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''Anito'', also spelled ''anitu'', refers to
The ''ninunò'' (lit. "ancestor") can be the spirits of actual ancestors, cultural heroes, or generalized guardian spirits of a family. Pre-colonial Filipinos believed that upon death, the "free" 
There can be multiple locations in the spirit world, varying in different ethnic groups.Compare with the
Spirits that have never been human are differentiated in some ethnic groups as ''diwata''. These spirits can range from simple spirits like the ''diwata'' of a particular inanimate object, plant, animal, or place,e.g. ''
The last is a class of malevolent spirits or demons, as well as supernatural beings, generally collectively known as ''aswang'', ''yawa'', or ''mangalos'' (also ''mangalok'', ''mangangalek'', or ''magalos'') among Tagalogs and Visayans. There are numerous kinds of ''aswang'' with specific abilities, behavior, or appearance. Examples include ''
''Diwata'' are often depicted as appearing to unsuspecting people in human or animal form, sometimes causing unintentional harm. They can also deliberately play tricks on mortals, like seducing or abducting beautiful men and women into the spirit world. Certain places are believed to be owned by ''diwata'' or are borders to the spirit world. These are normally avoided or only entered with precautions, especially during
Ancestor spirits were usually represented by carved figures. These were known as ''taotao'' ("little human", also ''taotaohan'', ''latawo'', ''tinatao'', or ''tatao''),From Proto-Malayo-Polynesian ''*tau'', ultimately from 
''Taotao'' were usually austere roughly-carved figures made from wood, stone, or ivory. Some ''taoatao'' encountered by the Spanish were made from precious metals or ornamented with gold and jewelry, but these were very rare. ''Taotao'' were almost always depicted in the
Ancient Filipinos and Filipinos who continue to adhere to the
Some animals like
Anitism was not a religion about worship. Aside from good ancestor spirits and the few benevolent ''diwata'', most ''anito'' were feared, not venerated. To an ordinary person, ''diwata'' were regarded as dangerous beings to be avoided or appeased. When interaction was necessary, they performed a ritual known as ''pag-anito'' (also ''mag-anito'' or ''anitohan''). These are usually directed at ancestor spirits. When the ''pag-anito'' ceremony is for a ''diwata'', the ritual is known as ''pagdiwata'' (also ''magdiwata'' or ''diwatahan'').
Minor ''pag-anito'' rituals like praying for better weather or banishing minor ill luck can be performed by any householder. However, major ''pag-anito'' rituals required the services of the community
*''"Most of the Indians are heathens...They believe in their ancestors, and when about to embark upon some enterprise commend themselves to these, asking them for aid."'' – Francisco de Sande, ''Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas'' (1576)
*''"Which treats of the rites and ceremonies observed by the Moros in the vicinity of Manilla, and of their social conditions. The god Batala. According to the religion formerly observed by these Moros, they worshiped a deity called among them Batala, which properly means “God.” They said that they adored this Batala because he was the Lord of all, and had created human beings and villages. They said that this Batala had many agents under him, whom he sent to this world to produce, in behalf of men, what is yielded here. These beings were called anitos, and each anito had a special office. Some of them were for the fields, and some for those who journey by sea; some for those who went to war, and some for diseases. Each anito was therefore named for his office; there was, for instance, the anito of the fields, and the anito of the rain. To these anitos the people offered sacrifices, when they desired anything—to each one according to his office. The mode of sacrifice was like that of the Pintados. They summoned a catalonan, which is the same as the vaylan among the Pintados, that is, a priest. He offered the sacrifice, requesting from the anito whatever the people desired him to ask, and heaping up great quantities of rice, meat, and fish. His invocations lasted until the demon entered his body, when the catalonan fell into a swoon, foaming at the mouth. The Indians sang, drank, and feasted until the catalonan came to himself, and told them the answer that the anito had given to him. If the sacrifice was in behalf of a sick person, they offered many golden chains and ornaments, saying that they were paying a ransom for the sick person’s health. This invocation of the anito continued as long as the sickness lasted."''
:''"When the natives were asked why the sacrifices were offered to the anito, and not to the Batala, they answered that the Batala was a great lord, and no one could speak to him. He lived in the sky; but the anito, who was of such a nature that he came down here to talk with men, was to the Batala as a minister, and interceded for them. In some places and especially in the mountain districts, when the father, mother, or other relative dies, the people unite in making a small wooden idol, and preserve it. Accordingly there is a house which contains one hundred or two hundred of these idols. These images also are called anitos; for they say that when people die, they go to serve the Batala. Therefore they make sacrifices to these anitos, offering them food, wine, and gold ornaments; and request them to be intercessors for them before the Batala, whom they regard as God."'' – Miguel de Loarca, ''Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas'' (1582)
*''"They held the cayman in the utmost veneration; and, whenever they made any statement about it, when they descried it in the water, they called it Nono, which means "grandfather." They softly and tenderly besought it not to harm them; and to this end offered it a part of what they carried in their boats, casting the offering into the water. There was no old tree to which they did not attribute divinity; and it was a sacrilege to cut such a tree for any purpose. What more did they adore? the very stones, cliffs, and reefs, and the headlands of the shores of the sea or the rivers; and they made some offering when they passed by these, going to the stone or rock, and placing the offering upon it. I saw many times in the river of Manila a rock which for many years was an idol of that wretched people... While sailing along the island of Panai I beheld on the promontory called Nasso, near Potol, plates and other pieces of earthenware, laid upon a rock, the offering of voyagers. In the island of Mindanao between La Canela and the river .e., Rio Grande a great promontory projects from a rugged and steep coast; always at these points there is a heavy sea, making it both difficult and dangerous to double them. When passing by this headland, the natives, as it was so steep, offered their arrows, discharging them with such force that they penetrated the rock itself. This they did as a sacrifice, that a safe passage might be accorded them."'' – Fr. Pedro Chirino, ''Relacion de las Islas Filipinas'' (1604)
*''"They also adored private idols, which each one inherited from his ancestors. The Visayans called them divata, and the Tagálogs anito. Of those idols some had jurisdiction over the mountains and open country, and permission was asked from them to go thither. Others had jurisdiction over the sowed fields, and the fields were commended to them so that they might prove fruitful; and besides the sacrifices they placed articles of food in the fields for the anitos to eat, in order to place them under greater obligations. There was an anito of the sea, to whom they commended their fisheries and navigations; an anito of the house, whose favor they implored whenever an infant was born, and when it was suckled and the breast offered to it. They placed their ancestors, the invocation of whom was the first thing in all their work and dangers, among these anitos. In memory of their ancestors they kept certain very small and very badly made idols of stone, wood, gold, or ivory, called licha or laravan. Among their gods they reckoned also all those who perished by the sword, or who were devoured by crocodiles, as well as those killed by lightning. They thought that the souls of such immediately ascended to the blest abode by means of the rainbow, called by them balañgao. Generally, whoever could succeed in it attributed divinity to his aged father at his death. The aged themselves died in that presumptuous delusion, and during their sickness and at their death guided all their actions with what they imagined a divine gravity and manner. Consequently, they chose as the place for their grave some assigned spot, like one old man who lived on the seacoast between Dulac and Abuyog, which is in the island of Leyte. He ordered himself placed there in his coffin (as was done) in a house standing alone and distant from the settlement, in order that he might be recognized as a god of navigators, who were to commend themselves to him. Another had himself buried in certain lands in the mountains of Antipolo, and through reverence to him no one dared to cultivate those lands (for they feared that he who should do so would die), until an evangelical minister removed that fear from them, and now they cultivate them without harm or fear."'' – Fr. Francisco Colin, ''Labor Evangelica'' (1663)
Pagdiwata Ritual
of the Tagbanwa in th
ICH Digital Archives
ICHCAP, UNESCO {{Philippine mythology Austronesian spirituality Indigenous Philippine folk religions Philippine mythology Domestic and hearth deities Tutelary deities Nature spirits Tree deities Psychopomps
''Anito'', also spelled ''anitu'', refers to ancestor spirit
The veneration of the dead, including one's ancestors, is based on love and respect for the deceased. In some cultures, it is related to beliefs that the dead have a continued existence, and may possess the ability to influence the fortune of t ...
s, nature spirit
Nature, in the broadest sense, is the physical world or universe. "Nature" can refer to the phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general. The study of nature is a large, if not the only, part of science. Although humans are p ...
s, and deities in the indigenous Philippine folk religions
Indigenous Philippine folk religions are the distinct native religions of various ethnic groups in the Philippines, where most follow belief systems in line with animism. Generally, these indigenous folk religions are referred to as Anito or An ...
from the precolonial age to the present, although the term itself may have other meanings and associations depending on the Filipino ethnic group. It can also refer to carved humanoid figures, the ''taotao'', made of wood, stone, or ivory, that represent these spirits. ''Anito'' (a term predominantly used in Luzon) is also sometimes known as ''diwata'' in certain ethnic groups (especially among Visayans
Visayans (Visayan: ''mga Bisaya''; ) or Visayan people are a Philippine ethnolinguistic group or metaethnicity native to the Visayas, the southernmost islands of Luzon and a significant portion of Mindanao. When taken as a single ethnic group, ...
).
''Pag-anito'' refers to a séance
A séance or seance (; ) is an attempt to communicate with spirits. The word ''séance'' comes from the French word for "session", from the Old French ''seoir'', "to sit". In French, the word's meaning is quite general: one may, for example, spe ...
, often accompanied by other rituals or celebrations, in which a shaman
Shamanism is a religious practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with what they believe to be a spirit world through altered states of consciousness, such as trance. The goal of this is usually to direct spirits or spiritu ...
(Visayan
Visayans (Visayan: ''mga Bisaya''; ) or Visayan people are a Philippine ethnolinguistic group or metaethnicity native to the Visayas, the southernmost islands of Luzon and a significant portion of Mindanao. When taken as a single ethnic group, ...
: ''babaylan'', Tagalog: ''katalonan'') acts as a medium
Medium may refer to:
Science and technology
Aviation
*Medium bomber, a class of war plane
* Tecma Medium, a French hang glider design
Communication
* Media (communication), tools used to store and deliver information or data
* Medium of ...
to communicate directly with the spirits. When a nature spirit or deity is specifically involved, the ritual is called ''pagdiwata''. The act of worship or a religious sacrifice to a spirit is also sometimes simply referred to as ''anito''.
The belief in ''anito'' are sometimes referred to as Anitism
Indigenous Philippine folk religions are the distinct native religions of various ethnic groups in the Philippines, where most follow belief systems in line with animism. Generally, these indigenous folk religions are referred to as Anito or An ...
in scholarly literature (Spanish: ''anitismo'' or ''anitería'').
Spirits
Pre-colonial Filipinos wereanimistic
Animism (from Latin: ' meaning 'breath, spirit, life') is the belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual essence. Potentially, animism perceives all things—animals, plants, rocks, rivers, weather systems, hum ...
. They believed that everything has a spirit, from rocks and trees to animals and humans to natural phenomena
Nature, in the broadest sense, is the physical world or universe. "Nature" can refer to the phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general. The study of nature is a large, if not the only, part of science. Although humans are p ...
. These spirits are collectively known as ''anito'', derived from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian
Proto-Malayo-Polynesian (PMP) is the reconstructed ancestor of the Malayo-Polynesian languages, which is by far the largest branch (by current speakers) of the Austronesian language family. Proto-Malayo-Polynesian is ancestral to all Austronesi ...
