![Dieselmotor Langen & Wolf, 1898](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Dieselmotor_Langen_%26_Wolf%2C_1898.jpg)
The diesel engine, named after
Rudolf Diesel
Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel (, ; 18 March 1858 – 29 September 1913) was a German inventor and mechanical engineer who is famous for having invented the diesel engine, which burns diesel fuel; both are named after him.
Early life and educat ...
, is an
internal combustion engine
An internal combustion engine (ICE or IC engine) is a heat engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal c ...
in which
ignition
Ignition may refer to:
Science and technology
* Firelighting, the human act of creating a fire for warmth, cooking and other uses
* Combustion, an exothermic chemical reaction between a fuel and an oxidant
* Fusion ignition, the point at which a ...
of the
fuel is caused by the elevated temperature of the air in the cylinder due to mechanical compression; thus, the diesel engine is a so-called compression-ignition engine (CI engine). This contrasts with engines using
spark plug-ignition of the air-fuel mixture, such as a
petrol engine
A petrol engine (gasoline engine in American English) is an internal combustion engine designed to run on petrol (gasoline). Petrol engines can often be adapted to also run on fuels such as liquefied petroleum gas and ethanol blends (such as ' ...
(
gasoline
Gasoline (; ) or petrol (; ) (see ) is a transparent, petroleum-derived flammable liquid that is used primarily as a fuel in most spark-ignited internal combustion engines (also known as petrol engines). It consists mostly of organic co ...
engine) or a
gas engine (using a gaseous fuel like
natural gas
Natural gas (also called fossil gas or simply gas) is a naturally occurring mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons consisting primarily of methane in addition to various smaller amounts of other higher alkanes. Low levels of trace gases like carbo ...
or
liquefied petroleum gas).
Diesel engines work by compressing only air, or air plus residual combustion gases from the exhaust (known as exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)). Air is inducted into the chamber during the intake stroke, and compressed during the compression stroke. This increases the air temperature inside the
cylinder
A cylinder (from ) has traditionally been a three-dimensional solid, one of the most basic of curvilinear geometric shapes. In elementary geometry, it is considered a prism with a circle as its base.
A cylinder may also be defined as an infin ...
to such a high degree that atomised diesel fuel injected into the combustion chamber ignites. With the fuel being injected into the air just before combustion, the dispersion of the fuel is uneven; this is called a heterogeneous air-fuel mixture. The torque a diesel engine produces is controlled by manipulating the
air-fuel ratio (λ); instead of throttling the intake air, the diesel engine relies on altering the amount of fuel that is injected, and the air-fuel ratio is usually high.
The diesel engine has the highest
thermal efficiency
In thermodynamics, the thermal efficiency (\eta_) is a dimensionless performance measure of a device that uses thermal energy, such as an internal combustion engine, steam turbine, steam engine, boiler, furnace, refrigerator, ACs etc.
For a ...
(
engine efficiency
Engine efficiency of thermal engines is the relationship between the total energy contained in the fuel, and the amount of energy used to perform useful work. There are two classifications of thermal engines-
#Internal combustion (gasoline, diesel ...
) of any practical
internal
Internal may refer to:
*Internality as a concept in behavioural economics
*Neijia, internal styles of Chinese martial arts
*Neigong or "internal skills", a type of exercise in meditation associated with Daoism
*''Internal (album)'' by Safia, 2016
...
or
external combustion
An external combustion engine (EC engine) is a reciprocating heat engine where a working fluid, contained internally, is heated by combustion in an external source, through the engine wall or a heat exchanger. The fluid then, by expanding and ...
engine due to its very high
expansion ratio The expansion ratio of a liquefied and cryogenic substance is the volume of a given amount of that substance in liquid form compared to the volume of the same amount of substance in gaseous form, at room temperature and normal atmospheric pressure. ...
and inherent
lean
Lean, leaning or LEAN may refer to:
Business practices
* Lean thinking, a business methodology adopted in various fields
** Lean construction, an adaption of lean manufacturing principles to the design and construction process
** Lean governm ...
burn which enables heat dissipation by the excess air. A small efficiency loss is also avoided compared with non-direct-injection gasoline engines since unburned fuel is not present during valve overlap and therefore no fuel goes directly from the intake/injection to the exhaust. Low-speed diesel engines (as used in ships and other applications where overall engine weight is relatively unimportant) can reach effective efficiencies of up to 55%.
The
combined cycle gas turbine
A combined cycle power plant is an assembly of heat engines that work in tandem from the same source of heat, converting it into mechanical energy. On land, when used to make electricity the most common type is called a combined cycle gas turb ...
(Brayton and Rankin cycle) is a combustion engine that is more efficient than a diesel engine, but it is, due to its mass and dimensions, unsuited for vehicles,
watercraft
Any vehicle used in or on water as well as underwater, including boats, ships, hovercraft and submarines, is a watercraft, also known as a water vessel or waterborne vessel. A watercraft usually has a propulsive capability (whether by sail, ...
, or
aircraft
An aircraft is a vehicle that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet engine ...
.The world's largest diesel engines put in service are 14-cylinder, two-stroke marine diesel engines; they produce a peak power of almost 100 MW each.
Diesel engines may be designed as either
two-stroke
A two-stroke (or two-stroke cycle) engine is a type of internal combustion engine that completes a power cycle with two strokes (up and down movements) of the piston during one power cycle, this power cycle being completed in one revolution of ...
or
four-stroke cycles. They were originally used as a more efficient replacement for stationary
steam engines. Since the 1910s, they have been used in
submarine
A submarine (or sub) is a watercraft capable of independent operation underwater. It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability. The term is also sometimes used historically or colloquially to refer to remotely op ...
s and ships. Use in locomotives, buses, trucks,
heavy equipment, agricultural equipment and electricity generation plants followed later. In the 1930s, they slowly began to be used in a few
automobile
A car or automobile is a motor vehicle with wheels. Most definitions of ''cars'' say that they run primarily on roads, seat one to eight people, have four wheels, and mainly transport people instead of goods.
The year 1886 is regarde ...
s. Since the
1970s energy crisis, demand for higher fuel efficiency has resulted in most major automakers, at some point, offering diesel-powered models, even in very small cars.
[Ramey, Jay]
"10 Diesel Cars That Time Forgot"
April 13, 2021, ''Autoweek
''Autoweek'' is a car culture publication based in Detroit, Michigan. It was first published in 1958 and in 1977 the publication was purchased by Crain Communications Inc, its current parent company. The magazine was published weekly and focused ...
,'' retrieved December 5, 2022["Critical evaluation of the European diesel car boom - global comparison, environmental effects and various national strategies,"](_blank)
2013, ''Environmental Sciences Europe,'' volume 25, Article number: 15, retrieved December 5, 2022[ "List of diesel automobiles," ''Wikipedia,'' retrieved December 5, 2022] According to Konrad Reif (2012), the
EU average for diesel cars at the time accounted for half of newly registered cars.
However,
air pollution
Air pollution is the contamination of air due to the presence of substances in the atmosphere that are harmful to the health of humans and other living beings, or cause damage to the climate or to materials. There are many different typ ...
emissions are harder to control in diesel engines than in gasoline engines, so the use of diesel auto engines in the U.S. is now largely relegated to larger on-road and
off-road vehicle
An off-road vehicle, sometimes referred to as an overland or adventure vehicle, is considered to be any type of vehicle which is capable of driving on and off paved or gravel surface. It is generally characterized by having large tires with de ...
s
[Huffman, John Pearley]
"Every New 2021 Diesel for Sale in the U.S. Today,"
March 6, 2021, ''Car and Driver
''Car and Driver'' (''CD'' or ''C/D'') is an American automotive enthusiast magazine. In 2006 its total circulation was 1.23 million. It is owned by Hearst Magazines, who purchased prior owner Hachette Filipacchi Media U.S. in 2011. It was f ...
,'' retrieved December 5, 2022[Gorzelany, Jim]
"The Best 15 Best Diesel Vehicles of 2021,"
April 23, 2021, ''U.S. News
''U.S. News & World Report'' (USNWR) is an American media company that publishes news, consumer advice, rankings, and analysis. It was launched in 1948 as the merger of domestic-focused weekly newspaper ''U.S. News'' and international-focused ...
,'' retrieved December 5, 2022.
Though aviation has traditionally avoided diesel engines, aircraft diesel engines have become increasingly available in the 21st century. Since the late 1990s, for various reasons -- including the diesel's normal advantages over gasoline engines, but also for recent issues peculiar to aviation -- development and production of diesel engines for aircraft has surged, with over 5000 such engines delivered worldwide between 2002 and 2018, particularly for light airplanes and
unmanned aerial vehicles
An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), commonly known as a drone, is an aircraft without any human pilot, crew, or passengers on board. UAVs are a component of an unmanned aircraft system (UAS), which includes adding a ground-based controlle ...
.
["Inside the Diesel Revolution,"](_blank)
August 1, 2018, '' Flying,'' retrieved December 5, 2022[O'Connor, Kate]
"Diamond Rolls Out 500th DA40 NG,"
December 30, 2020 Updated: December 31, 2020, '' Avweb,'' retrieved December 5, 2022
History
Diesel's idea
![Experimental Diesel Engine](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Experimental_Diesel_Engine.jpg)
In 1878,
Rudolf Diesel
Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel (, ; 18 March 1858 – 29 September 1913) was a German inventor and mechanical engineer who is famous for having invented the diesel engine, which burns diesel fuel; both are named after him.
Early life and educat ...
, who was a student at the
"Polytechnikum" in
Munich
Munich ( ; german: München ; bar, Minga ) is the capital and most populous city of the States of Germany, German state of Bavaria. With a population of 1,558,395 inhabitants as of 31 July 2020, it is the List of cities in Germany by popu ...
, attended the lectures of
Carl von Linde
Carl Paul Gottfried von Linde (11 June 1842 – 16 November 1934) was a German scientist, engineer, and businessman. He discovered a refrigeration cycle and invented the first industrial-scale air separation and gas liquefaction processes, whi ...
. Linde explained that steam engines are capable of converting just 6–10% of the heat energy into work, but that the
Carnot cycle
A Carnot cycle is an ideal thermodynamic cycle proposed by French physicist Sadi Carnot in 1824 and expanded upon by others in the 1830s and 1840s. By Carnot's theorem, it provides an upper limit on the efficiency of any classical thermodynam ...
allows conversion of much more of the heat energy into work by means of isothermal change in condition. According to Diesel, this ignited the idea of creating a highly efficient engine that could work on the Carnot cycle.
Diesel was also exposed to a
fire piston
A fire piston, sometimes called a fire syringe or a slam rod fire starter, is a device of ancient Southeast Asian origin which is used to kindle fire. It uses the principle of the heating of a gas (in this case air) by rapid and adiabatic compress ...
, a traditional
fire starter using rapid
adiabatic compression principles which Linde had acquired from
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical south-eastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of mainlan ...
.
After several years of working on his ideas, Diesel published them in 1893 in the essay ''
Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat Motor
''Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat Motor'' (german: Theorie und Konstruktion eines rationellen Wärmemotors zum Ersatz der Dampfmaschine und der heute bekannten Verbrennungsmotoren; English: ''Theory and construction of a rational he ...
''.
Diesel was heavily criticised for his essay, but only few found the mistake that he made;
his ''rational heat motor'' was supposed to utilise a constant temperature cycle (with isothermal compression) that would require a much higher level of compression than that needed for compression ignition. Diesel's idea was to compress the air so tightly that the temperature of the air would exceed that of combustion. However, such an engine could never perform any usable work.
In his 1892 US patent (granted in 1895) #542846, Diesel describes the compression required for his cycle:
:"pure atmospheric air is compressed, according to curve 1 2, to such a degree that, before ignition or combustion takes place, the highest pressure of the diagram and the highest temperature are obtained-that is to say, the temperature at which the subsequent combustion has to take place, not the burning or igniting point. To make this more clear, let it be assumed that the subsequent combustion shall take place at a temperature of 700°. Then in that case the initial pressure must be sixty-four atmospheres, or for 800° centigrade the pressure must be ninety atmospheres, and so on. Into the air thus compressed is then gradually introduced from the exterior finely divided fuel, which ignites on introduction, since the air is at a temperature far above the igniting-point of the fuel. The characteristic features of the cycle according to my present invention are therefore, increase of pressure and temperature up to the maximum, not by combustion, but prior to combustion by mechanical compression of air, and there upon the subsequent performance of work without increase of pressure and temperature by gradual combustion during a prescribed part of the stroke determined by the cut-oil".
