing and Mongol forces at Ili in 1755.
Dawachi belonged to the highest rank of Dzungar aristocracy. He traced his ance ...
, title: Khong Tayiji
* ''
Amursana
Amursana ( Mongolian ; ; 172321September 1757) was an 18th-century ''taishi'' () or prince of the Khoit- Oirat tribe that ruled over parts of Dzungaria and Altishahr in present-day northwest China. Known as the last great Oirat hero, Amursana wa ...
''‡
‡ Note: ''Although Amursana had de facto control of some areas of Dzungaria during 1755–1756, he could never officially become Khan due to the inferior rank of his clan, the
Khoid
The Khoid, also Khoyd or Khoit (; "Northern ones/people") people are an Oirat subgroup of the Choros Choros may refer to:
* Choros (Oirats), a Mongolic people and historical clan
* Chôros, a series of compositions by Heitor Villa-Lobos
* Choros ...
.''
Culture
The Oirats converted to
Tibetan Buddhism
Tibetan Buddhism (also referred to as Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Lamaism, Lamaistic Buddhism, Himalayan Buddhism, and Northern Buddhism) is the form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet and Bhutan, where it is the dominant religion. It is also in majo ...
in 1615.
Oirat society was similar to other nomadic societies. It was heavily dependent on animal husbandry but also practiced limited agriculture. After the conquest of the
Yarkent Khanate
The Yarkent Khanate, also known as the Yarkand Khanate and the Kashghar Khanate, was a Sunni Muslim Turkic state ruled by the Mongol descendants of Chagatai Khan. It was founded by Sultan Said Khan in 1514 as a western offshoot of Moghulistan, ...
in 1680, they used people from the
Tarim Basin
The Tarim Basin is an endorheic basin in Northwest China occupying an area of about and one of the largest basins in Northwest China.Chen, Yaning, et al. "Regional climate change and its effects on river runoff in the Tarim Basin, China." Hydr ...
as slave labour to cultivate land in Dzungaria. The Dzungar economy and industry was fairly complex for a nomadic society. They had iron, copper, and silver mines producing raw ore, which the Dzungars made into weapons and shields, including even firearms, bullets, and other utensils. The Dzungars were able to indigenously manufacture firearms to a degree that was unique in Central Asia at the time.
In 1762, the Qing army discovered four large Dzungar bronze cannons, eight "soaring" cannons, and 10,000 shells.
In 1640, the Oirats created an Oirat Mongol Legal Code which regulated the tribes and gave support to the
Gelug
240px, The 14th Dalai Lama (center), the most influential figure of the contemporary Gelug tradition, at the 2003 Bodhgaya (India).
The Gelug (, also Geluk; "virtuous")Kay, David N. (2007). ''Tibetan and Zen Buddhism in Britain: Transplantati ...
Yellow Hat sect.
Erdeni Batur
Erdeni Batur (in modern Mongolian: Эрдэнэбаатар, Erdenebaatar; ; d. 1653) was a Choros-Oirat prince generally considered to be the founder of the Dzungar Khanate, centered in the Dzungaria region, currently in north-westernmost part o ...
assisted
Zaya Pandita
Zaya Pandita or Namkhaijamts (1599–1662) was a Buddhist missionary priest and scholar of Oirat origin who is the most prominent Oirat Buddhist scholar. Among his accomplishments is the invention of the Clear Script.
Biography
Zaya Pandita ...
in creating the
Clear Script
Clear Script ( xal, , Тодо бичиг, , ''todo biçig''; mn, Тод бичиг, ''tod bichig'', , bxr, Тодо бэшэг, ''Todo besheg'' (), or just todo) is an alphabet created in 1648 by the Oirat Buddhist monk Zaya Pandita for t ...
.
Gallery
File:Pays des calmoucs.gif, This map fragment shows territories of Oirats as in 1706. (Map Collection of the Library of Congress
The Library of Congress (LOC) is the research library that officially serves the United States Congress and is the ''de facto'' national library of the United States. It is the oldest federal cultural institution in the country. The library ...
: "Carte de Tartarie" of Guillaume de L'Isle (1675–1726))
File:Kalmykia 1720.jpg, The Dzungar and Kalmyk states (a fragment of the map of Russian Empire of Peter the Great, that was created by a Swedish soldier in c. 1725)
File:Renat map.jpg, A map of the Dzungar Khanate, by a Swedish officer in captivity there in 1716–33, which include the region known today as Zhetysu
Zhetysu, or Jeti-Suu ( kk, , Жетісу, pronounced ; ky, ''Jeti-Suu'', (), meaning "seven rivers"; also transcribed ''Zhetisu'', ''Jetisuw'', ''Jetysu'', ''Jeti-su'', ''Jity-su'', ''Жетысу'',, National Geospatial-Intelligence Age ...
File:Receiving the surrender of the Yili.jpg, Zhaohui receives the surrender of Dawachi at Ili 1755
File:Storming of the Camp at Gadan-Ola.jpg, "Storming of the Camp at Gädän-Ola" a scroll depicting a raid in 1755 in which the Kalmuk Ayusi, having gone to the Chinese side, attacks Dawa achi's camp on Mount Gadan.
File:Battle of Oroi-Jalatu.jpg, The Battle of Oroi-Jalatu,1756. Chinese general Zhao Hui attacked the Zunghars at night in present Wusu, Xinjiang.