''*qanitu'' and Proto-Austronesian
Proto-Austronesian (commonly abbreviated as PAN or PAn) is a proto-language. It is the reconstructed ancestor of the Austronesian languages, one of the world's major language families. Proto-Austronesian is assumed to have begun to diversify 3 ...
''*qaNiCu'' ("spirit of the dead"). Cognate
In historical linguistics, cognates or lexical cognates are sets of words in different languages that have been inherited in direct descent from an etymology, etymological ancestor in a proto-language, common parent language. Because language c ...
s in other Austronesian cultures include the Micronesian ''aniti'', Malaysian
Malaysian may refer to:
* Something from or related to Malaysia, a country in Southeast Asia
* Malaysian Malay, a dialect of Malay language spoken mainly in Malaysia
* Malaysian people, people who are identified with the country of Malaysia regard ...
and Indonesian
Indonesian is anything of, from, or related to Indonesia, an archipelagic country in Southeast Asia. It may refer to:
* Indonesians, citizens of Indonesia
** Native Indonesians, diverse groups of local inhabitants of the archipelago
** Indonesian ...
'' hantu'' or ''antu'', Nage
The Nage are an indigenous people living on the eastern Indonesian island of Flores and Timor. They descended from the indigenous population of Flores They are largely assimilated by the neighboring people. They speak Nage, one of the major lang ...
''nitu'', and Polynesian ''atua
Atua are the gods and spirits of the Polynesian peoples such as the Māori mythology, Māori or the Hawaiian religion, Hawaiians (see also ); the Polynesian languages, Polynesian word literally means "power" or "strength" and so the concept is s ...
'' and ''aitu
In Polynesian languages the word ''aitu'' refers to ghosts or spirits, often malevolent. The word is common to many languages of Western and Eastern Polynesia. In the mythology of Tonga, for example, ''aitu'' or ''eitu'' are lesser gods, many being ...
''. As well as Tao
''Tao'' or ''Dao'' is the natural order of the universe, whose character one's intuition must discern to realize the potential for individual wisdom, as conceived in the context of East Asian philosophy, East Asian religions, or any other philo ...
''anito'', Taivoan ''alid'', Seediq and Atayal Atayal may refer to:
* Atayal people
* Atayal language
The Atayal language is spoken by the Atayal people of Taiwan. Squliq and C’uli’ (Ts’ole’) are two major dialects. Mayrinax and Pa’kuali’, two subdialects of C’uli’, are uniqu ...
''utux'', Bunun ''hanitu Hanitu or qanitu is the Bunun of Taiwan's term for spirit, but it does not exactly equate with terms from other cultures, and is one of three domains of Bunun spiritual thought, another being ''isang'', which equates more to the soul, breath, and h ...
'' or ''hanidu'', and Tsou ''hicu'' among Taiwanese aborigines
Taiwanese may refer to:
* Taiwanese language, another name for Taiwanese Hokkien
* Something from or related to Taiwan ( Formosa)
* Taiwanese aborigines, the indigenous people of Taiwan
* Han Taiwanese, the Han people of Taiwan
* Taiwanese people, ...
. ''Anito'' can be divided into two main categories: the ancestor spirits (''ninunò''), and deities and nature spirits (''diwata'').
Ancestor spirits
The ''ninunò'' (lit. "ancestor") can be the spirits of actual ancestors, cultural heroes, or generalized guardian spirits of a family. Pre-colonial Filipinos believed that upon death, the "free" soul
In many religious and philosophical traditions, there is a belief that a soul is "the immaterial aspect or essence of a human being".
Etymology
The Modern English noun ''soul'' is derived from Old English ''sāwol, sāwel''. The earliest attes ...
(Visayan: ''kalag''; Tagalog: ''kaluluwa'')Among most Filipino ethnic groups, a person is believed to be composed of at least two souls – the breath of life, will, or awareness (''ginhawa'' or ''hininga'', which stays with the living body) and the astral soul (''kalag'' or ''kaluluwa'', which can travel to the spirit world). The concept of soul dualism
Soul dualism, also called dualistic pluralism or multiple souls, is a range of beliefs that a person has two or more kinds of souls. In many cases, one of the souls is associated with body functions ("body soul") and the other one can leave the bod ...
is sometimes referred to as "twin souls" or "double souls" and is a common belief in Austronesian cultures and other shamanistic
Shamanism is a religious practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with what they believe to be a spirit world through altered states of consciousness, such as trance. The goal of this is usually to direct spirits or spiritu ...
cultures. Other names for the life soul include or ( Tausug, (Maranao
The Maranao people (Maranao: mәranaw Filipino: ''Maranaw''), also spelled Meranao, Maranaw, and Mëranaw, is the term used by the Philippine government to refer to the southern indigenous people who are the "people of the lake", a predomin ...
), (Jama Mapun
The Sama-Bajau include several Austronesian ethnic groups of Maritime Southeast Asia. The name collectively refers to related people who usually call themselves the Sama or Samah (formally A'a Sama, "Sama people"); or are known by the exony ...
), ( Batad Ifugao), and (T'boli
The Tboli people () are one of the indigenous peoples of South Cotabato in southern Mindanao. In the body of ethnographic and linguistic literature on Mindanao, their name is variously spelt Tboli, T'boli, Tböli, Tagabili, Tagabilil, Tagabulul ...
). Other names for the astral soul include ''kaluha'', ''dungan'' (Visayan); ''kalag'' ( Bicol); ''kaduwa'' (Isneg
The Isnag people (also referred to as the Isneg and Apayao) are an Austronesian ethnic group native to Apayao Province in the Philippines' Cordillera Administrative Region. Their native language is Isneg language, Isneg (also called Isnag), a ...
), ''ab-abiik'' ( Kankanaey), ''karurua'' ( Ilocano), ''ikaruruwa'' ( Ibanag), ''karaduwa'' (Mangyan
Mangyan is the generic name for the eight indigenous groups found on the island of Mindoro, southwest of the island of Luzon, the Philippines, each with its own tribal name, language, and customs. The total population may be around 280,001, ...
), ''kiyaraluwa'' ( Tagbanwa), ''makatu'' (Bukidnon
Bukidnon(), officially the Province of Bukidnon ( ceb, Lalawigan sa Bukidnon; fil, Lalawigan ng Bukidnon; hil, Kapuroan sang Bukidnon; Binukid and Higaonon: ''Probinsya ta Bukidnon''), is a landlocked province in the Philippines located in the ...
), and ''kadengan-dengan'' or ''gimokud'' (Manobo
The Lumad are a group of Austronesian indigenous people in the southern Philippines. It is a Cebuano term meaning "native" or "indigenous". The term is short for Katawhang Lumad (Literally: "indigenous people"), the autonym officially adopte ...
). (Scott, 1994; Tan, 2008; Mercado, 1991; Talavera, 2014) Most of the terms for the astral soul literally translate to "twin" or "double", from PAN *duSa, "two". (Yu, 2000; Blust, 2010) of a person travels to a spirit world, usually by voyaging across an ocean on a boat (a '' bangka'' or ''baloto
A Balangay, or barangay is a type of lashed-lug boat built by joining planks edge-to-edge using pins, dowels, and fiber lashings. They are found throughout the Philippines and were used largely as trading ships up until the colonial era. The ...
'').
There can be multiple locations in the spirit world, varying in different ethnic groups.Compare with the Greek underworld
In mythology, the Greek underworld, or Hades, is a distinct realm (one of the three realms that makes up the cosmos) where an individual goes after death. The earliest idea of afterlife in Greek myth is that, at the moment of death, an individ ...
Which place souls end up in depends on how they died, the age at death, or the conduct of the person when they were alive. There was no concept of heaven or hell prior to the introduction of Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
and Islam
Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism#Islam, monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God in Islam, God (or ...
;After Spanish contact, various spirit worlds were syncretized into the Christian concept of heaven and hell in dictionaries and Bible translations. They struggled in determining which terminology to use because of the absence of the heaven and hell dichotomy in the Filipino concept of the spirit world. Spanish missionaries and European authors usually equated heaven with ''maca'' and ''calualhatian''; and hell with ''casan'' (also ''casanaan'', ''casauaan'', or ''catanaan''; sometimes misread as ''kasamaan''). However, in the Boxer Codex
The ''Boxer Codex'' is a late sixteenth century Spanish manuscript that was produced in the Philippines. The document contains seventy-five colored illustrations of the peoples of China, the Philippines, Java, the Moluccas, the Ladrones, and Sia ...
''maca'' and ''casan'' were synonyms for the Visayan and Tagalog underworld
The underworld, also known as the netherworld or hell, is the supernatural world of the dead in various religious traditions and myths, located below the world of the living. Chthonic is the technical adjective for things of the underworld.
...
s. The 1754 version of ''Vocabulario de la lengua tagala
''Vocabulario de la lengua tagala'' () was the first dictionary of the Tagalog language in the Philippines, It was written by the Franciscan friar Pedro de San Buena Ventura and published in Pila, Laguna in 1613. Juan de Plasencia had written a vo ...
'' used ''casanaan'' for both heaven and hell; with ''casanaan nang hirap'' as hell, and ''casanaan nang tova'' as heaven. ''Calualhatian'' (modern spelling: ''kaluwalhatian'') was simply a region in the Tagalog spirit world that souls can enter by crossing a torrential river on a narrow plank. (Rath, 2013) rather, the spirit world is usually depicted as an otherworld
The concept of an otherworld in historical Indo-European religion is reconstructed in comparative mythology. Its name is a calque of ''orbis alius'' (Latin for "other Earth/world"), a term used by Lucan in his description of the Celtic Otherworld ...
that exists alongside the material world. Souls reunite with deceased relatives in the spirit world and lead normal lives in the spirit world as they did in the material world. In some cases, the souls of evil people undergo penance and cleansing before they are granted entrance into a particular spirit realm. Souls would eventually reincarnate
Reincarnation, also known as rebirth or transmigration, is the philosophical or religious concept that the non-physical essence of a living being begins a new life in a different physical form or body after biological death. Resurrection is a ...
after a period of time in the spirit world.
In some cultures (like among the Kalinga people
The Kalinga people () are an indigenous ethnic group whose ancestral domain is in the Cordillera Mountain Range of the northern Philippines. They are mainly found in Kalinga province which has an area of 3,282.58 sq. km. Some of them, howeve ...
), the acceptance of a soul by ancestors into a certain realm in the spirit world requires tattoos (''batok
Batok, batek, patik, or batik, among other names, are general terms for indigenous tattoos of the Philippines. Tattooing on both sexes was practiced by almost all ethnic groups of the Philippine Islands during the pre-colonial era. Like in other ...
''), by which they can gauge the worthiness of a soul. In other cultures, tattoos illuminate and guide the spirits during the journey to the afterlife.
Souls in the spirit world still retain a degree of influence in the material world, and vice versa. ''Pag-anito'' may be used to invoke good ancestor spirits for protection, intercession (''kalara'' or ''kalda''), or advice. Ancestor spirits that become intercessors with deities are known as ''pintakasi'' or ''pitulon''. Vengeful spirits of the dead can manifest as apparitions or ghosts (''mantiw'')Also ''mua'', ''mamaw'', ''mamanhig'', ''pamahoy'', ''mamamahoy'' (McCoy, 1982); later ''multo''. from Spanish ''muerto'', "dead person" (Tan, 2008) and cause harm to living people. ''Pag-anito'' can be used to appease or banish them. Ancestor spirits also figured prominently during illness or death, as they were believed to be the ones who call the soul to the spirit world, guide the soul (a psychopomp
Psychopomps (from the Greek word , , literally meaning the 'guide of souls') are supernatural creatures, spirits, entities, angels, demons or deities in many religions whose responsibility is to escort newly deceased souls from Earth to the afte ...