By June 1893, Diesel had realised his original cycle would not work and he adopted the constant pressure cycle.
Diesel describes the cycle in his 1895 patent application. Notice that there is no longer a mention of compression temperatures exceeding the temperature of combustion. Now it is simply stated that the compression must be sufficient to trigger ignition.
:"1. In an internal-combustion engine, the combination of a cylinder and piston constructed and arranged to compress air to a degree producing a temperature above the igniting-point of the fuel, a supply for compressed air or gas; a fuel-supply; a distributing-valve for fuel, a passage from the air supply to the cylinder in communication with the fuel-distributing valve, an inlet to the cylinder in communication with the air-supply and with the fuel-valve, and a cut-oil, substantially as described." See US patent # 608845 filed 1895 / granted 1898
In 1892, Diesel received patents in
Germany
Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...
,
Switzerland
). Swiss law does not designate a ''capital'' as such, but the federal parliament and government are installed in Bern, while other federal institutions, such as the federal courts, are in other cities (Bellinzona, Lausanne, Luzern, Neuchâtel ...
, the
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and North ...
and the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
for "Method of and Apparatus for Converting Heat into Work".
In 1894 and 1895, he filed patents and addenda in various countries for his engine; the first patents were issued in
Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, i ...
(No. 16,654),
France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
(No. 243,531) and
Belgium
Belgium, ; french: Belgique ; german: Belgien officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in Northwestern Europe. The country is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeast, France to th ...
(No. 113,139) in December 1894, and in
Germany
Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...
(No. 86,633) in 1895 and the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
(No. 608,845) in 1898.
Diesel was attacked and criticised over a time period of several years. Critics claimed that Diesel never invented a new motor and that the invention of the diesel engine is fraud. Otto Köhler and were two of the most prominent critics of Diesel's time.
Köhler had published an essay in 1887, in which he describes an engine similar to the engine Diesel describes in his 1893 essay. Köhler figured that such an engine could not perform any work.
Emil Capitaine had built a petroleum engine with glow-tube ignition in the early 1890s;
he claimed against his own better judgement that his glow-tube ignition engine worked the same way Diesel's engine did. His claims were unfounded and he lost a patent lawsuit against Diesel.
Other engines, such as the
Akroyd engine
The hot-bulb engine is a type of internal combustion engine in which fuel ignites by coming in contact with a red-hot metal surface inside a bulb, followed by the introduction of air (oxygen) compressed into the hot-bulb chamber by the rising p ...
and the
Brayton engine
The Brayton cycle is a thermodynamic cycle that describes the operation of certain heat engines that have air or some other gas as their working fluid. The original Brayton engines used a piston compressor and piston expander, but modern gas tur ...
, also use an operating cycle that is different from the diesel engine cycle.
Friedrich Sass
Friedrich Sass (6 January 1883 – 26 February 1968) was a German engineer, university professor and historian.
Life and career
Friedrich Sass was born in Koldenbüttel and attended the ''Gymnasium'' (grammar school) in Schleswig. He studied ...
says that the diesel engine is Diesel's "very own work" and that any "Diesel myth" is "
falsification of history".
The first diesel engine
Diesel sought out firms and factories that would build his engine. With the help of
Moritz Schröter
Maximilian Moritz Schröter (25 February 1851 – 12 March 1925) was a German industrial engineer and university professor of thermodynamics and the theory of machines.
Life and career
Moritz Schröter was the son of Moritz Schröter, who hims ...
and ,
he succeeded in convincing both
Krupp in Essen and the
Maschinenfabrik Augsburg.
Contracts were signed in April 1893,
and in early summer 1893, Diesel's first prototype engine was built in Augsburg. On 10 August 1893, the first ignition took place, the fuel used was petrol. In winter 1893/1894, Diesel redesigned the existing engine, and by 18 January 1894, his mechanics had converted it into the second prototype.
During January that year, an
air-blast injection system was added to the engine's cylinder head and tested.
Friedrich Sass
Friedrich Sass (6 January 1883 – 26 February 1968) was a German engineer, university professor and historian.
Life and career
Friedrich Sass was born in Koldenbüttel and attended the ''Gymnasium'' (grammar school) in Schleswig. He studied ...
argues that, it can be presumed that Diesel copied the concept of air-blast injection from
George B. Brayton,
albeit that Diesel substantially improved the system.
On 17 February 1894, the redesigned engine ran for 88 revolutions – one minute;
with this news, Maschinenfabrik Augsburg's stock rose by 30%, indicative of the tremendous anticipated demands for a more efficient engine.
On 26 June 1895, the engine achieved an effective efficiency of 16.6% and had a fuel consumption of 519 g·kW
−1·h
−1.
However, despite proving the concept, the engine caused problems,
and Diesel could not achieve any substantial progress.
Therefore, Krupp considered rescinding the contract they had made with Diesel.
Diesel was forced to improve the design of his engine and rushed to construct a third prototype engine. Between 8 November and 20 December 1895, the second prototype had successfully covered over 111 hours on the test bench. In the January 1896 report, this was considered a success.
In February 1896, Diesel considered supercharging the third prototype.
Imanuel Lauster
Imanuel Lauster (28 January 1873 – 15 March 1948) was a German engineer and businessman, who designed the first Diesel engine for Rudolf Diesel, and served as the head of M.A.N.'s board of directors from 1932 to 1934.
Life and career
La ...
, who was ordered to draw the third prototype "
Motor 250/400
The Motor 250/400 is the first functional diesel engine. It was designed by Rudolf Diesel, and drawn by Imanuel Lauster. The workshop of the Maschinenfabrik Augsburg built two units, the ''A-Motor'', and the ''B-Motor''. The latter has been on s ...
", had finished the drawings by 30 April 1896. During summer that year the engine was built, it was completed on 6 October 1896.
Tests were conducted until early 1897.
First public tests began on 1 February 1897.
Moritz Schröter
Maximilian Moritz Schröter (25 February 1851 – 12 March 1925) was a German industrial engineer and university professor of thermodynamics and the theory of machines.
Life and career
Moritz Schröter was the son of Moritz Schröter, who hims ...
's test on 17 February 1897 was the main test of Diesel's engine. The engine was rated 13.1 kW with a specific fuel consumption of 324 g·kW
−1·h
−1,
resulting in an effective efficiency of 26.2%.
By 1898, Diesel had become a millionaire.
Timeline
1890s
* 1893:
Rudolf Diesel
Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel (, ; 18 March 1858 – 29 September 1913) was a German inventor and mechanical engineer who is famous for having invented the diesel engine, which burns diesel fuel; both are named after him.
Early life and educat ...
's essay titled ''
Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat Motor
''Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat Motor'' (german: Theorie und Konstruktion eines rationellen Wärmemotors zum Ersatz der Dampfmaschine und der heute bekannten Verbrennungsmotoren; English: ''Theory and construction of a rational he ...
'' appears.
* 1893: February 21, Diesel and the Maschinenfabrik Augsburg sign a contract that allows Diesel to build a prototype engine.
* 1893: February 23, Diesel obtains a patent (RP 67207) titled "''Arbeitsverfahren und Ausführungsart für Verbrennungsmaschinen''" (Working Methods and Techniques for Internal Combustion Engines).
* 1893: April 10, Diesel and Krupp sign a contract that allows Diesel to build a prototype engine.
* 1893: April 24, both Krupp and the Maschinenfabrik Augsburg decide to collaborate and build just a single prototype in Augsburg.
* 1893: July, the first prototype is completed.
* 1893: August 10, Diesel injects fuel (petrol) for the first time, resulting in combustion, destroying the
indicator
Indicator may refer to:
Biology
* Environmental indicator of environmental health (pressures, conditions and responses)
* Ecological indicator of ecosystem health (ecological processes)
* Health indicator, which is used to describe the health ...
.
* 1893: November 30, Diesel applies for a patent (RP 82168) for a modified combustion process. He obtains it on 12 July 1895.
* 1894: January 18, after the first prototype had been modified to become the second prototype, testing with the second prototype begins.
* 1894: February 17, The second prototype runs for the first time.
* 1895: March 30, Diesel applies for a patent (RP 86633) for a starting process with compressed air.
* 1895: June 26, the second prototype passes brake testing for the first time.
* 1895: Diesel applies for a second patent US Patent # 608845
* 1895: November 8 – December 20, a series of tests with the second prototype is conducted. In total, 111 operating hours are recorded.
* 1896: April 30, Imanuel Lauster completes the third and final prototype's drawings.
* 1896: October 6, the third and final prototype engine is completed.
* 1897: February 1, Diesel's prototype engine is running and finally ready for efficiency testing and production.
* 1897: October 9,
Adolphus Busch
Adolphus Busch (10 July 1839 – 10 October 1913) was the German-born co-founder of Anheuser-Busch with his father-in-law, Eberhard Anheuser. He introduced numerous innovations, building the success of the company in the late 19th and early ...
licenses rights to the diesel engine for the US and Canada.
* 1897: 29 October, Rudolf Diesel obtains a patent (DRP 95680) on supercharging the diesel engine.
* 1898: February 1, the Diesel Motoren-Fabrik Actien-Gesellschaft is registered.
* 1898: March, the first commercial diesel engine, rated 2×30 PS (2×22 kW), is installed in the Kempten plant of the Vereinigte Zündholzfabriken A.G.
* 1898: September 17, the Allgemeine Gesellschaft für Dieselmotoren A.-G. is founded.
* 1899: The first two-stroke diesel engine, invented by
Hugo Güldner
Carl Hugo Güldner (18 July 1866 – 12 March 1926) was a German engineer and inventor. He is best known for inventing the two-stroke diesel engine, and the Valve_timing#Valve_overlap, valve overlap in internal combustion engines.
Life and car ...
, is built.
1900s
![Dieselmotor vs](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Dieselmotor_vs.jpg)
* 1901: Imanuel Lauster designs the first
trunk piston
A piston is a component of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas compressors, hydraulic cylinders and pneumatic cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is the moving component that is contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tigh ...
diesel engine (DM 70).
* 1901: By 1901,
MAN
A man is an adult male human. Prior to adulthood, a male human is referred to as a boy (a male child or adolescent). Like most other male mammals, a man's genome usually inherits an X chromosome from the mother and a Y chromo ...
had produced 77 diesel engine cylinders for commercial use.
* 1903: Two first diesel-powered ships are launched, both for river and canal operations: The ''
Vandal
The Vandals were a Germanic people who first inhabited what is now southern Poland. They established Vandal kingdoms on the Iberian Peninsula, Mediterranean islands, and North Africa in the fifth century.
The Vandals migrated to the area betw ...
''
naphtha
Naphtha ( or ) is a flammable liquid hydrocarbon mixture.
Mixtures labelled ''naphtha'' have been produced from natural gas condensates, petroleum distillates, and the distillation of coal tar and peat. In different industries and regions ' ...
tanker and the ''
Sarmat''.
* 1904: The French launch the first diesel
submarine
A submarine (or sub) is a watercraft capable of independent operation underwater. It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability. The term is also sometimes used historically or colloquially to refer to remotely op ...
, the
Aigrette.
* 1905: January 14: Diesel applies for a patent on unit injection (L20510I/46a).
* 1905: The first diesel engine
turbocharger
In an internal combustion engine, a turbocharger (often called a turbo) is a forced induction device that is powered by the flow of exhaust gases. It uses this energy to compress the intake gas, forcing more air into the engine in order to pro ...
s and
intercoolers are manufactured by Büchi.
* 1906: The Diesel Motoren-Fabrik Actien-Gesellschaft is dissolved.
* 1908: Diesel's patents expire.
* 1908: The first
lorry
A truck or lorry is a motor vehicle designed to transport cargo, carry specialized payloads, or perform other utilitarian work. Trucks vary greatly in size, power, and configuration, but the vast majority feature body-on-frame constructio ...