File:The Victory of Khorgos1.jpg, "The Victory of Khorgos" The partisans of Amursana were defeated in 1758 by Prince Cäbdan-jab.
File:Battle of Khurungui.jpg, Battle of Khurungui, 1758. General Zhao Hui ambushes and defeats the Zungarian forces of Amoursana on Mount Khurungui (near Almaty, Kazakhstan).
File:The Leader of Us (Turfan) Surrenders with His City.jpg, The surrender of the leader Huo Jisi of Us (Us-Turfan in Uyghur) in 1758
File:The Lifting of the Siege of the Black River (Khara-Usu).jpg, Zhao Hui was unable to take Yarkand, moved east but was forced to retreat by the rebels, who lay siege to him at the Black River. In 1759, Zhao Hui learnt of the imminent arrival of relief troops, and so stormed the rebel town and brought the rebellion to an end.
File:The Great Victory at Qurman.jpg, Battle of Qurman,1759; General Fu De, on his way to relieve the siege of Khorgos was suddenly attacked by an enemy force of 5000 Muslim cavalry and with less than 600 men Fu De defeated the Muslims.
File:Battle of Tonguzluq.jpg, Battle of Tonguzluq,1758; General Zhao Hui tries to take Yarkand but is defeated
File:Battle of Qos-Qulaq.jpg, Battle of Qos-Qulaq 1759, Chinese General Ming Rui defeats the Khoja army in Qos-Qulaq (north of Kara-Kul, Tajikistan).
File:Battle of Arcul.jpg, Qing defeat the Khoja at Arcul after they had retreated following the battle of Qos-Qulaq, 1759
File:Battle of Yesil-kol-nor.jpg, The Chinese army defeats the Khoja brothers (Burhān al-Dīn and Khwāja-i Jahān) in Yesil-Kol-Nor (present-day Yashil Kul, Tajikistan), 1759.
File:The Khan of Badakhsan Asks to Surrender.jpg, The Khan of Badakhsan Asks to Surrender, 1759.
File:The Emperor is Presented with Prisoners from the Pacification of the Muslim Tribes.jpg, The prisoners are presented at the palace gate of Wumen. The Emperor is also offered the head of the Khoja Huo Jizhan.
File:The Emperor Receives News of the Officers and Soldiers Distinguished in the Campaign.jpg, The Emperor in the Suburbs Personally Receives News of the Officers and Soldiers Distinguished in the Campaign against the Muslim Tribes
File:A Victory Banquet Given by the Emperor for the Distinguished Officers and Soldiers.jpg, A Victory Banquet Given by the Emperor for the Distinguished Officers and Soldiers of the Rebellion of Huibu (1758-1759).
See also
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Choros (Oirats)
Choros or Tsoros ( mn, Цорос, ; ) was the ruling clan of the Ööld and Dörbet Oirat and once ruled the whole Four Oirat. They founded the Dzungar Khanate in the 17th century. Their chiefs reckoned their descent from a boy nourished b ...
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Dzungar people
The Dzungar people (also written as Zunghar; from the Mongolian words , meaning 'left hand') were the many Mongol Oirat tribes who formed and maintained the Dzungar Khanate in the 17th and 18th centuries. Historically they were one of major t ...
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Dzungaria
Dzungaria (; from the Mongolian words , meaning 'left hand') is a geographical subregion in Northwest China that corresponds to the northern half of Xinjiang. It is thus also known as Beijiang, which means "Northern Xinjiang". Bounded by the ...
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Khoshut Khanate
The Khoshut Khanate was a Mongol Oirat khanate based on the Tibetan Plateau from 1642 to 1717. Based in modern Qinghai, it was founded by Güshi Khan in 1642 after defeating the opponents of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism in Tibet. The r ...
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Kalmyk Khanate
The Kalmyk Khanate ( xal-RU, Хальмг хана улс, ''Xal'mg xana uls'') was an Oirat khanate on the Eurasian steppe. It extended over modern Kalmykia and surrounding areas in the North Caucasus, including Stavropol and Astrakhan. Duri ...
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Tibet–Ladakh–Mughal War
The Tibet–Ladakh–Mughal War of 1679–1684 was fought between the Central Tibetan Ganden Phodrang government, with the assistance of Mongol khanates, and the Namgyal dynasty of Ladakh with assistance from the Mughal Empire in Kashmir.
Back ...
References
Citations
General and cited sources
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* Хойт С.К
Последние данные по локализации и численности ойрат // Проблемы этногенеза и этнической культуры тюрко-монгольских народов. Вып. 2. Элиста: Изд-во КГУ, 2008. стр. 136–157.
* Хойт С.К
Этническая история ойратских групп. Элиста, 2015. 199 с.* Хойт С.К
Данные фольклора для изучения путей этногенеза ойратских групп// Международная научная конференция «Сетевое востоковедение: образование, наука, культура», 7–10 декабря 2017 г.: материалы. Элиста: Изд-во Калм. ун-та, 2017. с. 286–289.
External links
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{{Inner Asia
Former countries in Chinese history
Former monarchies of Central Asia
History of Mongolia
Inner Asia
Khanates
Mongol states
Nomadic groups in Eurasia
Oirats
States and territories disestablished in 1758
States and territories established in 1634
Former empires