), or meet the soul upon arrival.
Ancestor spirits are also known as ''kalading'' among the Igorot
The indigenous peoples of the Cordillera Mountain Range of northern Luzon, Philippines are often referred to using the exonym Igorot people, or more recently, as the Cordilleran peoples. There are nine main ethnolinguistic groups whose domains ar ...
; ''tonong'' among the Maguindanao
Maguindanao (, Maguindanao language, Maguindanaon: ''Prubinsya nu Magindanaw''; Iranun language, Iranun'': Perobinsia a Magindanao''; tl, Lalawigan ng Maguindanao) was a Provinces of the Philippines, province of the Philippines located in the ...
and Maranao
The Maranao people (Maranao: mәranaw Filipino: ''Maranaw''), also spelled Meranao, Maranaw, and Mëranaw, is the term used by the Philippine government to refer to the southern indigenous people who are the "people of the lake", a predomin ...
; ''umboh'' among the Sama-Bajau
The Sama-Bajau include several Austronesian ethnic groups of Maritime Southeast Asia. The name collectively refers to related people who usually call themselves the Sama or Samah (formally A'a Sama, "Sama people"); or are known by the exonym ...
; ''nunò'' or ''umalagad'' among Tagalogs and Visayans; ''nonò'' among Bicolanos; ''umagad'' or ''umayad'' among the Manobo
The Lumad are a group of Austronesian indigenous people in the southern Philippines. It is a Cebuano term meaning "native" or "indigenous". The term is short for Katawhang Lumad (Literally: "indigenous people"), the autonym officially adopte ...
; and ''tiladmanin'' among the Tagbanwa.
Nature spirits and deities
Spirits that have never been human are differentiated in some ethnic groups as ''diwata''. These spirits can range from simple spirits like the ''diwata'' of a particular inanimate object, plant, animal, or place,e.g. ''Nuno sa punso
A nuno sa punso ("old man of the mound"), or simply nuno ("old man" or "grandparent" "ancestor"), is a dwarf-like nature spirit ('' anito'') in Philippine mythology. It is believed to live in an anthill or termite mound, hence its name, literal ...
'', a dwarf-like ''anito'' that lives in anthills; and Dayang Masalanta, the Tagalog ''diwata'' of Mount Makiling
Mount Makiling (also known as Mount Maquiling), is an inactive stratovolcano located in the provinces of Laguna and Batangas on the island of Luzon, Philippines. The mountain rises to an elevation of above mean sea level and is the highest fe ...
to deities who personify abstract concepts and natural phenomena,e.g. Mayari
In Kapampangan mythology, Mayari is the goddess of the moon and ruler of the world during nighttime.
In Tagalog mythology
According to Hiligaynon anthropologist F. Landa Jocano—in "Notes on Philippine Divinities" (1968)—the ancient Tagalog ...
, the Tagalog goddess of the moon; Barangaw, the Visayan god of rainbows; and Makapatag, the Visayan god of vengeance to deities who are part of an actual pantheon
Pantheon may refer to:
* Pantheon (religion), a set of gods belonging to a particular religion or tradition, and a temple or sacred building
Arts and entertainment Comics
*Pantheon (Marvel Comics), a fictional organization
* ''Pantheon'' (Lone St ...
.e.g. Bathala
In the indigenous religion of the ancient Tagalogs, Bathala Maykapal was the transcendent Supreme Being, the originator and ruler of the universe. He is commonly known and referred to in the modern era as Bathala, a term or title which, in ea ...
, the chief deity of the Tagalogs; Magbabaya, the supreme creator of the Lumad
The Lumad are a group of Austronesian indigenous people in the southern Philippines. It is a Cebuano term meaning "native" or "indigenous". The term is short for Katawhang Lumad (Literally: "indigenous people"), the autonym officially adopte ...
people; and Pilandok, trickster spirit of the Maranao
The Maranao people (Maranao: mәranaw Filipino: ''Maranaw''), also spelled Meranao, Maranaw, and Mëranaw, is the term used by the Philippine government to refer to the southern indigenous people who are the "people of the lake", a predomin ...
They are also known as ''dewatu'', ''divata'', ''duwata'', ''ruwata'', ''dewa'', ''dwata'', ''diya'', etc., in various Philippine languages (including Tagalog ''diwa'', "spirit" or "essence"); from pre-colonial Philippines meaning "spiritual faery".
However, what entities are considered ''diwata'' varies by ethnic group. In some ethnic groups like the B'laan
The Blaan people, are one of the indigenous peoples of Southern Mindanao in the Philippines. Their name could have derived from "bla" meaning "opponent" and the suffix "an" meaning "people". According to a 2021 genetic study, the Blaan people als ...
, Cuyonon
Cuyonon is a regional language, regional Bisayan languages, Bisayan language spoken on the coast of Palawan and the Cuyo Islands in the Philippines.
Visayans
Visayans (Visayan: ''mga Bisaya''; ) or Visayan people are a Philippine ethnolinguistic group or metaethnicity native to the Visayas, the southernmost islands of Luzon and a significant portion of Mindanao. When taken as a single ethnic group, ...
, and the Tagalog, ''Diwata'' refers to the Magical Spirits of the Elements of the Land, and the Nature Ancestor Guardian Spirits in the pre-colonial, nature-based animistic pantheon,Tagalogs differentiated between Diwata, the universal supreme being, and life creator Bathala
In the indigenous religion of the ancient Tagalogs, Bathala Maykapal was the transcendent Supreme Being, the originator and ruler of the universe. He is commonly known and referred to in the modern era as Bathala, a term or title which, in ea ...
, the supreme deity exclusive to them (Hislop, 1971) in which case there are different terms for non-human spirits.The most widespread names for these spirits in various Philippine ethnic groups are ''diwata'' or ''anito''. Other names of ''diwata'' or specific types of ''diwata'' include ''fieu awas'', ''kahoynon'' (B'laan
The Blaan people, are one of the indigenous peoples of Southern Mindanao in the Philippines. Their name could have derived from "bla" meaning "opponent" and the suffix "an" meaning "people". According to a 2021 genetic study, the Blaan people als ...
); ''mahomanay'', ''tahamaling'' (Bagobo); ''panya'en'' (Batak
Batak is a collective term used to identify a number of closely related Austronesian ethnic groups predominantly found in North Sumatra, Indonesia, who speak Batak languages. The term is used to include the Karo, Pakpak, Simalungun, Toba, ...
); ''tawong lipod'', ''magindara'' ( Bikol); ''magtitima'', ''tawo sa talonan'' (Bukidnon
Bukidnon(), officially the Province of Bukidnon ( ceb, Lalawigan sa Bukidnon; fil, Lalawigan ng Bukidnon; hil, Kapuroan sang Bukidnon; Binukid and Higaonon: ''Probinsya ta Bukidnon''), is a landlocked province in the Philippines located in the ...
); ''aled'' ( Gaddang); ''annani'' ( Ibanag); ''bakayauwan'', ''monduntug'', ''palasekan'', ''pili'', ''pinading'' (Ifugao
Ifugao, officially the Province of Ifugao ( ilo, Probinsia ti Ifugao; tl, Lalawigan ng Ifugao), is a landlocked province of the Philippines in the Cordillera Administrative Region in Luzon. Its capital is Lagawe and it borders Benguet to the wes ...
); ''mangmangkit'', ''katataoan''/''katawtaw-an'', ''kibaan'', ''litao'' ( Ilocano); ''apdel'', ''sasailo'' (Itneg
The Itneg (exonym "Tinguian" or "Tingguian") are an Austronesian ethnic group from the upland province of Abra in northwestern Luzon, in the Philippines.
Overview
The Itneg live in the mountainous area of Abra in northwestern Luzon who descen ...
); ''tumungaw'' ( Kankana-ey); ''laman labuad'', ''manglilili'' (Kapampangan Kapampangan, Capampañgan or Pampangan may refer to:
*Kapampangan people of the Philippines
*Kapampangan language
Kapampangan or Pampangan is an Austronesian language, and one of the eight major languages of the Philippines. It is the primary ...
); ''kama-kama''/''kamakaon'' ( Karay-a); ''tuglinsau'', ''tagbusau'', ''mandangum'' (Mandaya
The Lumad are a group of Austronesian indigenous people in the southern Philippines. It is a Cebuano term meaning "native" or "indigenous". The term is short for Katawhang Lumad (Literally: "indigenous people"), the autonym officially adopte ...
); ''andagaw'' (Mangyan
Mangyan is the generic name for the eight indigenous groups found on the island of Mindoro, southwest of the island of Luzon, the Philippines, each with its own tribal name, language, and customs. The total population may be around 280,001, ...
); ''tawagenen'', ''manaog'' (Manobo
The Lumad are a group of Austronesian indigenous people in the southern Philippines. It is a Cebuano term meaning "native" or "indigenous". The term is short for Katawhang Lumad (Literally: "indigenous people"), the autonym officially adopte ...
); ''karibang'' (Maranao
The Maranao people (Maranao: mәranaw Filipino: ''Maranaw''), also spelled Meranao, Maranaw, and Mëranaw, is the term used by the Philippine government to refer to the southern indigenous people who are the "people of the lake", a predomin ...
); ''kaybaan'' (Pangasinan
Pangasinan, officially the Province of Pangasinan ( pag, Luyag/Probinsia na Pangasinan, ; ilo, Probinsia ti Pangasinan; tl, Lalawigan ng Pangasinan), is a coastal province in the Philippines located in the Ilocos Region of Luzon. Its capit ...
); ''kamanan-daplak'' (Sambal
Sambal is an Indonesian chilli sauce or paste, typically made from a mixture of a variety of chilli peppers with secondary ingredients, such as shrimp paste, garlic, ginger, shallot, scallion, palm sugar, and lime juice. ''Sambal'' is an Indo ...
); ''dayamdam'', ''piritay'' ( Tagalog); ''tawo sa talonan'' ( Tagbanwa); ''lewenri'', ''bawa'', ''katao''/''kataw'', ''tumawo''/''tamawo'', ''tawong lupa'' (Visayan); and ''guban-on'', ''digkusanon'', ''dalaketnon'' ( Waray).
In traditional, pre-colonial, nature-based Philippines, many of the syncretic animist traditions pay respect to the ancestor spirits, who are believed to be elemental dwellers. The traditional pre-colonial belief of the Filipino people call magical spirit guardians, who protect and watch the children, the land, and the elementals (earth, wind, water, fire, and trees and all sunlight bearing plants, both daylight and nighttime) are guarded and protected by the elemental nature-based guardians, called "Diwata" (forest, and nature faeries). Tradition in pre-colonist animistic, nature-based belief systems in the island archipelago of the Philippines traditionally and originally refer to ancestor spirits of the land, sky and the sea, who protect and watch the land, elementals and the trees, rivers and all the spiritual dwellings of nature ("Diwata", "Nuno", "Nuno sa Puno" and "Nuno sa Punso", and many other ancestor's spirit guardians) are respectfully addressed in polite verbal invocation to be left at peace, never to be touched or disturbed in any way shape or form. It is believed that humans who are seeking something from the ancestor spirits and the nature guardians to pray and ask for blessings respectfully before any activity that will ignite their reactions ("po" after a protective invocation is said before any kind of interaction on the words and on the land). The ancestor spirits are traditionally believed to be appeased when the human is about to touch or step on the Anito's territory, and demands great respect when addressed in most nature-based systems when a human is traversing or stepping on any land that the Diwatas, Nuno, Nuno sa Puno (Ancestor Spirits) and Nuno sa Punso (Heart of Nature Guardians) reside in. A "Nuno sa Punso" "Nuno", ("land and elemental guardian" and "land ancestor") is believed to be left at peace and never to be disturbed in any circumstances in any dimensionality, else there will be some unfavorable consequences for the people who have disturbed the ancestors, and spirit guardians. Traditionally,most of the ancestor spirits, and guardians who keep the peace between the non-human world and the human world (Diwatas, Nuno, and Nuno sa Puno, Nuno sa Punso) are sent offerings of prayer in traditional pre-colonial animistic nature-based prayer circles, where offerings of fruit, gold, and precious metals, fermented coconut or coconut water, river water and tobacco are offered to appease the spirit dieties, so they can make Bathala (Traditional Pre-colonial Life Creator in the Philippines) is satisfied to maintain peace in the spiritual and human realms.