(truck) with a diesel engine appears.
* 1909: March 14,
Prosper L'Orange
Prosper L'Orange (born 1 February 1876, Beirut; died 30 July 1939, Stuttgart) was a German engineer and inventor who pioneered the precombustion chamber (or prechamber), which made possible high-speed diesel engines that did not require an air co ...
applies for a patent on
precombustion chamber injection.
He later builds the first diesel engine with this system.
1910s
* 1910: MAN starts making two-stroke diesel engines.
* 1910: November 26,
James McKechnie
James McKechnie VC (June 1826 – 5 July 1886) was a Scottish recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces.
Details
H ...
applies for a patent on
unit injection.
Unlike Diesel, he managed to successfully build working unit injectors.
* 1911: November 27, the Allgemeine Gesellschaft für Dieselmotoren A.-G. is dissolved.
* 1911: The Germania shipyard in Kiel builds 850 PS (625 kW) diesel engines for German submarines. These engines are installed in 1914.
* 1912: MAN builds the first double-acting piston two-stroke diesel engine.
* 1912: The first
locomotive with a diesel engine is used on the Swiss
Winterthur-Romanshorn railroad.
* 1912: The ''
Selandia
''Selandia'' (after the Latin name for the Danish island of Sjælland) was the name of three ships of the Danish East Asiatic Company, the best known of which, the first MS ''Selandia'' of 1912, was the most advanced ocean-going Diesel engine, ...
'' is the first ocean-going ship with diesel engines.
* 1913:
NELSECO
The New London Ship and Engine Company (NELSECO) was established in Groton, Connecticut as a subsidiary of the Electric Boat Company to manufacture diesel engines.
History
Electric Boat acquired a license to manufacture MAN diesels, probably in ...
diesels are installed on commercial ships and
US Navy
The United States Navy (USN) is the maritime service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the eight uniformed services of the United States. It is the largest and most powerful navy in the world, with the estimated tonnage ...
submarines.
* 1913: September 29,
Rudolf Diesel
Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel (, ; 18 March 1858 – 29 September 1913) was a German inventor and mechanical engineer who is famous for having invented the diesel engine, which burns diesel fuel; both are named after him.
Early life and educat ...
dies mysteriously when crossing the
English Channel
The English Channel, "The Sleeve"; nrf, la Maunche, "The Sleeve" (Cotentinais) or ( Jèrriais), (Guernésiais), "The Channel"; br, Mor Breizh, "Sea of Brittany"; cy, Môr Udd, "Lord's Sea"; kw, Mor Bretannek, "British Sea"; nl, Het Kana ...
on the .
* 1914: MAN builds 900 PS (662 kW) two-stroke engines for Dutch submarines.
* 1919: Prosper L'Orange obtains a patent on a
Precombustion chamber
Indirect injection in an internal combustion engine is fuel injection where fuel is not directly injected into the combustion chamber.
Gasoline engines equipped with indirect injection systems, wherein a fuel injector delivers the fuel at some po ...
insert incorporating a needle
injection nozzle
Injection or injected may refer to:
Science and technology
* Injective function, a mathematical function mapping distinct arguments to distinct values
* Injection (medicine), insertion of liquid into the body with a syringe
* Injection, in broad ...
.
First diesel engine from
Cummins
Cummins Inc. is an American multinational corporation that designs, manufactures, and distributes engines, filtration, and power generation products. Cummins also services engines and related equipment, including fuel systems, controls, air ...
.
1920s
![Fairbanks Morse model 32](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Fairbanks_Morse_model_32.jpg)
* 1923: At the Königsberg DLG exhibition, the first agricultural tractor with a diesel engine, the prototype Benz-Sendling S6, is presented.
* 1923: December 15, the first
lorry
A truck or lorry is a motor vehicle designed to transport cargo, carry specialized payloads, or perform other utilitarian work. Trucks vary greatly in size, power, and configuration, but the vast majority feature body-on-frame constructio ...
with a direct-injected diesel engine is tested by MAN. The same year, Benz builds a lorry with a pre-combustion chamber injected diesel engine.
* 1923: The first two-stroke diesel engine with counterflow scavenging appears.
* 1924:
Fairbanks-Morse
Fairbanks, Morse and Company was an American manufacturing company in the late 19th and early 20th century. Originally a weighing scale manufacturer, it later diversified into pumps, engines, windmills, coffee grinders, radios, farm tractors, fee ...
introduces the two-stroke Y-VA (later renamed to Model 32).
* 1925: Sendling starts mass-producing a diesel-powered agricultural tractor.
* 1927:
Bosch introduces the first inline injection pump for motor vehicle diesel engines.
* 1929: The first passenger car with a diesel engine appears. Its engine is an Otto engine modified to use the diesel principle and Bosch's injection pump. Several other diesel car prototypes follow.
1930s
* 1933:
Junkers Motorenwerke in Germany start production of the most successful mass-produced aviation diesel engine of all time, the
Jumo 205. By the outbreak of
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
, over 900 examples are produced. Its rated take-off power is 645 kW.
* 1933: General Motors uses its new roots-blown, unit-injected two-stroke Winton 201A diesel engine to power its automotive assembly exhibit at the Chicago World's Fair (''
A Century of Progress
A Century of Progress International Exposition, also known as the Chicago World's Fair, was a world's fair held in the city of Chicago, Illinois, United States, from 1933 to 1934. The fair, registered under the Bureau International des Expositi ...
'').
The engine is offered in several versions ranging from 600 to 900 hp (447–671 kW).
* 1934: The
Budd Company builds the first diesel–electric passenger train in the US, the ''
Pioneer Zephyr
The ''Pioneer Zephyr'' is a diesel-powered trainset built by the Budd Company in 1934 for the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad (CB&Q), commonly known as the Burlington Route. The trainset was the second internal combustion-powered streaml ...
9900'', using a Winton engine.
* 1935: The
Citroën Rosalie
The original Citroën Rosalie was a light-weight racing car that established a succession of records at the Montlhéry racing circuit. More generally the Rosalie was a range of three models/sizes of automobile that comprised the core of Citro ...
is fitted with an early
swirl chamber injected diesel engine for testing purposes.
Daimler-Benz
The Mercedes-Benz Group AG (previously named Daimler-Benz, DaimlerChrysler and Daimler) is a German multinational automotive corporation headquartered in Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is one of the world's leading car manufactur ...
starts manufacturing the
Mercedes-Benz OM 138
The Mercedes-Benz OM 138 is a diesel engine manufactured by Daimler-Benz. In total, 5,719 units were produced between 1935 and 1940.According to Oswald, 1,082 engines were made for the L 1100 and 2,670 were made for the L 1500. Daimler says t ...
, the first mass-produced diesel engine for passenger cars, and one of the few marketable passenger car diesel engines of its time. It is rated 45 PS (33 kW).
* 1936: March 4, the airship
LZ 129 Hindenburg
LZ 129 ''Hindenburg'' (; Registration: D-LZ 129) was a German commercial passenger-carrying rigid airship, the lead ship of the ''Hindenburg'' class, the longest class of flying machine and the largest airship by envelope volume. It was desi ...
, the biggest aircraft ever made, takes off for the first time. She is powered by four V16 Daimler-Benz LOF 6 diesel engines, rated 1200 PS (883 kW) each.
* 1936: Manufacture of the first mass-produced passenger car with a diesel engine (
Mercedes-Benz 260 D
The Mercedes-Benz 260 D, coded Mercedes-Benz W 138 according to internal works designation, was one of the first three diesel engined series produced passenger cars, together with 1933 Citroën Rosalie 11UD and the diesel version of the Hanomag Re ...
) begins.
* 1937:
Konstantin Fyodorovich Chelpan develops the
V-2
The V-2 (german: Vergeltungswaffe 2, lit=Retaliation Weapon 2), with the technical name ''Aggregat 4'' (A-4), was the world’s first long-range guided ballistic missile. The missile, powered by a liquid-propellant rocket engine, was develope ...
diesel engine, later used in the Soviet
T-34
The T-34 is a Soviet medium tank introduced in 1940. When introduced its 76.2 mm (3 in) tank gun was less powerful than its contemporaries while its 60-degree sloped armour provided good protection against anti-tank weapons. The C ...
tanks, widely regarded as the best tank chassis of World War II.
* 1938:
General Motors forms the GM Diesel Division, later to become
Detroit Diesel, and introduces the
Series 71
The Detroit Diesel Series 71 is a two-stroke diesel engine series, available in both inline and V configurations, manufactured by Detroit Diesel. The number 71 refers to the nominal displacement per cylinder in cubic inches, a rounding off of ...
inline high-speed medium-horsepower
two-stroke
A two-stroke (or two-stroke cycle) engine is a type of internal combustion engine that completes a power cycle with two strokes (up and down movements) of the piston during one power cycle, this power cycle being completed in one revolution of ...
engine, suitable for road vehicles and marine use.
1940s
* 1946:
Clessie Cummins
Clessie Lyle Cummins (December 27, 1888 – August 17, 1968) was the founder of the Cummins Engine Co. He was an entrepreneur who improved on existing diesel engines, created new diesel engine designs, was awarded 33 United States patents for h ...
obtains a patent on a ''fuel feeding and injection apparatus for oil-burning engines'' that incorporates separate components for generating injection pressure and injection timing.
* 1946:
Klöckner-Humboldt-Deutz (KHD) introduces an air-cooled mass-production diesel engine to the market.
1950s
![ZT 303 Motor](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/ZT_303_Motor.jpg)
* 1950s:
KHD becomes the air-cooled diesel engine global market leader.
* 1951: J. Siegfried Meurer obtains a patent on the ''
M-System
The MAN M-System, also referred to as M-Process and M combustion process, is a direct injection system for Diesel engines. In M-System engines, the fuel is injected ''onto'' the walls of the combustion chamber that is solely located inside the pi ...
'', a design that incorporates a central sphere combustion chamber in the piston (DBP 865683).
* 1953: First mass-produced
swirl chamber injected passenger car diesel engine (Borgward/Fiat).
* 1954: Daimler-Benz introduces the
Mercedes-Benz OM 312 A, a 4.6 litre straight-6 series-production industrial diesel engine with a turbocharger, rated 115 PS (85 kW). It proves to be unreliable.
* 1954:
Volvo
The Volvo Group ( sv, Volvokoncernen; legally Aktiebolaget Volvo, shortened to AB Volvo, stylized as VOLVO) is a Swedish multinational manufacturing corporation headquartered in Gothenburg. While its core activity is the production, distributio ...
produces a small batch series of 200 units of a turbocharged version of the TD 96 engine. This 9.6 litre engine is rated 136 kW.
* 1955: Turbocharging for MAN two-stroke marine diesel engines becomes standard.
* 1959: The
Peugeot 403 becomes the first mass-produced passenger sedan/saloon manufactured outside
West Germany
West Germany is the colloquial term used to indicate the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG; german: Bundesrepublik Deutschland , BRD) between its formation on 23 May 1949 and the German reunification through the accession of East Germany on 3 O ...
to be offered with a diesel engine option.
1960s
![OM 352](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/OM_352.jpg)
* 1964: Summer, Daimler-Benz switches from
precombustion chamber injection to helix-controlled direct injection.
* 1962–65: A
diesel compression braking system, eventually to be manufactured by the
Jacobs Manufacturing Company and nicknamed the "Jake Brake", is invented and patented by Clessie Cummins.
1970s
* 1972: KHD introduces the
AD-System, ''Allstoff-Direkteinspritzung'', (anyfuel direct-injection), for its diesel engines. AD-diesels can operate on virtually any kind of liquid fuel, but they are fitted with an auxiliary spark plug that fires if the ignition quality of the fuel is too low.
* 1976: Development of the
common rail injection begins at the ETH Zürich.
* 1976: The
Volkswagen Golf
The Volkswagen Golf () is a compact car/small family car (C-segment) produced by the German automotive manufacturer Volkswagen since 1974, marketed worldwide across eight generations, in various body configurations and under various nameplates ...
becomes the first compact passenger sedan/saloon to be offered with a diesel engine option.
* 1978: Daimler-Benz produces the first passenger car diesel engine with a turbocharger (
Mercedes-Benz OM 617).