There are three general types of non-human spirits. The first are the environmental or nature spirits "bound" to a particular location or natural phenomenon (similar to genii loci
In Religion in ancient Rome, classical Roman religion, a ''genius loci'' (plural ''genii locorum'') was the protective spirit of a place. It was often depicted in religious iconography as a figure holding attributes such as a cornucopia, patera ...
). They "own" places and concepts like agricultural fields, forests, cliffs, seas, winds, lightning, or realms in the spirit world. Some were also "keepers" or totem
A totem (from oj, ᑑᑌᒼ, italics=no or ''doodem'') is a spirit being, sacred object, or symbol that serves as an emblem of a group of people, such as a family, clan, lineage, or tribe, such as in the Anishinaabe clan system.
While ''the wo ...
s of various animals and plants. They have inhuman and abstract qualities, reflecting their particular dominions. They do not normally appear in human form and are usually gender-less or androgynous. They rarely concern themselves with human affairs. Rituals involving these spirits are almost always conducted outdoors.
The second type of spirits are the "unbound" spirits which have independent existence. They appear in animal (usually as birds) or human-like forms, have gender differentiation, and have personal names. They are most similar to the fairies
A fairy (also fay, fae, fey, fair folk, or faerie) is a type of mythical being or legendary creature found in the folklore of multiple European cultures (including Celtic, Slavic, Germanic, English, and French folklore), a form of spirit, o ...
of European folklore.With strong parallels to human-like beings like elves
An elf () is a type of humanoid supernatural being in Germanic mythology and folklore. Elves appear especially in North Germanic mythology. They are subsequently mentioned in Snorri Sturluson's Icelandic Prose Edda. He distinguishes "ligh ...
and ''aos sí
' (; older form: ) is the Irish name for a supernatural race in Celtic mythology – spelled ''sìth'' by the Scots, but pronounced the same – comparable to fairies or elves. They are said to descend from either fallen angels or the Tuat ...
'', as well as diminutive human-like beings like brownies and pixie
A pixie (also pisky, pixy, pixi, pizkie, and piskie in Cornwall and Devon, and pigsie or puggsy in the New Forest) is a mythical creature of British folklore. Pixies are considered to be particularly concentrated in the high moorland areas arou ...
s. (Buenconsejo, 2002) These are the most common types of spirits to become ''abyan'' (spirit guide
A spirit guide, in Western spiritualism, is an entity that remains as a discarnate spirit to act as a guide or protector to a living incarnation, incarnated human being.
Description
In traditional African belief systems, well before the spre ...
s of ''babaylan''), as they are the most "sociable" and can take interest in human activities. These spirits are usually referred to as ''engkanto
Engkanto (from Spanish '' encanto'', ) are mythical environmental spirits that are said to have the ability to appear in human form. They are often associated with the spirits of ancestors in the Philippines.* They are also characterized as spiri ...
'' (from Spanish ''encanto'') in modern Filipino folklore. Unlike the "bound" spirits, these spirits can be invited into human households, and their rituals can take place both outdoors and indoors.
The last is a class of malevolent spirits or demons, as well as supernatural beings, generally collectively known as ''aswang'', ''yawa'', or ''mangalos'' (also ''mangalok'', ''mangangalek'', or ''magalos'') among Tagalogs and Visayans. There are numerous kinds of ''aswang'' with specific abilities, behavior, or appearance. Examples include ''sigbin
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The Sigbin or Sigben is a creature in Philippine mythology said to come out at night to suck the blood of victims from their shadows. It is said to walk backwards with its head lowered between its hind legs, and to have the ability to b ...
'', ''wakwak
The Wakwak is a vampiric, bird-like creature in Philippine mythology. It is said to snatch humans at night as prey, similar to the ''Manananggal'' and the '' Ekek'' in rural areas of the Philippines. The difference between the Manananggal and the ...
'', ''tiyanak
The Tiyanak (also Tianak or Tianac) is a vampiric creature in Philippine mythology that takes on the form of a toddler or baby. Although there are various types, it typically takes the form of a newborn baby and cries in the jungle to attract unwa ...
'', and ''manananggal
The ''manananggal'' is a mythical creature in the Philippines that separates from their lower part of its body and their fangs and wings give it a vampire-like appearance.
Mythology
The ''manananggal'' is described as scary, often hideous, u ...
''. The first two categories of ''diwata'' can also be malevolent, what sets the third category apart is that they can not be appealed to with offerings and they are utterly pitiless. Most practices associated with them is to ward them off, banish them, or destroy them. They are never addressed nor worshiped in religious rituals.
''Diwata'' are rarely spoken about openly for fear of attracting their attention. Instead they are referred to with euphemism
A euphemism () is an innocuous word or expression used in place of one that is deemed offensive or suggests something unpleasant. Some euphemisms are intended to amuse, while others use bland, inoffensive terms for concepts that the user wishes ...
s like "those unlike us" (Visayan: ''dili ingon nato'') or various names, like ''banwaanon'' or ''taga-banwa'',Not to be confused with the Tagbanwa and Mamanwa
The Lumad are a group of Austronesian indigenous people in the southern Philippines. It is a Cebuano term meaning "native" or "indigenous". The term is short for Katawhang Lumad (Literally: "indigenous people"), the autonym officially adopte ...
ethnic groups, all derived from PAN '' *banua'', "home" or "homeland". In modern Filipino languages, ''banwa'' has been supplanted by Spanish '' lugar'', thus ''taglugar'' is used in place of ''tagabanwa'' (Hislop, 1971; Tan, 2008). that translate literally to "dweller of a place". Among Tagalogs, non-human nature spirits are also euphemistically referred to as ''lamanglupa'' (" wellers ofthe bowels of the earth") or ''lamangdagat'' (" wellers ofthe depths of the sea"), depending on their domain.
''Diwata'' exist in both the material world and the spirit world. They can be formless or have a material body. They can also take over a body through spirit possession
Spirit possession is an unusual or altered state of consciousness and associated behaviors purportedly caused by the control of a human body by spirits, ghosts, demons, or gods. The concept of spirit possession exists in many cultures and rel ...
(Visayan: ''hola'', ''hulak'', ''tagdug'', or ''saob''; Tagalog: ''sanib''), an ability essential for the séance
A séance or seance (; ) is an attempt to communicate with spirits. The word ''séance'' comes from the French word for "session", from the Old French ''seoir'', "to sit". In French, the word's meaning is quite general: one may, for example, spe ...
s in ''pag-anito''. They are believed to be capable of shapeshifting
In mythology, folklore and speculative fiction, shape-shifting is the ability to physically transform oneself through an inherently superhuman ability, divine intervention, demonic manipulation, Magic (paranormal), sorcery, Incantation, ...
(''baliw'' or ''baylo''), becoming invisible, or creating visions or illusions (''anino'' or ''landung'', lit. "shadow"). Their powers, however, are limited to their particular domain. A ''diwata'' of a forest, for instance, has no dominion over the sea. Most are generally benevolent or capriciously neutral, although they can cause misfortunes and illnesses if angered, disrespected, or mistakenly encountered. Other common characteristics of ''diwata'' are that they are perceived as an invisible "cold" presence (in contrast to "warm" human spirits); that they leave no footprints (unlike human spirits); and that they sense the world and "eat" by means of smelling.''Diwata'' can cause harm by "eating" (smelling) the "vital force" or "breath" (''ginhawa'') of human beings. They are also said to be annoyed by perfume, as well as salt and spices. (Buenconsejo, 2002) ''Diwata'' who take human form are said to be pale-skinned and could be distinguished from humans by the absence of a philtrum
The philtrum ( la, philtrum from Ancient Greek ''phíltron,'' lit. "love charm"), or medial cleft, is a vertical indentation in the middle area of the upper lip, common to therian mammals, extending in humans from the nasal septum to the tubercl ...
on the upper lip.
''Diwata'' are often depicted as appearing to unsuspecting people in human or animal form, sometimes causing unintentional harm. They can also deliberately play tricks on mortals, like seducing or abducting beautiful men and women into the spirit world. Certain places are believed to be owned by ''diwata'' or are borders to the spirit world. These are normally avoided or only entered with precautions, especially during twilight
Twilight is light produced by sunlight scattering in the upper atmosphere, when the Sun is below the horizon, which illuminates the lower atmosphere and the Earth's surface. The word twilight can also refer to the periods of time when this il ...
when ''diwata'' are believed to cross over from the spirit world into the material world. Harm or illness caused by ''diwata'' are known as ''buyag'' in Visayan and ''usog'' in Tagalog. People who were harmed by interactions with ''diwata'' are euphemistically described as having been "greeted" (Visayan: ''gibati'', Tagalog: ''nabati'') or "played with" (Visayan ''gidulaan'', Tagalog: ''napaglaruan'' or ''nakatuwaan'') by ''diwata''.
To avoid inadvertently angering a ''diwata'', Filipinos perform a customary ''pasintabi sa nuno'' ("respectfully apologizing or asking permission from ancestors for passing").From ''sintabi'', "to respectfully ask permission" or "to give due respect", cf. " excuse me" This is done by saying the phrases "''tao po''" ("a human s passing elder), "''tabi po''" or "''tabi apo''" ("by your permission, elder")In Ilocano, the traditional phrase is "''bari bari, apo''", with the same meaning (Tan, 2008) when passing by a place believed to be inhabited by a ''diwata''.
''Diwata'' are also believed to be able to mate with humans. People born with congenital disorder
A birth defect, also known as a congenital disorder, is an abnormal condition that is present at birth regardless of its cause. Birth defects may result in disabilities that may be physical, intellectual, or developmental. The disabilities can ...
s (like albinism
Albinism is the congenital absence of melanin in an animal or plant resulting in white hair, feathers, scales and skin and pink or blue eyes. Individuals with the condition are referred to as albino.
Varied use and interpretation of the term ...
or syndactyly
Syndactyly is a condition wherein two or more digits are fused together. It occurs normally in some mammals, such as the siamang and diprotodontia, but is an unusual condition in humans. The term is from Greek σύν, ''syn'' 'together' and δάκ ...
) or display unusual beauty or behavior are commonly believed by local superstition to be the children of ''diwata'' who seduced (or sometimes raped) their mothers.
During the Spanish period, ''diwata'' were syncretized
Syncretism () is the practice of combining different beliefs and various schools of thought. Syncretism involves the merging or assimilation of several originally discrete traditions, especially in the theology and mythology of religion, thu ...
with elves
An elf () is a type of humanoid supernatural being in Germanic mythology and folklore. Elves appear especially in North Germanic mythology. They are subsequently mentioned in Snorri Sturluson's Icelandic Prose Edda. He distinguishes "ligh ...
and fairies
A fairy (also fay, fae, fey, fair folk, or faerie) is a type of mythical being or legendary creature found in the folklore of multiple European cultures (including Celtic, Slavic, Germanic, English, and French folklore), a form of spirit, o ...
in European mythology and folklore, and were given names like ''duende
A duende is a humanoid figure of folklore, with variations from Iberian, Ibero American, and Filipino cultures, comparable to dwarves, gnomes, or leprechauns. In Spanish ''duende'' originated as a contraction of the phrase or , effectively " ...
'' (goblin or dwarf), ''encantador'' or ''encanto
''Encanto'' is a 2021 American computer-animated musical fantasy comedy film produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. The 60th film produced by the studio, it was directed by Jared Bus ...
'' (" spell aster
Aster or ASTER may refer to:
Biology
* ''Aster'' (genus), a genus of flowering plants
** List of ''Aster'' synonyms, other genera formerly included in ''Aster'' and still called asters in English
* Aster (cell biology), a cellular structure shap ...
), ''hechicero'' ("sorcerer"), ''sirena'' ("mermaid
In folklore, a mermaid is an aquatic creature with the head and upper body of a female human and the tail of a fish. Mermaids appear in the folklore of many cultures worldwide, including Europe, Asia, and Africa.
Mermaids are sometimes asso ...
"), or ''maligno'' ("evil pirit). In Islamized ethnic groups of the Philippines, these nature spirits are usually called ''jinn
Jinn ( ar, , ') – also Romanization of Arabic, romanized as djinn or Anglicization, anglicized as genies (with the broader meaning of spirit or demon, depending on sources)
– are Invisibility, invisible creatures in early Arabian mytho ...
'' or '' saitan'', due to the influence of Islamic mythology
Islamic mythology is the body of myths associated with Islam and the Quran. Islam is a religion that is more concerned with social order and law than with religious ritual or myths. ''The Oxford Companion to World Mythology'' identifies a numb ...
.
Religious objects and places
''Taotao'' figures
Ancestor spirits were usually represented by carved figures. These were known as ''taotao'' ("little human", also ''taotaohan'', ''latawo'', ''tinatao'', or ''tatao''),From Proto-Malayo-Polynesian ''*tau'', ultimately from Proto-Austronesian
Proto-Austronesian (commonly abbreviated as PAN or PAn) is a proto-language. It is the reconstructed ancestor of the Austronesian languages, one of the world's major language families. Proto-Austronesian is assumed to have begun to diversify 3 ...
''*Cau'', "human" or "person"; compare with Toraja
The Torajans are an ethnic group indigenous to a mountainous region of South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Their population is approximately 1,100,000, of whom 450,000 live in the regency of Tana Toraja ("Land of Toraja"). Most of the population is Chri ...
''tau tau'' statues ''bata-bata'' ("little child"), ''ladaw'' ("image" or "likeness"; also ''laraw'', ''ladawang'', ''lagdong'', or ''larawan''), or ''likha'' ("creation"; also ''likhak'') in most of the Philippines. Other names include ''bulul
Bulul, also known as bul-ul or tinagtaggu, is a carved wooden figure used to guard the rice crop by the Ifugao (and their sub-tribe Kalanguya) peoples of northern Luzon.
The sculptures are highly stylized representations of ancestors and a ...
'' (also ''bulol'' or ''bul-ul'') among the Ifugao
Ifugao, officially the Province of Ifugao ( ilo, Probinsia ti Ifugao; tl, Lalawigan ng Ifugao), is a landlocked province of the Philippines in the Cordillera Administrative Region in Luzon. Its capital is Lagawe and it borders Benguet to the wes ...
; ''tinagtaggu'' (also ''tinattaggu'') among the Kankanaey and Tuwali Ifugao;''Tinagtaggu'' is a cognate
In historical linguistics, cognates or lexical cognates are sets of words in different languages that have been inherited in direct descent from an etymology, etymological ancestor in a proto-language, common parent language. Because language c ...
of ''taotao'' in the Tuwali language
Tuwali language is a native language indigenous to Ifugao. It is mainly spoken in the whole province. Its different varieties distinguish the municipality.
Kiangan
Kiangan, officially the Municipality of Kiangan is a 4th class municipality in ...
; from ''tagu'', "human" ''lablabbon'' among the Itneg
The Itneg (exonym "Tinguian" or "Tingguian") are an Austronesian ethnic group from the upland province of Abra in northwestern Luzon, in the Philippines.
Overview
The Itneg live in the mountainous area of Abra in northwestern Luzon who descen ...
; ''manaug'' among the Lumad
The Lumad are a group of Austronesian indigenous people in the southern Philippines. It is a Cebuano term meaning "native" or "indigenous". The term is short for Katawhang Lumad (Literally: "indigenous people"), the autonym officially adopte ...
; and ''tagno'' among Bicolanos
The Bicolano people or the Bikolanos ( Bikol: ''Mga Bikolnon'') are the fourth-largest Filipino ethnolinguistic group. Males are usually referred to as ''Bicolano'', and ''Bicolana'' is used for females. Their native region is commonly referred ...
. Among Tagalogs, ''taotao'' were also sometimes referred to as ''lambana'' ("altar" or "sacred place"),The term ''lambana'' was later syncretized with fairies
A fairy (also fay, fae, fey, fair folk, or faerie) is a type of mythical being or legendary creature found in the folklore of multiple European cultures (including Celtic, Slavic, Germanic, English, and French folklore), a form of spirit, o ...
, commonly depicted as tiny winged beings in modern illustrations, even though no similarly winged beings existed in native Filipino folklore (Potet, 2017). Conversely, the alternate term ''dambana
Indigenous Philippine shrines and sacred grounds are places regarded as holy within the indigenous Philippine folk religions. These places usually serve as grounds for communication with the spirit world, especially to the deities and ancestra ...
'' has come to mean "shrine" or "chapel" in modern Tagalog after the location in which they are usually kept.
''Taotao'' were usually austere roughly-carved figures made from wood, stone, or ivory. Some ''taoatao'' encountered by the Spanish were made from precious metals or ornamented with gold and jewelry, but these were very rare. ''Taotao'' were almost always depicted in the squatting position
Squatting is a versatile posture where the weight of the body is on the feet but the knees and hips are bent. In contrast, sitting involves taking the weight of the body, at least in part, on the buttocks against the ground or a horizontal object. ...
with the arms crossed over the knees, which is reminiscent of the fetal position
Fetal position (British English: also foetal) is the positioning of the body of a prenatal fetus as it develops. In this position, the back is curved, the head is bowed, and the limbs are bent and drawn up to the torso. A compact position is ...
, the everyday conversing posture, and the position bodies are arranged during death among Ancient Filipinos. Some figures, however, are depicted standing or doing everyday activities like dancing, pounding rice, or nursing infants.
Most ''taotao'' represent an actual deceased person, usually carved by the community upon their funeral. As such, there can be hundreds of ''taotao'' in a single village, some of them centuries old.
In very rare cases, ''diwata'' can be depicted as ''taotao'' in anthropomorphic
Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human traits, emotions, or intentions to non-human entities. It is considered to be an innate tendency of human psychology.
Personification is the related attribution of human form and characteristics t ...
form, as chimera
Chimera, Chimaera, or Chimaira (Greek for " she-goat") originally referred to:
* Chimera (mythology), a fire-breathing monster of Ancient Lycia said to combine parts from multiple animals
* Mount Chimaera, a fire-spewing region of Lycia or Cilicia ...
s or legendary creature
A legendary creature (also mythical or mythological creature) is a type of fictional entity, typically a hybrid, that has not been proven and that is described in folklore
Folklore is shared by a particular group of people; it encompasses ...
s, or as animal
Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms in the Kingdom (biology), biological kingdom Animalia. With few exceptions, animals Heterotroph, consume organic material, Cellular respiration#Aerobic respiration, breathe oxygen, are Motilit ...
s. These include a special class of figures called ''hipag'' among the Igorot which depict war deities, as well as ''kinabigat'' (carved houseposts) and ''hogang'' (carved tree fern
The tree ferns are arborescent (tree-like) ferns that grow with a trunk elevating the fronds above ground level, making them trees. Many extant tree ferns are members of the order Cyatheales, to which belong the families Cyatheaceae (scaly tree ...
posts used as boundary markers and as wards against harm). As a rule, however, ''diwata'' are not usually depicted as ''taotao'' or by any man-made representations.
''Taotao'' were not intrinsically sacred. They were representations of the spirits, not the actual spirits themselves. They only became sacred during their use in a ''pag-anito'' ritual. Without the spirit they represent, they are treated as mundane carved pieces of wood or sculpted stone. The anonymous author of the 1572 ''Relación de la conquista de la isla de Luzón'' describes ''pag-anito'' rituals of the Tagalog people as such:
When anyRegardless, very old ''taotao'' handed down through generations are prized as family heirlooms. Among the Igorot, pieces of ''taotao'' may also be chipped off and boiled into a medicinal tea. ''Taotao'' were commonly kept in corners or small shelves inside houses or granaries. Spanish missionaries recorded that ''taotao'' were present in every Filipino household, no matter how poor. When Spanish missionaries arrived in the Philippines, the word "''anito''" came to be associated with these physical representations of spirits that featured prominently in ''pag-anito'' rituals. During the American rule of the Philippines (1898–1946), the meaning of thechief Chief may refer to: Title or rank Military and law enforcement * Chief master sergeant, the ninth, and highest, enlisted rank in the U.S. Air Force and U.S. Space Force * Chief of police, the head of a police department * Chief of the boa ...is ill, he invites his kindred and orders a great meal to be prepared, consisting of fish, meat, and wine. When the guests are all assembled and the feast set forth in a few plates on the ground inside the house, they seat themselves also on the ground to eat. In the midst of the feast (called manganito or baylán in their tongue), they put the idol calledBatala Batala is the eighth largest city in the state of Punjab, India in terms of population after Ludhiana, Amritsar, Jalandhar, Patiala, Bathinda, Mohali and Hoshiarpur. Batala ranks as the second-oldest city after Bathinda. It is a municipal corpo ...and certain aged women who are considered as priestesses, and some aged Indians—neither more nor less. They offer the idol some of the food which they are eating, and call upon him in their tongue, praying to him for the health of the sick man for whom the feast is held. The natives of these islands have no altars nor temples whatsoever. This manganito, or drunken revel, to give it a better name, usually lasts seven or eight days; and when it is finished they take the idols and put them in the corners of the house, and keep them there without showing them any reverence.
Spanish
Spanish might refer to:
* Items from or related to Spain:
**Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain
**Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries
**Spanish cuisine
Other places
* Spanish, Ontario, Cana ...
word ''idolo'' ("a thing worshiped") was further conflated with the English word "idol
Idol or Idols may refer to:
Religion and philosophy
* Cult image, a neutral term for a man-made object that is worshipped or venerated for the deity, spirit or demon that it embodies or represents
* Murti, a point of focus for devotion or medit ...
". Thus in the modern Filipino language, ''anito'' has come to refer almost exclusively to the carved ''taotao'' figures, instead of the actual spirits themselves.