* 1979: First prototype of a low-speed two-stroke crosshead engine with common rail injection.
1980s
![E28 VL de spec](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/E28_VL_de_spec.jpg)
* 1981/82: Uniflow scavenging for two-stroke marine diesel engines becomes standard.
* 1985: December, road testing of a common rail injection system for lorries using a modified 6VD 12,5/12 GRF-E engine in an
IFA W50
The IFA W 50 is a medium-duty truck built by the East German IFA conglomerate at their Ludwigsfelde plant from 1965 until 1990. A total of about 572,000 were built in Ludwigsfelde, with an unknown additional number of special-use vehicles assem ...
takes place.
* 1986: The
BMW E28 524td is the world's first passenger car equipped with an
electronically controlled injection pump (developed by
Bosch).
* 1987: Daimler-Benz introduces the electronically controlled injection pump for lorry diesel engines.
* 1988: The
Fiat Croma
The Fiat Croma name was used for two distinct large family car by Fiat, one a five door liftback manufactured and marketed from 1985 to 1996, and after a nine year hiatus, a crossover station wagon manufactured and marketed from 2005 to 2010.
...
becomes the first mass-produced passenger car in the world to have a
direct injected diesel engine.
* 1989: The
Audi 100
The Audi 100 and Audi 200 (and sometimes called Audi 5000 in North America) are primarily mid-size/executive cars manufactured and marketed by the Audi division of the Volkswagen Group. The car was made from 1968 to 1997 across four generations (C ...
is the first passenger car in the world with a turbocharged, direct injected, and electronically controlled diesel engine.
1990s
* 1992: 1 July, the
Euro 1
The European emission standards are vehicle emission standards for pollution from the use of new land surface vehicles sold in the European Union and EEA member states and the UK, and ships in EU waters. The standards are defined in a seri ...
emission standard comes into effect.
* 1993: First passenger car diesel engine with four valves per cylinder, the Mercedes-Benz OM 604.
* 1994: Unit injector system by Bosch for lorry diesel engines.
* 1996: First diesel engine with direct injection and four valves per cylinder, used in the
Opel Vectra
The Opel Vectra is a mid-size car ( large family car) that was engineered and produced by the German automaker Opel from 1988 until 2010. Available in saloon, hatchback and estate body styles, the Vectra was also sold by the Vauxhall marque ...
.
* 1996: First radial piston distributor injection pump by Bosch.
* 1997: First mass-produced
common rail diesel engine for a passenger car, the Fiat 1.9 JTD.
* 1998: BMW wins the
24 Hours Nürburgring race with a modified
BMW E36
The third generation of the BMW 3 Series range of compact executive cars is designated under the model code E36, and was produced by the German automaker BMW from 1990 to 2000. The initial models were of the four-door sedan body style, followed ...
. The car, called 320d, is powered by a 2-litre, straight-four diesel engine with direct injection and a helix-controlled distributor injection pump (Bosch VP 44), producing 180 kW. The fuel consumption is 23 L/100 km, only half the fuel consumption of a similar Otto-powered car.
* 1998:
Volkswagen
Volkswagen (),English: , . abbreviated as VW (), is a German motor vehicle manufacturer headquartered in Wolfsburg, Lower Saxony, Germany. Founded in 1937 by the German Labour Front under the Nazi Party and revived into a global brand post-W ...
introduces the
VW EA188 Pumpe-Düse engine (1.9 TDI), with Bosch-developed electronically controlled
unit injectors.
* 1999: Daimler-Chrysler presents the first
common rail three-cylinder diesel engine used in a passenger car (the
Smart City Coupé).
2000s
![Neckarsulm-AudiForum-Audi-R10-TDI](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Neckarsulm-AudiForum-Audi-R10-TDI.jpg)
* 2000: Peugeot introduces the diesel particulate filter for passenger cars.
* 2002:
Piezoelectric
Piezoelectricity (, ) is the electric charge that accumulates in certain solid materials—such as crystals, certain ceramics, and biological matter such as bone, DNA, and various proteins—in response to applied mechanical stress. The word '' ...
injector technology by Siemens.
* 2003: Piezoelectric injector technology by Bosch,
and Delphi.
* 2004: BMW introduces dual-stage turbocharging with the
BMW M57
The BMW M57 is a straight-6 diesel engine produced from 1998 up to 2013 in BMW's upper Austrian engine plant in Steyr.
Description
The M57 is a water-cooled and turbocharged inline six cylinder diesel engine with common-rail-injection. It w ...
engine.
* 2006: The world's most powerful diesel engine, the
Wärtsilä RT-flex96C, is produced. It is rated 80,080 kW.
* 2006:
Audi R10 TDI
The Audi R10 TDI, usually abbreviated to R10, is a diesel-powered racing car from the German car manufacturer Audi. The car dominated Le Mans, winning each year from its 2006 introduction until it was replaced by the R15 in 2009. It was designe ...
, equipped with a 5.5-litre V12-TDI engine, rated 476 kW, wins the
2006 24 Hours of Le Mans.
* 2006: Daimler-Chrysler launches the first series-production passenger car engine with
selective catalytic reduction
Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) is a means of converting nitrogen oxides, also referred to as with the aid of a catalyst into diatomic nitrogen (), and water (). A reductant, typically anhydrous ammonia (), aqueous ammonia (), or a urea () ...
exhaust gas treatment, the
Mercedes-Benz OM 642. It is fully complying with the Tier2Bin8 emission standard.
* 2008: Volkswagen introduces the
LNT catalyst for passenger car diesel engines with the
VW 2.0 TDI engine.
* 2008: Volkswagen starts series production of the biggest passenger car diesel engine, the Audi 6-litre V12 TDI.
* 2008:
Subaru introduces the first
horizontally opposed diesel engine to be fitted to a passenger car. It is a 2-litre common rail engine, rated 110 kW.
2010s
* 2010:
Mitsubishi developed and started mass production of its
4N13 1.8 L DOHC I4, the world's first passenger car diesel engine that features a
variable valve timing
In internal combustion engines, variable valve timing (VVT) is the process of altering the timing of a valve lift event, and is often used to improve performance, fuel economy or emissions. It is increasingly being used in combination with var ...
system.
* 2012: BMW introduces dual-stage turbocharging with three turbochargers for the
BMW N57
The BMW N57 is a family of aluminium, turbocharged straight-6 common rail diesel engines. The engines utilize variable geometry turbochargers and Bosch piezo-electric injectors. The engine jointly replaced the M57 straight-6 and M67 V8 engi ...
engine.
* 2015:
Common rail systems working with pressures of 2,500 bar launched.
* 2015: In the
Volkswagen emissions scandal
The Volkswagen emissions scandal, sometimes known as Dieselgate or Emissionsgate, began in September 2015, when the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued a notice of violation of the Clean Air Act to German automaker Vol ...
, the
US EPA
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is an independent executive agency of the United States federal government tasked with environmental protection matters. President Richard Nixon proposed the establishment of EPA on July 9, 1970; it be ...
issued a notice of violation of the
Clean Air Act to
Volkswagen Group
Volkswagen AG (), known internationally as the Volkswagen Group, is a German multinational automotive manufacturer headquartered in Wolfsburg, Lower Saxony, Germany. The company designs, manufactures and distributes passenger and commercial ...
after it was found that Volkswagen had intentionally programmed
turbocharged direct injection
TDI (Turbocharged Direct Injection) is Volkswagen Group's term for its current common rail direct injection turbodiesel engine range that have an intercooler in addition to the turbo compressor.
TDI engines are used in motor vehicles sold by th ...
(TDI) diesel engines to activate certain
emissions
Emission may refer to:
Chemical products
* Emission of air pollutants, notably:
**Flue gas, gas exiting to the atmosphere via a flue
** Exhaust gas, flue gas generated by fuel combustion
** Emission of greenhouse gases, which absorb and emit rad ...
controls only during laboratory
emissions testing.
Operating principle
Overview
The characteristics of a diesel engine are
* Use of
compression ignition
The diesel engine, named after Rudolf Diesel, is an internal combustion engine in which ignition of the fuel is caused by the elevated temperature of the air in the cylinder due to mechanical compression; thus, the diesel engine is a so-call ...
, instead of an ignition apparatus such as a
spark plug.
* Internal mixture formation. In diesel engines, the mixture of air and fuel is only formed inside the combustion chamber.
* Quality torque control. The amount of torque a diesel engine produces is not controlled by throttling the intake air (unlike a traditional spark-ignition petrol engine, where the airflow is reduced in order to regulate the torque output), instead, the volume of air entering the engine is maximised at all times, and the torque output is regulated solely by controlling the amount of injected fuel.
* High
air-fuel ratio. Diesel engines run at global air-fuel ratios significantly leaner than the
stoichiometric ratio.
*
Diffusion flame
In combustion, a diffusion flame is a flame in which the oxidizer and fuel are separated before burning. Contrary to its name, a diffusion flame involves both diffusion and convection processes. The name diffusion flame was first suggested by S. ...
: At combustion, oxygen first has to diffuse into the flame, rather than having oxygen and fuel already mixed before combustion, which would result in a
premixed flame
A premixed flame is a flame formed under certain conditions during the combustion of a premixed charge (also called pre-mixture) of fuel and oxidiser. Since the fuel and oxidiser—the key chemical reactants of combustion—are available througho ...
.
*
Heterogeneous air-fuel mixture: In diesel engines, there is no even dispersion of fuel and air inside the cylinder. That is because the combustion process begins at the end of the injection phase, before a homogeneous mixture of air and fuel can be formed.
* Preference for the fuel to have a high ignition performance (
Cetane number
Cetane number (cetane rating) is an indicator of the combustion speed of diesel fuel and compression needed for ignition. It plays a similar role for diesel as octane rating does for gasoline. The CN is an important factor in determining the quali ...
), rather than a high knocking resistance (
octane rating) that is preferred for petrol engines.
Thermodynamic cycle
![DieselCycle PV](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/DieselCycle_PV.svg)
The diesel internal combustion engine differs from the gasoline powered
Otto cycle
An Otto cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle that describes the functioning of a typical spark ignition piston engine. It is the thermodynamic cycle most commonly found in automobile engines.
The Otto cycle is a description of what hap ...
by using highly compressed hot air to ignite the fuel rather than using a spark plug (''compression ignition'' rather than ''spark ignition'').
In the diesel engine, only air is initially introduced into the combustion chamber. The air is then compressed with a compression ratio typically between 15:1 and 23:1. This high compression causes the temperature of the air to rise. At about the top of the compression stroke, fuel is injected directly into the compressed air in the combustion chamber. This may be into a (typically
toroid
In mathematics, a toroid is a surface of revolution with a hole in the middle. The axis of revolution passes through the hole and so does not intersect the surface. For example, when a rectangle is rotated around an axis parallel to one of its ...
al) void in the top of the piston or a ''pre-chamber'' depending upon the design of the engine. The fuel injector ensures that the fuel is broken down into small droplets, and that the fuel is distributed evenly. The heat of the compressed air vaporises fuel from the surface of the droplets. The vapour is then ignited by the heat from the compressed air in the combustion chamber, the droplets continue to vaporise from their surfaces and burn, getting smaller, until all the fuel in the droplets has been burnt. Combustion occurs at a substantially constant pressure during the initial part of the power stroke. The start of vaporisation causes a delay before ignition and the characteristic diesel knocking sound as the vapour reaches ignition temperature and causes an abrupt increase in pressure above the piston (not shown on the P-V indicator diagram). When combustion is complete the combustion gases expand as the piston descends further; the high pressure in the cylinder drives the piston downward, supplying power to the crankshaft.
As well as the high level of compression allowing combustion to take place without a separate ignition system, a high
compression ratio greatly increases the engine's efficiency. Increasing the compression ratio in a spark-ignition engine where fuel and air are mixed before entry to the cylinder is limited by the need to prevent
pre-ignition Pre-ignition (or preignition) in a spark-ignition engine is a technically different phenomenon from engine knocking, and describes the event wherein the air/fuel mixture in the cylinder ignites before the spark plug fires. Pre-ignition is initiate ...