Shrines, altars, and sacred areas
Ancient Filipinos and Filipinos who continue to adhere to the indigenous Philippine folk religions
Indigenous Philippine folk religions are the distinct native religions of various ethnic groups in the Philippines, where most follow belief systems in line with animism. Generally, these indigenous folk religions are referred to as Anito or An ...
generally do not have so-called "temples" of worship under the context known to foreign cultures. However, they do have sacred shrines
A shrine ( la, scrinium "case or chest for books or papers"; Old French: ''escrin'' "box or case") is a sacred or holy sacred space, space dedicated to a specific deity, ancestor worship, ancestor, hero, martyr, saint, Daemon (mythology), daem ...
, which are also called as spirit house
A spirit house is a shrine to the protective spirit of a place that is found in the Southeast Asian countries of Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam and the Philippines. The spirit house is normally in the form of smal ...
s. They can range in size from small roofed platforms, to structures similar to a small house (but with no walls), to shrines that look similar to pagodas, especially in the south where early mosques were also modeled in the same way. These shrines were known in various indigenous terms, which depend on the ethnic group association.Known as ''magdantang'' in Visayan and ''ulango'' or ''simbahan'' in Tagalog. Among the Itneg
The Itneg (exonym "Tinguian" or "Tingguian") are an Austronesian ethnic group from the upland province of Abra in northwestern Luzon, in the Philippines.
Overview
The Itneg live in the mountainous area of Abra in northwestern Luzon who descen ...
, shrines are known ''tangpap'', ''pangkew'', or ''alalot'' (for various small roofed altars); and ''balaua'' or ''kalangan'' (for larger structures). In Mindanao
Mindanao ( ) ( Jawi: مينداناو) is the second-largest island in the Philippines, after Luzon, and seventh-most populous island in the world. Located in the southern region of the archipelago, the island is part of an island group of ...
, shrines are known among the Subanen as ''maligai'' ; among the Teduray The Teduray are a Filipino ethnic group. They speak the Tiruray language. There were 103,139 of them in 2010. Their name may have come from words ''tew,'' meaning people, and d''uray,'' referring to a small bamboo hook and a line used for fishing.
...
as ''tenin'' (only entered by shamans); and among the Bagobo
The Lumad are a group of Austronesian indigenous people in the southern Philippines. It is a Cebuano term meaning "native" or "indigenous". The term is short for Katawhang Lumad (Literally: "indigenous people"), the autonym officially adopte ...
as ''buis'' (for those built near roads and villages) and ''parabunnian'' (for those built near rice fields).(Kroeber, 1918) They can also be used as places to store ''taotao'' and caskets of ancestors. Among Bicolanos, ''taotao'' were also kept inside sacred caves called ''moog''.
During certain ceremonies, ''anito'' are venerated through temporary altars near sacred places. These were called ''latangan'' or ''lantayan'' in Visayan and ''dambana
Indigenous Philippine shrines and sacred grounds are places regarded as holy within the indigenous Philippine folk religions. These places usually serve as grounds for communication with the spirit world, especially to the deities and ancestra ...
'' or ''lambana'' in Tagalog.Also ''saloko'' or ''palaan'' (Itneg
The Itneg (exonym "Tinguian" or "Tingguian") are an Austronesian ethnic group from the upland province of Abra in northwestern Luzon, in the Philippines.
Overview
The Itneg live in the mountainous area of Abra in northwestern Luzon who descen ...
); ''sakolong'' (Bontoc Bontoc may refer to:
* Bontoc, Mountain Province, Philippines
* Bontoc, Southern Leyte, Philippines
* Bontoc people, an ethnic group from Central Luzon, Philippines
* Bontoc language
Bontoc (Bontok) (also called Finallig) is the native language ...
); ''salagnat'' (Bicolano); ''sirayangsang'' ( Tagbanwa); ''ranga'' (Teduray); and ''tambara'', ''tigyama'', or ''balekat'' (Bagobo
The Lumad are a group of Austronesian indigenous people in the southern Philippines. It is a Cebuano term meaning "native" or "indigenous". The term is short for Katawhang Lumad (Literally: "indigenous people"), the autonym officially adopte ...
) These bamboo or rattan
Rattan, also spelled ratan, is the name for roughly 600 species of Old World climbing palms belonging to subfamily Calamoideae. The greatest diversity of rattan palm species and genera are in the closed-canopy old-growth tropical forests of ...
altars are identical in basic construction throughout most of the Philippines. They were either small roof-less platforms or standing poles split at the tip (similar to a tiki torch
A tiki torch is a pole-mounted torch, typically made of bamboo, that originated in the tiki culture of the mid-20th-century United States, which has increased in popularity and spread to other places as a popular party decoration with a tropical ...
). They held halved coconut shells, metal plates, or ''martaban'' jars as receptacles for offerings. ''Taotao'' may sometimes also be placed on these platforms.
Other types of sacred places or objects of worship of ''diwata'' include the material manifestation of their realms. The most widely venerated were ''balete'' trees (also called ''nonok'', ''nunuk'', ''nonoc'', etc.) and anthill
An ant colony is a population of a single ant species capable to maintain its complete lifecycle. Ant colonies are eusocial, communal, and efficiently organized and are very much like those found in other social Hymenoptera, though the vario ...
s or termite mound
Mound-building termites are a group of termite species that live in mounds. These termites live in Africa, Australia and South America. The mounds sometimes have a diameter of . Most of the mounds are in well-drained areas. Termite mounds usually ...
s (''punso''). Other examples include mountains, waterfalls, tree groves, reefs, and caves.
Spirit animals
Some animals like crocodile
Crocodiles (family (biology), family Crocodylidae) or true crocodiles are large semiaquatic reptiles that live throughout the tropics in Africa, Asia, the Americas and Australia. The term crocodile is sometimes used even more loosely to inclu ...
s, snakes, monitor lizard
Monitor lizards are lizards in the genus ''Varanus,'' the only extant genus in the family Varanidae. They are native to Africa, Asia, and Oceania, and one species is also found in the Americas as an invasive species. About 80 species are recogn ...
s, tokay gecko
The tokay gecko (''Gekko gecko'') is a nocturnal arboreal gecko in the genus ''Gekko'', the true geckos. It is native to Asia and some Pacific Islands.
Subspecies
Two subspecies are currently recognized.
*''G. g. gecko'' (Linnaeus, 1758): tro ...
s, and various birds were also venerated as servants or manifestations of ''diwata'', or as powerful spirits themselves. These include legendary creatures like the dragon or serpent Bakunawa
The Bakunawa is a serpent-like dragon in Philippine mythology. It is believed to be the cause of eclipses, earthquakes, rains, and wind. The movements of the Bakunawa served as a geomantic calendar system for ancient Filipinos and were part of t ...
, the giant bird Minokawa of the Bagobo, and the colorful Sarimanok
The Sarimanok (Pronunciation: sá·ri·ma·nók), also known as papanok in its feminine form, is a legendary bird of the Maranao people, who originate from Mindanao, an island in the Philippines, and part of Philippine mythology. It comes from ...
of the Maranao.
Omen
An omen (also called ''portent'') is a phenomenon that is believed to foretell the future, often signifying the advent of change. It was commonly believed in ancient times, and still believed by some today, that omens bring divine messages fr ...
birds were particularly important. The most common omen birds were doves with green or blue iridescent feathers called ''limokon'' (usually the common emerald dove
The common emerald dove (''Chalcophaps indica''), also called Asian emerald dove and grey-capped emerald dove, is a widespread resident breeding pigeon native to the tropical and subtropical parts of the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia. ...
, imperial pigeon
''Ducula'' is a genus of the pigeon family Columbidae, collectively known as imperial pigeons. They are large to very large pigeons with a heavy build and medium to long tails. They are arboreal, feed mainly on fruit and are closely related to th ...
s, or brown doves).''Limokon'' in most of Visayas and among the Lumad
The Lumad are a group of Austronesian indigenous people in the southern Philippines. It is a Cebuano term meaning "native" or "indigenous". The term is short for Katawhang Lumad (Literally: "indigenous people"), the autonym officially adopte ...
; also ''almúgan'' ( Blaan), ''alimúkun'' ( Cebuano), ''alimúkeng'' (Ilocano); ''limoken'' (Maranao); ''muhen'' (T'boli
The Tboli people () are one of the indigenous peoples of South Cotabato in southern Mindanao. In the body of ethnographic and linguistic literature on Mindanao, their name is variously spelt Tboli, T'boli, Tböli, Tagabili, Tagabilil, Tagabulul ...
); ''lemuguen'' (Teduray The Teduray are a Filipino ethnic group. They speak the Tiruray language. There were 103,139 of them in 2010. Their name may have come from words ''tew,'' meaning people, and d''uray,'' referring to a small bamboo hook and a line used for fishing.
...
); and ''limukun'' ( Subanen) Other omen birds include fairy-bluebird
The three fairy-bluebirds are small passerine bird species found in forests and plantations in tropical southern Asia and the Philippines. They are the sole members of the genus ''Irena'' and family Irenidae, and are related to the ioras and lea ...
s (''tigmamanukan
In Philippine mythology, the Tigmamanukan was believed by the Tagalog people to be an omen or augural bird. Although the behaviors of numerous birds and lizards were said to be omens, particular attention was paid to the tigmamanukan. Before ...
'', ''balan tikis'', ''balatiti'', or ''bathala'' among Tagalogs; and ''batala'' among Kapampangan Kapampangan, Capampañgan or Pampangan may refer to:
*Kapampangan people of the Philippines
*Kapampangan language
Kapampangan or Pampangan is an Austronesian language, and one of the eight major languages of the Philippines. It is the primary ...
s); kingfisher
Kingfishers are a family, the Alcedinidae, of small to medium-sized, brightly colored birds in the order Coraciiformes. They have a cosmopolitan distribution, with most species found in the tropical regions of Africa, Asia, and Oceania, ...
s (''salaksak'' among the Ilocano, Igorot, and Sambal
Sambal is an Indonesian chilli sauce or paste, typically made from a mixture of a variety of chilli peppers with secondary ingredients, such as shrimp paste, garlic, ginger, shallot, scallion, palm sugar, and lime juice. ''Sambal'' is an Indo ...
); and flowerpecker
The flowerpeckers are a family, Dicaeidae, of passerine birds. The family comprises two genera, ''Prionochilus'' and ''Dicaeum'', with 50 species in total. The family has sometimes been included in an enlarged sunbird family Nectariniidae. The b ...
s (''pitpit'', ''ichaw'', ''ido'', or ''labeg'' among the Igorot).
Rituals and shamans
Anitism was not a religion about worship. Aside from good ancestor spirits and the few benevolent ''diwata'', most ''anito'' were feared, not venerated. To an ordinary person, ''diwata'' were regarded as dangerous beings to be avoided or appeased. When interaction was necessary, they performed a ritual known as ''pag-anito'' (also ''mag-anito'' or ''anitohan''). These are usually directed at ancestor spirits. When the ''pag-anito'' ceremony is for a ''diwata'', the ritual is known as ''pagdiwata'' (also ''magdiwata'' or ''diwatahan'').
Minor ''pag-anito'' rituals like praying for better weather or banishing minor ill luck can be performed by any householder. However, major ''pag-anito'' rituals required the services of the community shaman
Shamanism is a religious practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with what they believe to be a spirit world through altered states of consciousness, such as trance. The goal of this is usually to direct spirits or spiritu ...
(Visayan ''babaylan'' or ''baylan''; Tagalog ''katalonan'' or ''manganito'').Other terms include ''balyana'', ''paraanito'', or ''paradiwata'' (Bicolano); ''balian'', ''balyan'', or ''mabalian'' (Lumad
The Lumad are a group of Austronesian indigenous people in the southern Philippines. It is a Cebuano term meaning "native" or "indigenous". The term is short for Katawhang Lumad (Literally: "indigenous people"), the autonym officially adopte ...