, which would cause engine damage. Since only air is compressed in a diesel engine, and fuel is not introduced into the cylinder until shortly before top dead centre (
TDC), premature detonation is not a problem and compression ratios are much higher.
The p–V diagram is a simplified and idealised representation of the events involved in a diesel engine cycle, arranged to illustrate the similarity with a
Carnot cycle
A Carnot cycle is an ideal thermodynamic cycle proposed by French physicist Sadi Carnot in 1824 and expanded upon by others in the 1830s and 1840s. By Carnot's theorem, it provides an upper limit on the efficiency of any classical thermodynam ...
. Starting at 1, the piston is at bottom dead centre and both valves are closed at the start of the compression stroke; the cylinder contains air at atmospheric pressure. Between 1 and 2 the air is compressed adiabatically – that is without heat transfer to or from the environment – by the rising piston. (This is only approximately true since there will be some heat exchange with the
cylinder walls.) During this compression, the volume is reduced, the pressure and temperature both rise. At or slightly before 2 (TDC) fuel is injected and burns in the compressed hot air. Chemical energy is released and this constitutes an injection of thermal energy (heat) into the compressed gas. Combustion and heating occur between 2 and 3. In this interval the pressure remains constant since the piston descends, and the volume increases; the temperature rises as a consequence of the energy of combustion. At 3 fuel injection and combustion are complete, and the cylinder contains gas at a higher temperature than at 2. Between 3 and 4 this hot gas expands, again approximately adiabatically. Work is done on the system to which the engine is connected. During this expansion phase the volume of the gas rises, and its temperature and pressure both fall. At 4 the exhaust valve opens, and the pressure falls abruptly to atmospheric (approximately). This is unresisted expansion and no useful work is done by it. Ideally the adiabatic expansion should continue, extending the line 3–4 to the right until the pressure falls to that of the surrounding air, but the loss of efficiency caused by this unresisted expansion is justified by the practical difficulties involved in recovering it (the engine would have to be much larger). After the opening of the exhaust valve, the exhaust stroke follows, but this (and the following induction stroke) are not shown on the diagram. If shown, they would be represented by a low-pressure loop at the bottom of the diagram. At 1 it is assumed that the exhaust and induction strokes have been completed, and the cylinder is again filled with air. The piston-cylinder system absorbs energy between 1 and 2 – this is the work needed to compress the air in the cylinder, and is provided by mechanical kinetic energy stored in the flywheel of the engine. Work output is done by the piston-cylinder combination between 2 and 4. The difference between these two increments of work is the indicated work output per cycle, and is represented by the area enclosed by the p–V loop. The adiabatic expansion is in a higher pressure range than that of the compression because the gas in the cylinder is hotter during expansion than during compression. It is for this reason that the loop has a finite area, and the net output of work during a cycle is positive.
Efficiency
The
fuel efficiency of diesel engines is better than most other types of combustion engines,
due to their high compression ratio, high
air–fuel equivalence ratio (λ),
and the lack of intake air restrictions (i.e. throttle valves). Theoretically, the highest possible efficiency for a diesel engine is 75%.
However, in practice the efficiency is much lower, with efficiencies of up to 43% for passenger car engines,
up to 45% for large truck and bus engines, and up to 55% for large two-stroke marine engines.
The average efficiency over a motor vehicle driving cycle is lower than the diesel engine's peak efficiency (for example, a 37% average efficiency for an engine with a peak efficiency of 44%).
That is because the fuel efficiency of a diesel engine drops at lower loads, however, it does not drop quite as fast as the Otto (spark ignition) engine's.
Emissions
Diesel engines are combustion engines and, therefore, emit combustion products in their
exhaust gas
Exhaust gas or flue gas is emitted as a result of the combustion of fuels such as natural gas, gasoline (petrol), diesel fuel, fuel oil, biodiesel blends, or coal. According to the type of engine, it is discharged into the atmosphere through an ...
. Due to incomplete combustion,
diesel engine exhaust gases include
carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide (chemical formula CO) is a colorless, poisonous, odorless, tasteless, flammable gas that is slightly less dense than air. Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom connected by a triple bond. It is the simple ...
,
hydrocarbons
In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons are examples of group 14 hydrides. Hydrocarbons are generally colourless and hydrophobic, and their odors are usually weak or e ...
,
particulate matter, and
nitrogen oxides Nitrogen oxide may refer to a binary compound of oxygen and nitrogen, or a mixture of such compounds:
Charge-neutral
*Nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen(II) oxide, or nitrogen monoxide
*Nitrogen dioxide (), nitrogen(IV) oxide
* Nitrogen trioxide (), or ...
pollutants. About 90 per cent of the pollutants can be removed from the exhaust gas using exhaust gas treatment technology.
Road vehicle diesel engines have no sulphur dioxide emissions, because motor vehicle diesel fuel has been sulphur free since 2003.
Helmut Tschöke argues that particulate matter emitted from motor vehicles has negative impacts on human health.
The particulate matter in diesel exhaust emissions is sometimes classified as a
carcinogen
A carcinogen is any substance, radionuclide, or radiation that promotes carcinogenesis (the formation of cancer). This may be due to the ability to damage the genome or to the disruption of cellular metabolic processes. Several radioactive subs ...
or "probable carcinogen" and is known to increase the risk of heart and respiratory diseases.
Electrical system
In principle, a diesel engine does not require any sort of electrical system. However, most modern diesel engines are equipped with an electrical fuel pump, and an electronic engine control unit.
However, there is no high-voltage electrical ignition system present in a diesel engine. This eliminates a source of
radio frequency emissions (which can interfere with navigation and communication equipment), which is why only diesel-powered vehicles are allowed in some parts of the American
National Radio Quiet Zone
The National Radio Quiet Zone (NRQZ) is a large area of land in the United States designated as a radio quiet zone, in which radio transmissions are restricted by law to facilitate scientific research and the gathering of military intelligence ...
.
Torque control
To control the torque output at any given time (i.e. when the driver of a car adjusts the
accelerator pedal
Car controls are the components in automobiles and other powered road vehicles, such as trucks and buses, used for driving and parking.
While controls like steering wheels and pedals have existed since the invention of cars, other controls have ...
, a
governor
A governor is an administrative leader and head of a polity or political region, ranking under the head of state and in some cases, such as governors-general, as the head of state's official representative. Depending on the type of political ...
adjusts the amount of fuel injected into the engine. Mechanical governors have been used in the past, however electronic governors are more common on modern engines. Mechanical governors are usually driven by the engine's
accessory belt or a gear-drive system
and use a combination of springs and weights to control fuel delivery relative to both load and speed.
[ Electronically-governed engines use an ]electronic control unit
An electronic control unit (ECU), also known as an electronic control module (ECM), is an embedded system in automotive electronics that controls one or more of the electrical systems or subsystems in a car or other motor vehicle.
Modern vehic ...
(ECU) or electronic control module (ECM) to control the fuel delivery. The ECM/ECU uses various sensors (such as engine speed signal, intake manifold pressure and fuel temperature) to determine the amount of fuel injected into the engine.
Due to the amount of air being constant (for a given RPM) while the amount of fuel varies, very high ("lean") air-fuel ratios are used in situations where minimal torque output is required. This differs from a petrol engine, where a throttle
A throttle is the mechanism by which fluid flow is managed by constriction or obstruction.
An engine's power can be increased or decreased by the restriction of inlet gases (by the use of a throttle), but usually decreased. The term ''throttle'' ...
is used to also reduce the amount of intake air as part of regulating the engine's torque output. Controlling the timing of the start of injection of fuel into the cylinder is similar to controlling the ignition timing in a petrol engine. It is therefore a key factor in controlling the power output, fuel consumption and exhaust emissions.
Classification
There are several different ways of categorising diesel engines, as outlined in the following sections.
RPM operating range
Günter Mau categorises diesel engines by their rotational speeds into three groups:
* High-speed engines (> 1,000 rpm),
* Medium-speed engines (300–1,000 rpm), and
* Slow-speed engines (< 300 rpm).
; High-speed diesel engines
High-speed engines are used to power truck
A truck or lorry is a motor vehicle designed to transport cargo, carry specialized payloads, or perform other utilitarian work. Trucks vary greatly in size, power, and configuration, but the vast majority feature body-on-frame constructi ...
s (lorries), bus
A bus (contracted from omnibus, with variants multibus, motorbus, autobus, etc.) is a road vehicle that carries significantly more passengers than an average car or van. It is most commonly used in public transport, but is also in use for cha ...
es, tractor
A tractor is an engineering vehicle specifically designed to deliver a high tractive effort (or torque) at slow speeds, for the purposes of hauling a trailer or machinery such as that used in agriculture, mining or construction. Most commo ...
s, cars
A car or automobile is a motor vehicle with wheels. Most definitions of ''cars'' say that they run primarily on roads, Car seat, seat one to eight people, have four wheels, and mainly transport private transport#Personal transport, people in ...
, yacht
A yacht is a sailing or power vessel used for pleasure, cruising, or racing. There is no standard definition, though the term generally applies to vessels with a cabin intended for overnight use. To be termed a , as opposed to a , such a pleasu ...
s, compressors
A compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume. An air compressor is a specific type of gas compressor.
Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can trans ...
, pumps and small electrical generator
In electricity generation, a generator is a device that converts motive power (mechanical energy) or fuel-based power ( chemical energy) into electric power for use in an external circuit. Sources of mechanical energy include steam turbines, g ...
s. As of 2018, most high-speed engines have direct injection. Many modern engines, particularly in on-highway applications, have common rail direct injection. On bigger ships, high-speed diesel engines are often used for powering electric generators. The highest power output of high-speed diesel engines is approximately 5 MW.
; Medium-speed diesel engines
Medium-speed engines are used in large electrical generators, railway diesel locomotives, ship propulsion and mechanical drive applications such as large compressors or pumps. Medium speed diesel engines operate on either diesel fuel or heavy fuel oil by direct injection in the same manner as low-speed engines. Usually, they are four-stroke engines with trunk pistons; a notable exception being the EMD 567
The EMD 567 is a line of large medium-speed diesel engines built by General Motors' Electro-Motive Division. This engine, which succeeded Winton's 201A, was used in EMD's locomotives from 1938 until its replacement in 1966 by the EMD 645. It ...
, 645, and 710
__NOTOC__
Year 710 ( DCCX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. The denomination 710 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar er ...
engines, which are all two-stroke.
The power output of medium-speed diesel engines can be as high as 21,870 kW, with the effective efficiency being around 47...48% (1982). Most larger medium-speed engines are started with compressed air direct on pistons, using an air distributor, as opposed to a pneumatic starting motor acting on the flywheel, which tends to be used for smaller engines.
Medium-speed engines intended for marine applications are usually used to power (ro-ro
Roll-on/roll-off (RORO or ro-ro) ships are cargo ships designed to carry wheeled cargo, such as cars, motorcycles, trucks, semi-trailer trucks, buses, trailers, and railroad cars, that are driven on and off the ship on their own wheels or using ...
) ferries, passenger ships or small freight ships. Using medium-speed engines reduces the cost of smaller ships and increases their transport capacity. In addition to that, a single ship can use two smaller engines instead of one big engine, which increases the ship's safety.
; Low-speed diesel engines
Low-speed diesel engines are usually very large in size and mostly used to power ship
A ship is a large watercraft that travels the world's oceans and other sufficiently deep waterways, carrying cargo or passengers, or in support of specialized missions, such as defense, research, and fishing. Ships are generally distinguished ...
s. There are two different types of low-speed engines that are commonly used: Two-stroke engines with a crosshead, and four-stroke engines with a regular trunk-piston. Two-stroke engines have a limited rotational frequency and their charge exchange is more difficult, which means that they are usually bigger than four-stroke engines and used to directly power a ship's propeller. Four-stroke engines on ships are usually used to power an electric generator. An electric motor powers the propeller. Both types are usually very undersquare. Low-speed diesel engines (as used in ships and other applications where overall engine weight is relatively unimportant) often have an effective efficiency of up to 55%. Like medium-speed engines, low-speed engines are started with compressed air, and they use heavy oil as their primary fuel.
Combustion cycle
Four-stroke engine
A four-stroke (also four-cycle) engine is an internal combustion (IC) engine in which the piston completes four separate strokes while turning the crankshaft. A stroke refers to the full travel of the piston along the cylinder, in either directi ...
s use the combustion cycle described earlier.
Two-stroke engines
A two-stroke (or two-stroke cycle) engine is a type of internal combustion engine that completes a power cycle with two strokes (up and down movements) of the piston during one power cycle, this power cycle being completed in one revolution of ...
use a combustion cycle which is completed in two strokes instead of four strokes. Filling the cylinder with air and compressing it takes place in one stroke, and the power and exhaust strokes are combined. The compression in a two-stroke diesel engine is similar to the compression that takes place in a four-stroke diesel engine: As the piston passes through bottom centre and starts upward, compression commences, culminating in fuel injection and ignition. Instead of a full set of valves, two-stroke diesel engines have simple intake ports, and exhaust ports (or exhaust valves). When the piston approaches bottom dead centre, both the intake and the exhaust ports are "open", which means that there is atmospheric pressure inside the cylinder. Therefore, some sort of pump is required to blow the air into the cylinder and the combustion gasses into the exhaust. This process is called ''scavenging''. The pressure required is approximately 10 - 30 kPa.
Due to the lack of discrete exhaust and intake strokes, all two-stroke diesel engines use a scavenge blower
The diesel engine, named after Rudolf Diesel, is an internal combustion engine in which ignition of the fuel is caused by the elevated temperature of the air in the cylinder due to mechanical compression; thus, the diesel engine is a so-calle ...
or some form of compressor to charge the cylinders with air and assist in scavenging. Roots-type superchargers were used for ship engines until the mid-1950s, however since 1955 they have been widely replaced by turbochargers. Usually, a two-stroke ship diesel engine has a single-stage turbocharger with a turbine that has an axial inflow and a radial outflow.
Scavenging in two-stroke engines
In general, there are three types of scavenging possible:
* Uniflow scavenging
* Crossflow scavenging
* Reverse flow scavenging
Crossflow scavenging is incomplete and limits the stroke, yet some manufacturers used it. Reverse flow scavenging is a very simple way of scavenging, and it was popular amongst manufacturers until the early 1980s. Uniflow scavenging is more complicated to make but allows the highest fuel efficiency; since the early 1980s, manufacturers such as MAN and Sulzer have switched to this system. It is standard for modern marine two-stroke diesel engines.
Fuel used
So-called dual-fuel diesel engines or gas diesel engines burn two different types of fuel ''simultaneously'', for instance, a gaseous fuel and diesel engine fuel. The diesel engine fuel auto-ignites due to compression ignition, and then ignites the gaseous fuel. Such engines do not require any type of spark ignition and operate similar to regular diesel engines.
Fuel injection
The fuel is injected at high pressure into either the combustion chamber
A combustion chamber is part of an internal combustion engine in which the fuel/air mix is burned. For steam engines, the term has also been used for an extension of the firebox which is used to allow a more complete combustion process.
Intern ...
, the "swirl chamber" or the "pre-chamber" (unlike older petrol engines where the fuel is added in the inlet manifold or carburettor
A carburetor (also spelled carburettor) is a device used by an internal combustion engine to control and mix air and fuel entering the engine. The primary method of adding fuel to the intake air is through the venturi tube in the main meterin ...
). Engines where the fuel is injected into the main combustion chamber are called "direct injection" (DI) engines, while those which use a swirl chamber or pre-chamber are called "indirect injection" (IDI) engines.
Direct injection
Most direct injection diesel engines have a combustion cup in the top of the piston where the fuel is sprayed. Many different methods of injection can be used. Usually, an engine with helix-controlled mechanic direct injection has either an inline or a distributor injection pump.[ For each engine cylinder, the corresponding plunger in the fuel pump measures out the correct amount of fuel and determines the timing of each injection. These engines use ]injectors
An injector is a system of ducting and nozzles used to direct the flow of a high-pressure fluid in such a way that a lower pressure fluid is Entrainment (hydrodynamics), entrained in the jet and carried through a duct to a region of higher pre ...
that are very precise spring-loaded valves that open and close at a specific fuel pressure. Separate high-pressure fuel lines connect the fuel pump with each cylinder. Fuel volume for each single combustion is controlled by a slanted groove
Groove or Grooves may refer to:
Music
* Groove (music)
* Groove (drumming)
* The Groove (band), an Australian rock/pop band of the 1960s
* The Groove (Sirius XM), a US radio station
* Groove 101.7FM, a former Perth, Australia, radio station
...
in the plunger which rotates only a few degrees releasing the pressure and is controlled by a mechanical governor, consisting of weights rotating at engine speed constrained by springs and a lever. The injectors are held open by the fuel pressure. On high-speed engines the plunger pumps are together in one unit. The length of fuel lines from the pump to each injector is normally the same for each cylinder in order to obtain the same pressure delay. Direct injected diesel engines usually use orifice-type fuel injectors.
Electronic control of the fuel injection transformed the direct injection engine by allowing much greater control over the combustion.
; Common rail
Common rail (CR) direct injection systems do not have the fuel metering, pressure-raising and delivery functions in a single unit, as in the case of a Bosch distributor-type pump, for example. A high-pressure pump supplies the CR. The requirements of each cylinder injector are supplied from this common high pressure reservoir of fuel. An Electronic Diesel Control (EDC) controls both rail pressure and injections depending on engine operating conditions. The injectors of older CR systems have solenoid-driven plungers for lifting the injection needle, whilst newer CR injectors use plungers driven by piezoelectric
Piezoelectricity (, ) is the electric charge that accumulates in certain solid materials—such as crystals, certain ceramics, and biological matter such as bone, DNA, and various proteins—in response to applied mechanical stress. The word '' ...
actuators that have fewer moving mass and therefore allow even more injections in a very short period of time. Early common rail system were controlled by mechanical means.
The injection pressure of modern CR systems ranges from 140 MPa to 270 MPa.
Indirect injection
An indirect diesel injection system (IDI) engine delivers fuel into a small chamber called a swirl chamber, precombustion chamber, pre chamber or ante-chamber, which is connected to the cylinder by a narrow air passage. Generally the goal of the pre chamber is to create increased turbulence
In fluid dynamics, turbulence or turbulent flow is fluid motion characterized by chaotic changes in pressure and flow velocity. It is in contrast to a laminar flow, which occurs when a fluid flows in parallel layers, with no disruption between ...
for better air / fuel mixing. This system also allows for a smoother, quieter running engine, and because fuel mixing is assisted by turbulence, injector
An injector is a system of ducting and nozzles used to direct the flow of a high-pressure fluid in such a way that a lower pressure fluid is entrained in the jet and carried through a duct to a region of higher pressure. It is a fluid-dynamic ...
pressures can be lower. Most IDI systems use a single orifice injector. The pre-chamber has the disadvantage of lowering efficiency due to increased heat loss to the engine's cooling system, restricting the combustion burn, thus reducing the efficiency by 5–10%. IDI engines are also more difficult to start and usually require the use of glow plugs. IDI engines may be cheaper to build but generally require a higher compression ratio than the DI counterpart. IDI also makes it easier to produce smooth, quieter running engines with a simple mechanical injection system since exact injection timing is not as critical. Most modern automotive engines are DI which have the benefits of greater efficiency and easier starting; however, IDI engines can still be found in the many ATV and small diesel applications. Indirect injected diesel engines use pintle-type fuel injectors.
Air-blast injection
Early diesel engines injected fuel with the assistance of compressed air, which atomised the fuel and forced it into the engine through a nozzle (a similar principle to an aerosol spray). The nozzle opening was closed by a pin valve actuated by the camshaft. Although the engine was also required to drive an air compressor used for air-blast injection, the efficiency was nonetheless better than other combustion engines of the time. However the system was heavy and it was slow to react to changing torque demands, making it unsuitable for road vehicles.
Unit injectors
A ''unit injector'' system, also known as "Pumpe-Düse" (''pump-nozzle'' in German) combines the injector and fuel pump into a single component, which is positioned above each cylinder. This eliminates the high-pressure fuel lines and achieves a more consistent injection. Under full load, the injection pressure can reach up to 220 MPa. Unit injectors are operated by a cam
Calmodulin (CaM) (an abbreviation for calcium-modulated protein) is a multifunctional intermediate calcium-binding messenger protein expressed in all eukaryotic cells. It is an intracellular target of the secondary messenger Ca2+, and the bin ...
and the quantity of fuel injected is controlled either mechanically (by a rack or lever) or electronically.
Due to increased performance requirementss, unit injectors have been largely replaced by common-rail injection systems.
Diesel engine particularities
Mass
The average diesel engine has a poorer power-to-mass ratio than an equivalent petrol engine. The lower engine speeds (RPM) of typical diesel engines results in a lower power
Power most often refers to:
* Power (physics), meaning "rate of doing work"
** Engine power, the power put out by an engine
** Electric power
* Power (social and political), the ability to influence people or events
** Abusive power
Power may a ...
output. Also, the mass of a diesel engine is typically higher, since the higher operating pressure inside the combustion chamber increases the internal forces, which requires stronger (and therefore heavier) parts to withstand these forces.
Noise ('diesel clatter')
The distinctive noise of a diesel engine, particularly at idling speeds, is sometimes called "diesel clatter". This noise is largely caused by the sudden ignition of the diesel fuel when injected into the combustion chamber, which causes a pressure wave that sounds like knocking.
Engine designers can reduce diesel clatter through: indirect injection; pilot or pre-injection; injection timing; injection rate; compression ratio; turbo boost; and exhaust gas recirculation
In internal combustion engines, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is a nitrogen oxide () emissions reduction technique used in petrol/gasoline, diesel engines and some hydrogen engines. EGR works by recirculating a portion of an engine's exhaust ...
(EGR). Common rail diesel injection systems permit multiple injection events as an aid to noise reduction. Through measures such as these, diesel clatter noise is greatly reduced in modern engines. Diesel fuels with a higher cetane
Hexadecane (also called cetane) is an alkane hydrocarbon with the chemical formula C16H34. Hexadecane consists of a chain of 16 carbon atoms, with three hydrogen atoms bonded to the two end carbon atoms, and two hydrogens bonded to each of the 14 ...
rating are more likely to ignite and hence reduce diesel clatter.
Cold weather starting
In warmer climates, diesel engines do not require any starting aid (aside from the starter motor). However, many diesel engines include some form of preheating for the combustion chamber, to assist starting in cold conditions. Engines with a displacement of less than 1 litre per cylinder usually have glowplugs
A glowplug (alternatively spelled as glow plug or glow-plug) is a heating device used to aid in starting diesel engines. In cold weather, high-speed diesel engines can be difficult to start because the mass of the cylinder block and cylinder he ...
, whilst larger heavy-duty engines have flame-start system
The flame-start system is a cold start aid for starting diesel engine
The diesel engine, named after Rudolf Diesel, is an internal combustion engine in which ignition of the fuel is caused by the elevated temperature of the air in the ...
s. The minimum starting temperature that allows starting without pre-heating is 40 °C for precombustion chamber engines, 20 °C for swirl chamber engines, and 0 °C for direct injected engines.
In the past, a wider variety of cold-start methods were used. Some engines, such as Detroit Diesel engines used a system to introduce small amounts of ether
In organic chemistry, ethers are a class of compounds that contain an ether group—an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups. They have the general formula , where R and R′ represent the alkyl or aryl groups. Ethers can again be ...
into the inlet manifold to start combustion. Instead of glowplugs, some diesel engines are equipped with starting aid systems that change valve timing. The simplest way this can be done is with a decompression lever. Activating the decompression lever locks the outlet valves in a slight down position, resulting in the engine not having any compression and thus allowing for turning the crankshaft over with significantly less resistance. When the crankshaft reaches a higher speed, flipping the decompression lever back into its normal position will abruptly re-activate the outlet valves, resulting in compression − the flywheel's mass moment of inertia then starts the engine. Other diesel engines, such as the precombustion chamber engine XII Jv 170/240 made by Ganz & Co., have a valve timing changing system that is operated by adjusting the inlet valve camshaft, moving it into a slight "late" position. This will make the inlet valves open with a delay, forcing the inlet air to heat up when entering the combustion chamber.