); ''balian'' or ''tanguilin'' (Subanen); ''bawalyan'' or ''babaylan'' ( Tagbanwa); ''beljan'' ( Palaw'an); ''baglan'', ''mangoodan'', or ''manilao'' (Ilocano);''bahasa'' (Yakan Yakan may refer to:
* Yakan people, a community of the Philippines
* Yakan language, a language of the Philippines
* Cape Yakan, in Russia
People with the name
* Adly Yakan Pasha (1864–1933), Egyptian politician
* Fathi Yakan (1933–2009), Le ...
); ''dukun
A dukun is an Indonesian term for shaman. Their societal role is that of a traditional healer, spirit medium, custom and tradition experts and on occasion sorcerers and masters of black magic. In common usage the dukun is often confused with ...
'', ''kalamat'', or ''papagan'' (Sama-Bajau); ''mandadawak'', ''dawak'', ''insupak'', ''mon-lapu'', ''tumunoh'', ''alpogan'', or ''mumbaki'' (Igorot
The indigenous peoples of the Cordillera Mountain Range of northern Luzon, Philippines are often referred to using the exonym Igorot people, or more recently, as the Cordilleran peoples. There are nine main ethnolinguistic groups whose domains ar ...
); ''anitu'' (Aeta
The Aeta (Ayta ), Agta, or Dumagat, are collective terms for several Filipino indigenous peoples who live in various parts of the island of Luzon in the Philippines. They are considered to be part of the Negrito ethnic groups and share common ...
); and ''ma-aram'' ( Karay-a)
These shamans were believed to have been "chosen" by a specific ''diwata'' who become their spirit guide
A spirit guide, in Western spiritualism, is an entity that remains as a discarnate spirit to act as a guide or protector to a living incarnation, incarnated human being.
Description
In traditional African belief systems, well before the spre ...
s.Terms for spirit guide
A spirit guide, in Western spiritualism, is an entity that remains as a discarnate spirit to act as a guide or protector to a living incarnation, incarnated human being.
Description
In traditional African belief systems, well before the spre ...
s of shamans include ''bantay'', ''abyan'' (Visayan); ''alagad'', ''gabay'' (Tagalog); ''abyan'', ''umli'', ''sugujen'', or ''inajew'' (Lumad); ''saro'' (Bicolano); and ''jinn'' (Sama-Bajau) This was presumed to happen after they pass the initiation rites of an older shaman they were apprenticed to (usually a relative). In some cases, some shamans acquire their status after they recover from a serious illness or a bout of insanity. In most Filipino ethnic groups, shamans were almost always female. The few males who gain shaman status were usually ''asog'' or ''bayok'',''Asog'' is the term used for transvestite male shamans in most of the Visayas and in the Bicol Region
Bicol, known formally as the Bicol Region or colloquially as Bicolandia ( bcl, Rehiyon kan Bikol; Rinconada Bikol: ''Rehiyon ka Bikol''; Waray Sorsogon, Masbateño: ''Rehiyon san Bikol''; tl, Rehiyon ng Bikol), is an administrative region of ...
. In the rest of Luzon, they are known as ''bayok'' (''bayoc''), ''bayog'', or ''bayogin'' (''bayoguin'' or ''bayoquin''). Notably among the Sambal
Sambal is an Indonesian chilli sauce or paste, typically made from a mixture of a variety of chilli peppers with secondary ingredients, such as shrimp paste, garlic, ginger, shallot, scallion, palm sugar, and lime juice. ''Sambal'' is an Indo ...
, the highest-ranking shaman was a ''bayok''. They are also known as ''labia'' among the Subanen, though they were not necessarily shamans (Kroeber, 1918). There are also similar trans women shamans among the Dayak people
The Dayak (; older spelling: Dajak) or Dyak or Dayuh are one of the native groups of Borneo. It is a loose term for over 200 riverine and hill-dwelling ethnic groups, located principally in the central and southern interior of Borneo, each ...
of Borneo (Baldick, 2013). Also see ''Bakla
In the Philippines, a baklâ (), bayot ( Cebuano) or agî ( Hiligaynon) is a person who was assigned male at birth and has adopted a feminine gender expression. They are often considered a third gender. Many bakla are exclusively attracted to ...
'' trans women.
Major ''pag-anito'' rituals are centered around a séance
A séance or seance (; ) is an attempt to communicate with spirits. The word ''séance'' comes from the French word for "session", from the Old French ''seoir'', "to sit". In French, the word's meaning is quite general: one may, for example, spe ...
. Because of their special relationship with their companion spirits, shamans can act as medium
Medium may refer to:
Science and technology
Aviation
*Medium bomber, a class of war plane
* Tecma Medium, a French hang glider design
Communication
* Media (communication), tools used to store and deliver information or data
* Medium of ...
s for other ''anito'', allowing spirits to temporarily possess their bodies. This possession happens after the shaman goes into a trance-like state. This allows the spirit to communicate verbally with the participants as well as physically act out events in the spirit world. At the moment of possession, shamans display a change in behavior and voice. They can sometimes go into seizures and become violent enough that restraints are required. The ritual ends when the spirit leaves and the shaman is awakened.
Spirits were invited into the ritual through offerings and sacrifices during and after the ceremonies. These depended on what spirit was being summoned, but offerings are usually a small portion of the harvests, cooked food, wine, gold ornaments, and betel nut
The betel (''Piper betle'') is a vine of the family Piperaceae, which includes pepper and kava. The betel plant is native to Southeast Asia. It is an evergreen, dioecious perennial, with glossy heart-shaped leaves and white catkins. Betel plan ...
. Blood from an animal was also usually part of the offerings, poured directly on the ''taotao'' or in a bowl before them. These commonly come from chickens or pigs, but can also be from carabao
The carabao ( es, Carabao; tgl, Kalabaw; ceb, Kabaw; ilo, Nuang) is a domestic swamp-type water buffalo (''Bubalus bubalis'') native to the Philippines. Carabaos were introduced to Guam from the Spanish Philippines in the 17th century. They ...
s or dogs. Salt and spices are usually avoided, as they are believed to be distasteful to ''anito''. There is no record of human sacrifice
Human sacrifice is the act of killing one or more humans as part of a ritual, which is usually intended to please or appease gods, a human ruler, an authoritative/priestly figure or spirits of dead ancestors or as a retainer sacrifice, wherein ...
s being offered to ''anito'' during the Spanish period of the Philippines, except among the Bagobo people
The Lumad are a group of Austronesian peoples, Austronesian indigenous peoples, indigenous people in the southern Philippines. It is a Cebuano language, Cebuano term meaning "native" or "indigenous". The term is short for Katawhang Lumad (Lite ...
in southern Mindanao
Mindanao ( ) ( Jawi: مينداناو) is the second-largest island in the Philippines, after Luzon, and seventh-most populous island in the world. Located in the southern region of the archipelago, the island is part of an island group of ...
where it was prevalent until the early 20th century.Some anthropologists consider the headhunting
Headhunting is the practice of hunting a human and collecting the severed head after killing the victim, although sometimes more portable body parts (such as ear, nose or scalp) are taken instead as trophies. Headhunting was practiced in hi ...
traditions of the Igorot
The indigenous peoples of the Cordillera Mountain Range of northern Luzon, Philippines are often referred to using the exonym Igorot people, or more recently, as the Cordilleran peoples. There are nine main ethnolinguistic groups whose domains ar ...
as a form of human sacrifice. In the funeral rites for celebrated warriors or nobles among Visayans and Tagalogs, favorite slaves
Slavery and enslavement are both the state and the condition of being a slave—someone forbidden to quit one's service for an enslaver, and who is treated by the enslaver as property. Slavery typically involves slaves being made to perf ...
may also sometimes be executed and buried (''hogot'') to accompany the deceased into the spirit world (Scott, 1994; Benedict, 1916)
Another common ''pag-anito'' ritual throughout most of the Philippine ethnic groups involves the use of spirit boats. These were usually miniature boats laden with offerings set adrift from riverbanks and shorelines.
''Pag-anito'' can be conducted on its own or in conjunction with other rituals and celebrations. They can be personal or family rituals or seasonal community events. They can vary considerably between different ethnic groups. The most common ''pag-anito'' were entreaties for bountiful harvests, cures for illnesses, victory in battle, prayers for the dead, or blessings.
Different ethnic groups had different ''diwata'' pantheons and rituals associated with them, though sometimes deities are shared in neighboring ethnic groups. Moreover, different communities also each have their own local patron ''diwata.''In modern Christianized Filipinos, this practice was transferred unto community patron saints and religious icons
An icon () is a religious work of art, most commonly a painting, in the cultures of the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Catholic churches. They are not simply artworks; "an icon is a sacred image used in religious devotion". The most c ...
, which are often celebrated and worshiped in a very similar way (Hislop, 1971), cf. Ati-Atihan, Obando Fertility Rites
The Obando Fertility Rites"Sayaw Obando." (''Fertility Dance''), ''Obando, Bayang Pinagpala!'' (Obando, Blessed Town!), ''Pamahalaang Bayan ng Obando'' (Local Government of Obando), 2006/2007 are a dance ritual, initially an Anitist ritual, and ...
Historical accounts
Historical accounts of anito in Spanish records include the following:
*''"Most of the Indians are heathens...They believe in their ancestors, and when about to embark upon some enterprise commend themselves to these, asking them for aid."'' – Francisco de Sande, ''Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas'' (1576)
*''"Which treats of the rites and ceremonies observed by the Moros in the vicinity of Manilla, and of their social conditions. The god Batala. According to the religion formerly observed by these Moros, they worshiped a deity called among them Batala, which properly means “God.” They said that they adored this Batala because he was the Lord of all, and had created human beings and villages. They said that this Batala had many agents under him, whom he sent to this world to produce, in behalf of men, what is yielded here. These beings were called anitos, and each anito had a special office. Some of them were for the fields, and some for those who journey by sea; some for those who went to war, and some for diseases. Each anito was therefore named for his office; there was, for instance, the anito of the fields, and the anito of the rain. To these anitos the people offered sacrifices, when they desired anything—to each one according to his office. The mode of sacrifice was like that of the Pintados. They summoned a catalonan, which is the same as the vaylan among the Pintados, that is, a priest. He offered the sacrifice, requesting from the anito whatever the people desired him to ask, and heaping up great quantities of rice, meat, and fish. His invocations lasted until the demon entered his body, when the catalonan fell into a swoon, foaming at the mouth. The Indians sang, drank, and feasted until the catalonan came to himself, and told them the answer that the anito had given to him. If the sacrifice was in behalf of a sick person, they offered many golden chains and ornaments, saying that they were paying a ransom for the sick person’s health. This invocation of the anito continued as long as the sickness lasted."''