Supercharging & turbocharging
Forced induction
In an internal combustion engine, forced induction is where turbocharging or supercharging is used to increase the density of the intake air. Engines without forced induction are classified as naturally aspirated.
Operating principle Overvi ...
, especially turbocharging is commonly used on diesel engines because it greatly increases efficiency, and torque output. Diesel engines are well suited for forced induction setups due to their operating principle which is characterised by wide ignition limits and the absence of fuel during the compression stroke. Therefore, knocking, pre-ignition or detonation cannot occur, and a lean mixture caused by excess supercharging air inside the combustion chamber does not negatively affect combustion.
Fuel and fluid characteristics
Diesel engines can combust a huge variety of fuels, including several fuel oils that have advantages over fuels such as petrol. These advantages include:
** Low fuel costs, as fuel oils are relatively cheap
** Good lubrication properties
** High energy density
** Low risk of catching fire, as they do not form a flammable vapour
** Biodiesel
Biodiesel is a form of diesel fuel derived from plants or animals and consisting of long-chain fatty acid esters. It is typically made by chemically reacting lipids such as animal fat ( tallow), soybean oil, or some other vegetable oil ...
is an easily synthesised, non-petroleum-based fuel (through transesterification
In organic chemistry, transesterification is the process of exchanging the organic group R″ of an ester with the organic group R' of an alcohol. These reactions are often catalyzed by the addition of an acid or base catalyst. The reaction ca ...
) which can run directly in many diesel engines, while gasoline engines either need adaptation to run synthetic fuel
Synthetic fuel or synfuel is a liquid fuel, or sometimes gaseous fuel, obtained from syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, in which the syngas was derived from gasification of solid feedstocks such as coal or biomass or by refo ...
s or else use them as an additive to gasoline (e.g., ethanol
Ethanol (abbr. EtOH; also called ethyl alcohol, grain alcohol, drinking alcohol, or simply alcohol) is an organic compound. It is an alcohol with the chemical formula . Its formula can be also written as or (an ethyl group linked to a ...
added to gasohol).
In diesel engines, a mechanical injector system atomizes the fuel directly into the combustion chamber (as opposed to a Venturi jet in a carburetor, or a fuel injector
Fuel injection is the introduction of fuel in an internal combustion engine, most commonly automotive engines, by the means of an injector. This article focuses on fuel injection in reciprocating piston and Wankel rotary engines.
All comp ...
in a manifold injection system atomizing fuel into the intake manifold or intake runners as in a petrol engine). Because only air is inducted into the cylinder in a diesel engine, the compression ratio can be much higher as there is no risk of pre-ignition provided the injection process is accurately timed. This means that cylinder temperatures are much higher in a diesel engine than a petrol engine, allowing less volatile fuels to be used.
Therefore, diesel engines can operate on a huge variety of different fuels. In general, fuel for diesel engines should have a proper viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to deformation at a given rate. For liquids, it corresponds to the informal concept of "thickness": for example, syrup has a higher viscosity than water.
Viscosity quantifies the inte ...
, so that the injection pump
An Injection Pump is the device that pumps fuel into the cylinders of a diesel engine. Traditionally, the injection pump was driven indirectly from the crankshaft by gears, chains or a toothed belt (often the timing belt) that also drives the ca ...
can pump the fuel to the injection nozzles without causing damage to itself or corrosion of the fuel line. At injection, the fuel should form a good fuel spray, and it should not have a coking effect upon the injection nozzles. To ensure proper engine starting and smooth operation, the fuel should be willing to ignite and hence not cause a high ignition delay, (this means that the fuel should have a high cetane number
Cetane number (cetane rating) is an indicator of the combustion speed of diesel fuel and compression needed for ignition. It plays a similar role for diesel as octane rating does for gasoline. The CN is an important factor in determining the quali ...
). Diesel fuel should also have a high lower heating value
The heating value (or energy value or calorific value) of a substance, usually a fuel or food (see food energy), is the amount of heat released during the combustion of a specified amount of it.
The ''calorific value'' is the total energy rele ...
.
Inline mechanical injector pumps generally tolerate poor-quality or bio-fuels better than distributor-type pumps. Also, indirect injection engines generally run more satisfactorily on fuels with a high ignition delay (for instance, petrol) than direct injection engines. This is partly because an indirect injection engine has a much greater 'swirl' effect, improving vaporisation and combustion of fuel, and because (in the case of vegetable oil-type fuels) lipid
Lipids are a broad group of naturally-occurring molecules which includes fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, phospholipids, and others. The functions of lipids includ ...
depositions can condense on the cylinder walls of a direct-injection engine if combustion temperatures are too low (such as starting the engine from cold). Direct-injected engines with an MAN centre sphere combustion chamber rely on fuel condensing on the combustion chamber walls. The fuel starts vaporising only after ignition sets in, and it burns relatively smoothly. Therefore, such engines also tolerate fuels with poor ignition delay characteristics, and, in general, they can operate on petrol rated 86 RON Ron is a shortening of the name Ronald.
Ron or RON may also refer to:
Arts and media
* Big Ron (''EastEnders''), a TV character
* Ron (''King of Fighters''), a video game character
*Ron Douglas, the protagonist in ''Lucky Stiff'' played by Joe ...
.
Fuel types
In his 1893 work ''Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat Motor
''Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat Motor'' (german: Theorie und Konstruktion eines rationellen Wärmemotors zum Ersatz der Dampfmaschine und der heute bekannten Verbrennungsmotoren; English: ''Theory and construction of a rational he ...
'', Rudolf Diesel considers using coal dust Coal dust is a fine powdered form of which is created by the crushing, grinding, or pulverizing of coal. Because of the brittle nature of coal, coal dust can be created during mining, transportation, or by mechanically handling coal. It is a form ...
as fuel for the diesel engine. However, Diesel just ''considered'' using coal dust (as well as liquid fuels and gas); his actual engine was designed to operate on petroleum
Petroleum, also known as crude oil, or simply oil, is a naturally occurring yellowish-black liquid mixture of mainly hydrocarbons, and is found in geological formations. The name ''petroleum'' covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crud ...
, which was soon replaced with regular petrol
Gasoline (; ) or petrol (; ) (see ) is a transparent, petroleum-derived flammable liquid that is used primarily as a fuel in most spark-ignited internal combustion engines (also known as petrol engines). It consists mostly of organic c ...
and kerosene for further testing purposes, as petroleum proved to be too viscous. In addition to kerosene and petrol, Diesel's engine could also operate on ligroin.
Before diesel engine fuel was standardised, fuels such as petrol
Gasoline (; ) or petrol (; ) (see ) is a transparent, petroleum-derived flammable liquid that is used primarily as a fuel in most spark-ignited internal combustion engines (also known as petrol engines). It consists mostly of organic c ...
, kerosene
Kerosene, paraffin, or lamp oil is a combustible hydrocarbon liquid which is derived from petroleum. It is widely used as a fuel in aviation as well as households. Its name derives from el, κηρός (''keros'') meaning "wax", and was regi ...
, gas oil
Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter (the others being solid, liquid, and plasma).
A pure gas may be made up of individual atoms (e.g. a noble gas like neon), elemental molecules made from one type of atom (e.g. oxygen), ...
, vegetable oil
Vegetable oils, or vegetable fats, are oils extracted from seeds or from other parts of fruits. Like animal fats, vegetable fats are ''mixtures'' of triglycerides. Soybean oil, grape seed oil, and cocoa butter are examples of seed oils, or f ...
and mineral oil
Mineral oil is any of various colorless, odorless, light mixtures of higher alkanes from a mineral source, particularly a distillate of petroleum, as distinct from usually edible vegetable oils.
The name 'mineral oil' by itself is imprecise, ...
, as well as mixtures of these fuels, were used. Typical fuels specifically intended to be used for diesel engines were petroleum distillate
Petrochemicals (sometimes abbreviated as petchems) are the chemical products obtained from petroleum by refining. Some chemical compounds made from petroleum are also obtained from other fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas, or renewable sou ...
s and coal-tar distillates such as the following; these fuels have specific lower heating values of:
* Diesel oil: 10,200 kcal·kg−1 (42.7 MJ·kg−1) up to 10,250 kcal·kg−1 (42.9 MJ·kg−1)
* Heating oil: 10,000 kcal·kg−1 (41.8 MJ·kg−1) up to 10,200 kcal·kg−1 (42.7 MJ·kg−1)
* Coal-tar creosote
Creosote is a category of carbonaceous chemicals formed by the distillation of various tars and pyrolysis of plant-derived material, such as wood or fossil fuel. They are typically used as preservatives or antiseptics.
Some creosote types were ...
: 9,150 kcal·kg−1 (38.3 MJ·kg−1) up to 9,250 kcal·kg−1 (38.7 MJ·kg−1)
* Kerosene
Kerosene, paraffin, or lamp oil is a combustible hydrocarbon liquid which is derived from petroleum. It is widely used as a fuel in aviation as well as households. Its name derives from el, κηρός (''keros'') meaning "wax", and was regi ...
: up to 10,400 kcal·kg−1 (43.5 MJ·kg−1)
''Source:''
The first diesel fuel standards were the DIN 51601
DIN or Din or din may refer to:
People and language
* Din (name), people with the name
* Dīn, an Arabic word with three general senses: judgment, custom, and religion from which the name originates
* Dinka language (ISO 639 code: din), spoken by ...
, VTL 9140-001 VTL may refer to:
* Virtual tape library, for computer data storage
* Vermont Transit Lines, US
* Vertical turret lathe
* Apache Velocity
Apache Velocity first released in April 2001, is a Java-based template engine that provides a template la ...
, and NATO F 54
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO, ; french: Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique nord, ), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance between 30 member states – 28 European and two Nor ...
, which appeared after World War II. The modern European EN 590 EN 590 is a standard published by the European Committee for Standardization that describes the physical properties that all automotive diesel fuel must meet if it is to be sold in the European Union and several other European countries.
Based on ...
diesel fuel
Diesel fuel , also called diesel oil, is any liquid fuel specifically designed for use in a diesel engine, a type of internal combustion engine in which fuel ignition takes place without a spark as a result of compression of the inlet air and ...
standard was established in May 1993; the modern version of the NATO F 54 standard is mostly identical with it. The DIN 51628 biodiesel standard was rendered obsolete by the 2009 version of the EN 590; FAME biodiesel conforms to the EN 14214
EN 14214 is a standard published by the European Committee for Standardization that describes the requirements and test methods for FAME - the most common type of biodiesel.
The technical definition of biodiesel is a fuel suitable for use in comp ...
standard. Watercraft diesel engines usually operate on diesel engine fuel that conforms to the ISO 8217 standard (Bunker C
Fuel oil is any of various fractions obtained from the distillation of petroleum (crude oil). Such oils include distillates (the lighter fractions) and residues (the heavier fractions). Fuel oils include heavy fuel oil, marine fuel oil (MFO), bun ...
). Also, some diesel engines can operate on gas
Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter (the others being solid, liquid, and plasma).
A pure gas may be made up of individual atoms (e.g. a noble gas like neon), elemental molecules made from one type of atom (e.g. oxygen), or ...
ses (such as LNG
Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is natural gas (predominantly methane, CH4, with some mixture of ethane, C2H6) that has been cooled down to liquid form for ease and safety of non-pressurized storage or transport. It takes up about 1/600th the volu ...
).
Modern diesel fuel properties
Gelling
DIN 51601 diesel fuel was prone to ''waxing'' or ''gelling'' in cold weather; both are terms for the solidification of diesel oil into a partially crystalline state. The crystals build up in the fuel system (especially in fuel filters), eventually starving the engine of fuel and causing it to stop running. Low-output electric heaters in fuel tank
A fuel tank (also called a petrol tank or gas tank) is a safe container for flammable fluids. Though any storage tank for fuel may be so called, the term is typically applied to part of an engine system in which the fuel is stored and propelle ...
s and around fuel lines were used to solve this problem. Also, most engines have a ''spill return'' system, by which any excess fuel from the injector pump and injectors is returned to the fuel tank. Once the engine has warmed, returning warm fuel prevents waxing in the tank. Before direct injection diesel engines, some manufacturers, such as BMW, recommended mixing up to 30% petrol in with the diesel by fuelling diesel cars with petrol to prevent the fuel from gelling when the temperatures dropped below −15 °C.