:''"When the natives were asked why the sacrifices were offered to the anito, and not to the Batala, they answered that the Batala was a great lord, and no one could speak to him. He lived in the sky; but the anito, who was of such a nature that he came down here to talk with men, was to the Batala as a minister, and interceded for them. In some places and especially in the mountain districts, when the father, mother, or other relative dies, the people unite in making a small wooden idol, and preserve it. Accordingly there is a house which contains one hundred or two hundred of these idols. These images also are called anitos; for they say that when people die, they go to serve the Batala. Therefore they make sacrifices to these anitos, offering them food, wine, and gold ornaments; and request them to be intercessors for them before the Batala, whom they regard as God."'' – Miguel de Loarca, ''Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas'' (1582)
*''"They held the cayman in the utmost veneration; and, whenever they made any statement about it, when they descried it in the water, they called it Nono, which means "grandfather." They softly and tenderly besought it not to harm them; and to this end offered it a part of what they carried in their boats, casting the offering into the water. There was no old tree to which they did not attribute divinity; and it was a sacrilege to cut such a tree for any purpose. What more did they adore? the very stones, cliffs, and reefs, and the headlands of the shores of the sea or the rivers; and they made some offering when they passed by these, going to the stone or rock, and placing the offering upon it. I saw many times in the river of Manila a rock which for many years was an idol of that wretched people... While sailing along the island of Panai I beheld on the promontory called Nasso, near Potol, plates and other pieces of earthenware, laid upon a rock, the offering of voyagers. In the island of Mindanao between La Canela and the river .e., Rio Grande a great promontory projects from a rugged and steep coast; always at these points there is a heavy sea, making it both difficult and dangerous to double them. When passing by this headland, the natives, as it was so steep, offered their arrows, discharging them with such force that they penetrated the rock itself. This they did as a sacrifice, that a safe passage might be accorded them."'' – Fr. Pedro Chirino, ''Relacion de las Islas Filipinas'' (1604)
*''"They also adored private idols, which each one inherited from his ancestors. The Visayans called them divata, and the Tagálogs anito. Of those idols some had jurisdiction over the mountains and open country, and permission was asked from them to go thither. Others had jurisdiction over the sowed fields, and the fields were commended to them so that they might prove fruitful; and besides the sacrifices they placed articles of food in the fields for the anitos to eat, in order to place them under greater obligations. There was an anito of the sea, to whom they commended their fisheries and navigations; an anito of the house, whose favor they implored whenever an infant was born, and when it was suckled and the breast offered to it. They placed their ancestors, the invocation of whom was the first thing in all their work and dangers, among these anitos. In memory of their ancestors they kept certain very small and very badly made idols of stone, wood, gold, or ivory, called licha or laravan. Among their gods they reckoned also all those who perished by the sword, or who were devoured by crocodiles, as well as those killed by lightning. They thought that the souls of such immediately ascended to the blest abode by means of the rainbow, called by them balañgao. Generally, whoever could succeed in it attributed divinity to his aged father at his death. The aged themselves died in that presumptuous delusion, and during their sickness and at their death guided all their actions with what they imagined a divine gravity and manner. Consequently, they chose as the place for their grave some assigned spot, like one old man who lived on the seacoast between Dulac and Abuyog, which is in the island of Leyte. He ordered himself placed there in his coffin (as was done) in a house standing alone and distant from the settlement, in order that he might be recognized as a god of navigators, who were to commend themselves to him. Another had himself buried in certain lands in the mountains of Antipolo, and through reverence to him no one dared to cultivate those lands (for they feared that he who should do so would die), until an evangelical minister removed that fear from them, and now they cultivate them without harm or fear."'' – Fr. Francisco Colin, ''Labor Evangelica'' (1663)
In popular culture
Festivals
*The Babaylan Festival ofBago, Negros Occidental
Bago, officially the City of Bago ( hil, Dakbanwa/Syudad sang Bago; fil, Lungsod ng Bago), is a 2nd class component city in the province of Negros Occidental, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 191,210 people.
Loc ...
, with the accompanying ''Diwata sang Bago'' beauty pageant
A beauty pageant is a competition that has traditionally focused on judging and ranking the physical attributes of the contestants. Pageants have now evolved to include inner beauty, with criteria covering judging of personality, intelligence, ...
, is a street dancing festival celebrating the Visayan traditions of ''anito'' and shamans
*The Kamarikutan Pagdiwata Arts Festival of Puerto Princesa
Puerto Princesa, officially the City of Puerto Princesa (Cuyonon: ''Siyudad i'ang Puerto Princesa''; fil, Lungsod ng Puerto Princesa), is a 1st class highly urbanized city in the Mimaropa region of the Philippines. According to the 2020 census, ...
is inspired by the preserved ritual of ''pagdiwata'' among the Tagbanwa people of Palawan
Palawan (), officially the Province of Palawan ( cyo, Probinsya i'ang Palawan; tl, Lalawigan ng Palawan), is an archipelagic province of the Philippines that is located in the region of Mimaropa. It is the largest province in the country in ...
.
Film and television
*'' Amaya'', a historical television series about the precolonial Philippines. It depicts ''diwata'' as goddesses. *''Diwata'' (1987), a movie directed by Tata Esteban and written by Rei Nicandro showed the mythical life of the deities. Actress Olga Miranda played the main role, together with the other cast Lala Montelibano, Dick Israel and George Estregan. *''Encantadia
''Encantadia'' is a Filipino fantasy franchise produced and published by GMA Network. It consists of four television series that have run from 2005 to present and a single film. The first was shown in 2005 carrying the title alone and ended in ...
'' and ''Mulawin
''Mulawin'' is a Philippine television drama fantasy series broadcast by GMA Network. Directed by Don Michael Perez and Dode Cruz, it stars Richard Gutierrez, Angel Locsin and Dennis Trillo. It premiered on August 2, 2004 on the network's Teleb ...
'', two television series (with film adaptations) in a shared universe depicts diwatas as a race of supernatural being living in Encantadia, a dimension beyond the human world.
*''Faraway'' (2014), an independent film focuses on a woman and her quest to find the Diwata tribe.
*''Indio Indio may refer to:
Places
* Indio, Bovey Tracey, an historic estate in Devon, England
* Indio, California, a city in Riverside County, California, United States
People with the name
* Indio (musician), Canadian musician Gordon Peterson
* Índio, ...
'', a television series with a protagonist that is the son of a mortal man and a ''diwata'' woman.
*''Okay Ka, Fairy Ko!
''Okay Ka, Fairy Ko!'' () is a Philippine television fantasy situational comedy series broadcast by Intercontinental Broadcasting Corporation, ABS-CBN and GMA Network. Directed by Bert de Leon, it stars Vic Sotto, Charito Solis and Alice Dixson. ...
'', a television fantasy situational comedy
A sitcom, a portmanteau of situation comedy, or situational comedy, is a genre of comedy centered on a fixed set of characters who mostly carry over from episode to episode. Sitcoms can be contrasted with sketch comedy, where a troupe may use ne ...
series (with film adaptations) that revolves around a mortal man married to a ''diwata''.
Games
* '' Anito: Defend a Land Enraged'' is arole-playing game
A role-playing game (sometimes spelled roleplaying game, RPG) is a game in which players assume the roles of player character, characters in a fictional Setting (narrative), setting. Players take responsibility for acting out these roles within ...
released in 2003 by Anino Entertainment. It was the first video game to be produced and designed entirely by a team of Filipino game developers, and is credited for helping spawn the birth of the game development industry in the Philippines.
*One of the abilities of the character Titania (added on August 19, 2016) in Warframe
''Warframe'' is a free-to-play action role-playing third-person shooter multiplayer online game developed and published by Digital Extremes. First released for Windows personal computers in March 2013, it was later ported to PlayStation 4 in No ...
is a sword known as ''diwata''.
*''Project Tadhana'', a tabletop role-playing game
A tabletop role-playing game (typically abbreviated as TRPG or TTRPG), also known as a pen-and-paper role-playing game, is a form of role-playing game (RPG) in which the participants describe their characters' actions through speech. Participa ...
released in 2017 features Diwata as one of its playable races (or ''lahi'') together with Engkanto, Tikbalang, Aswang, and Tao.
*''Makia:Tales of the Forest'', a visual novel
A , often abbreviated as VN, is a form of digital semi-interactive fiction. Visual novels are often associated with and used in the medium of video games, but are not always labeled as such themselves. They combine a textual narrative with sta ...
released in 2020 explores the story of
Literature
*One of the main characters from the play ''Speech & Debate
''Speech & Debate'' is a 2017 American film directed by Dan Harris. The film is an adaptation of the play of the same name and was released on April 7, 2017, by Vertical Entertainment.
Plot
The film features three misfit students in a high sch ...
'' written by Stephen Karam
Stephen Karam (born ) is an American playwright, screenwriter and director. His plays ''Sons of the Prophet'', a comedy-drama about a Lebanese-American family, and '' The Humans'' were finalists for the Pulitzer Prize for Drama in 2012 and 2016, ...
is a woman with Filipino ancestry named Diwata.
*Marvel Comics
Marvel Comics is an American comic book publishing, publisher and the flagship property of Marvel Entertainment, a divsion of The Walt Disney Company since September 1, 2009. Evolving from Timely Comics in 1939, ''Magazine Management/Atlas Co ...
has introduced the "Diwatas" as a pantheon of gods similar to the Asgardians and Olympians. These Diwatas include Aman Sinaya, Amihan, Anitun, Apo Laki, Aswang, Bathala, Mayari and Tala.
Music
*"Diwata
''Anito'', also spelled ''anitu'', refers to ancestor spirits, nature spirits, and deities in the indigenous Philippine folk religions from the precolonial age to the present, although the term itself may have other meanings and associa ...
", a song released by rapper Abra featuring Parokya Ni Edgar
Parokya ni Edgar (lit: Edgar's Parish) is a Filipino band formed in 1993. The band is known for its original rock novelty songs and often satirical covers of popular songs both foreign and local. The band is adept at playing in various musica ...
vocalist Chito Miranda
Alfonso Yanga Miranda Jr. (born February 7, 1976), widely known as Chito Miranda, is a Filipino singer-songwriter and occasional actor, best known as one of the founding members and lead singer for the band Parokya ni Edgar.
Early life and caree ...
, from his self-titled debut album.
Science
*Diwata-1
Diwata-1 also known as PHL-Microsat-1 was a Philippine microsatellite launched to the International Space Station (ISS) on March 23, 2016, and was deployed into orbit from the ISS on April 27, 2016. It was the first Philippine microsatellite an ...
and Diwata-2
Diwata-2 or Diwata-2B is a Philippine microsatellite launched on October 29, 2018. It is the first satellite launched under the STAMINA4Space program.
Development
The satellite was developed by 11 scholars under the Philippine Department of Scie ...
, the first Philippine microsatellites
A microsatellite is a tract of repetitive DNA in which certain DNA motifs (ranging in length from one to six or more base pairs) are repeated, typically 5–50 times. Microsatellites occur at thousands of locations within an organism's genome. ...
launched in 2016 and 2018, respectively, were named after ''diwata.''
Notes
See also
*Philippine mythology
Philippine mythology is the body of stories and epics originating from, and part of, the indigenous Philippine folk religions, which include various ethnic faiths distinct from one another. Philippine mythology is incorporated from various ...
*Atua – the Polynesian derivative belief of Anito
*Gabâ
*Genius loci
*Daemon (classical mythology)
*Hantu (supernatural creature), Hantu
*Hyang
*Kaharingan
*Kami
*Kodama (spirit), Kodama
*Kupua
*Menehune
*Moai
*Nuku-mai-tore
*Patupaiarehe
*Soul dualism
*Taotao Mona
*Toraja
The Torajans are an ethnic group indigenous to a mountainous region of South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Their population is approximately 1,100,000, of whom 450,000 live in the regency of Tana Toraja ("Land of Toraja"). Most of the population is Chri ...
*Tiki
*Yōkai
*Yorishiro
References
External links
Pagdiwata Ritual
of the Tagbanwa in th
ICH Digital Archives
ICHCAP, UNESCO {{Philippine mythology Austronesian spirituality Indigenous Philippine folk religions Philippine mythology Domestic and hearth deities Tutelary deities Nature spirits Tree deities Psychopomps