Safety
Fuel flammability
Diesel fuel is less flammable than petrol, because its flash point is 55 °C, leading to a lower risk of fire caused by fuel in a vehicle equipped with a diesel engine.
Diesel fuel can create an explosive air/vapour mix under the right conditions. However, compared with petrol, it is less prone due to its lower vapour pressure
Vapor pressure (or vapour pressure in English-speaking countries other than the US; see spelling differences) or equilibrium vapor pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by a vapor in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phase ...
, which is an indication of evaporation rate. The Material Safety Data Sheet for ultra-low sulfur diesel fuel indicates a vapour explosion hazard for diesel fuel indoors, outdoors, or in sewers.
Cancer
Diesel exhaust
Diesel exhaust is the gaseous exhaust produced by a diesel type of internal combustion engine, plus any contained particulates. Its composition may vary with the fuel type or rate of consumption, or speed of engine operation (e.g., idling or at ...
has been classified as an IARC Group 1 carcinogen
Substances, mixtures, and exposure circumstances in this list have been classified as group 1 by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC): The agent (mixture) is carcinogenic to humans. The exposure circumstance entails exposures tha ...
. It causes lung cancer
Lung cancer, also known as lung carcinoma (since about 98–99% of all lung cancers are carcinomas), is a malignant lung tumor characterized by uncontrolled cell growth in tissues of the lung. Lung carcinomas derive from transformed, malign ...
and is associated with an increased risk for bladder cancer
Bladder cancer is any of several types of cancer arising from the tissues of the urinary bladder. Symptoms include blood in the urine, pain with urination, and low back pain. It is caused when epithelial cells that line the bladder become ma ...
.
Engine runaway (uncontrollable overspeeding)
See diesel engine runaway
Diesel engine runaway is a rare condition affecting diesel engines, in which the engine draws extra fuel from an unintended source and overspeeds at higher and higher RPM, producing up to ten times the engine's rated output until destroyed by mec ...
.
Applications
The characteristics of diesel have different advantages for different applications.
Passenger cars
Diesel engines have long been popular in bigger cars and have been used in smaller cars such as superminis in Europe since the 1980s. They were popular in larger cars earlier, as the weight and cost penalties were less noticeable. Smooth operation as well as high low-end torque are deemed important for passenger cars and small commercial vehicles. The introduction of electronically controlled fuel injection significantly improved the smooth torque generation, and starting in the early 1990s, car manufacturers began offering their high-end luxury vehicles with diesel engines. Passenger car diesel engines usually have between three and twelve cylinders, and a displacement ranging from 0.8 to 6.0 litres. Modern powerplants are usually turbocharged and have direct injection.
Diesel engines do not suffer from intake-air throttling, resulting in very low fuel consumption especially at low partial load (for instance: driving at city speeds). One fifth of all passenger cars worldwide have diesel engines, with many of them being in Europe, where approximately 47% of all passenger cars are diesel-powered. Daimler-Benz
The Mercedes-Benz Group AG (previously named Daimler-Benz, DaimlerChrysler and Daimler) is a German multinational automotive corporation headquartered in Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is one of the world's leading car manufactur ...
in conjunction with Robert Bosch GmbH produced diesel-powered passenger cars starting in 1936. The popularity of diesel-powered passenger cars in markets such as India, South Korea and Japan is increasing (as of 2018).
Commercial vehicles and lorries
In 1893, Rudolf Diesel suggested that the diesel engine could possibly power ‘wagons’ (lorries). The first lorries with diesel engines were brought to market in 1924.
Modern diesel engines for lorries have to be both extremely reliable and very fuel efficient. Common-rail direct injection, turbocharging and four valves per cylinder are standard. Displacements range from 4.5 to 15.5 litres, with power-to-mass ratios of 2.5–3.5 kg·kW−1 for heavy duty and 2.0–3.0 kg·kW−1 for medium duty engines. V6 and V8 engines used to be common, due to the relatively low engine mass the V configuration provides. Recently, the V configuration has been abandoned in favour of straight engines. These engines are usually straight-6 for heavy and medium duties and straight-4 for medium duty. Their undersquare
In a reciprocating piston engine, the stroke ratio, defined by either bore/stroke ratio or stroke/bore ratio, is a term to describe the ratio between cylinder bore diameter and piston stroke length. This can be used for either an internal co ...
design causes lower overall piston speeds which results in increased lifespan of up to . Compared with 1970s diesel engines, the expected lifespan of modern lorry diesel engines has more than doubled.
Railroad rolling stock
Diesel engines for locomotives are built for continuous operation between refuelings and may need to be designed to use poor quality fuel in some circumstances. Some locomotives use two-stroke diesel engines. Diesel engines have replaced steam engines on all non-electrified railroads in the world. The first diesel locomotives appeared in 1913, and diesel multiple units
A diesel multiple unit or DMU is a multiple-unit train powered by on-board diesel engines. A DMU requires no separate locomotive, as the engines are incorporated into one or more of the carriages. Diesel-powered single-unit railcars are also ...
soon after. Nearly all modern diesel locomotives are more correctly known as diesel–electric locomotive
A diesel locomotive is a type of railway locomotive in which the prime mover is a diesel engine. Several types of diesel locomotives have been developed, differing mainly in the means by which mechanical power is conveyed to the driving wheels ...
s because they use an electric transmission: the diesel engine drives an electric generator which powers electric traction motors. While electric locomotive
An electric locomotive is a locomotive powered by electricity from overhead lines, a third rail or on-board energy storage such as a battery or a supercapacitor. Locomotives with on-board fuelled prime movers, such as diesel engines or g ...
s have replaced the diesel locomotive for passenger services in many areas diesel traction is widely used for cargo-hauling freight train
Rail freight transport is the use of railroads and trains to transport cargo as opposed to human passengers.
A freight train, cargo train, or goods train is a group of freight cars (US) or goods wagons (International Union of Railways) haul ...
s and on tracks where electrification is not economically viable.
In the 1940s, road vehicle diesel engines with power outputs of were considered reasonable for DMUs. Commonly, regular truck powerplants were used. The height of these engines had to be less than to allow underfloor installation. Usually, the engine was mated with a pneumatically operated mechanical gearbox, due to the low size, mass, and production costs of this design. Some DMUs used hydraulic torque converters instead. Diesel–electric transmission was not suitable for such small engines. In the 1930s, the Deutsche Reichsbahn
The ''Deutsche Reichsbahn'', also known as the German National Railway, the German State Railway, German Reich Railway, and the German Imperial Railway, was the German national railway system created after the end of World War I from the regiona ...
standardised its first DMU engine. It was a , 12-cylinder boxer unit, producing . Several German manufacturers produced engines according to this standard.
Watercraft
The requirements for marine diesel engines vary, depending on the application. For military use and medium-size boats, medium-speed four-stroke diesel engines are most suitable. These engines usually have up to 24 cylinders and come with power outputs in the one-digit Megawatt region. Small boats may use lorry diesel engines. Large ships use extremely efficient, low-speed two-stroke diesel engines. They can reach efficiencies of up to 55%. Unlike most regular diesel engines, two-stroke watercraft engines use highly viscous fuel oil. Submarines are usually diesel–electric.
The first diesel engines for ships were made by A. B. Diesels Motorer Stockholm in 1903. These engines were three-cylinder units of 120 PS (88 kW) and four-cylinder units of 180 PS (132 kW) and used for Russian ships. In World War I, especially submarine diesel engine development advanced quickly. By the end of the War, double acting piston two-stroke engines with up to 12,200 PS (9 MW) had been made for marine use.
Aviation
Early
Diesel engines had been used in aircraft before World War II, for instance, in the rigid airship ''LZ 129 Hindenburg
LZ 129 ''Hindenburg'' (; Registration: D-LZ 129) was a German commercial passenger-carrying rigid airship, the lead ship of the ''Hindenburg'' class, the longest class of flying machine and the largest airship by envelope volume. It was desi ...
,'' which was powered by four Daimler-Benz DB 602
The Daimler-Benz DB 602, originally known as Daimler-Benz LOF.6, was a German diesel cycle aero engine designed and built in the early 1930s. It was a liquid-cooled upright V16, and powered the two ''Hindenburg''-class airships. It has roughly ...
diesel engines, or in several Junkers aircraft, which had Jumo 205 engines installed.
In 1929, in the United States, the Packard Motor Company
Packard or Packard Motor Car Company was an American luxury automobile company located in Detroit, Michigan. The first Packard automobiles were produced in 1899, and the last Packards were built in South Bend, Indiana in 1958.
One of the "Thr ...
developed America's first aircraft diesel engine, the Packard DR-980
The Packard DR-980 is an American nine-cylinder air-cooled aircraft Diesel engine first certificated in 1930. The engine was unpopular despite its economy and reliability due to the unpleasant nature of its diesel exhaust fumes an ...
-- an air-cooled, 9-cylinder radial engine
The radial engine is a reciprocating type internal combustion engine configuration in which the cylinders "radiate" outward from a central crankcase like the spokes of a wheel. It resembles a stylized star when viewed from the front, and is ...
. They installed it in various aircraft of the era -- some of which were used in record-breaking distance or endurance flights,["FLIES 700 MILES; FUEL COST $4.68; Diesel-Motored Packard Plane Goes From Michigan to Langley Field in Under Seven Hours. ENGINE HAS NINE CYLINDERS Oil Burner Is Exhibited Before Aviation Leaders, Met for Conference. Woolson Reports on Flight. Packard Motor Stocks Rise,"](_blank)
May 15, 1929, ''New York Times
''The New York Times'' (''the Times'', ''NYT'', or the Gray Lady) is a daily newspaper based in New York City with a worldwide readership reported in 2020 to comprise a declining 840,000 paid print subscribers, and a growing 6 million paid d ...
,'' retrieved December 5, 2022["The Packard DR-980 Radial Aircraft Diesel"](_blank)
"First in Flight," "Diesel Engines," May 24, 2019, ''Diesel World'' magazine, retrieved December 5, 2022
(reproductions of early media articles and photos, with added information), ''Early Birds of Aviation,'' retrieved December 5, 2022[Aircraft Engine Historical Society – Diesels]
Retrieved: 30 January 2009 and in the first successful demonstration of ground-to-air radiophone communications (voice radio having been previously unintelligible in aircraft equipped with spark-ignition engines, due to electromagnetic interference). Additional advantages cited, at the time, included a lower risk of post-crash fire, and superior performance at high altitudes.
On March 6, 1930, the engine received an Approved Type Certificate -- first ever for an aircraft diesel engine -- from the U.S. Department of Commerce
The United States Department of Commerce is an executive department of the U.S. federal government concerned with creating the conditions for economic growth and opportunity. Among its tasks are gathering economic and demographic data for busin ...
.[Wilkinson, Paul H.]
"Diesel Aviation Engines,"
1940, reproduced at Aviation Engine Historical Society, retrieved December 5, 2022 However, noxious exhaust fumes, cold-start and vibration problems, engine structural failures, the death of its developer, and the industrial economic contraction of the Great Depression, combined to kill the program.
Modern
From then, until the late 1970s, there had not been many applications of the diesel engine in aircraft. In 1978, Piper Cherokee
The Piper PA-28 Cherokee is a family of two-seat or four-seat light aircraft built by Piper Aircraft and designed for flight training, air taxi and personal use.Plane and Pilot: ''1978 Aircraft Directory'', pages 62–64. Werner & Werner Corp, ...
co-designer Karl H. Bergey argued that “the likelihood of a general aviation diesel in the near future is remote.”[Karl H. Bergey: ]
Assessment of New Technology for General Aviation Aircraft
', Report for U.S. Department of Transportation, September 1978, p. 19
However, with the 1970s energy crisis and environmental movement
The environmental movement (sometimes referred to as the ecology movement), also including conservation and green politics, is a diverse philosophical, social, and political movement for addressing environmental issues. Environmentalists a ...
, and resulting pressures for greater fuel economy, reduced carbon and lead in the atmosphere, and other issues, there was a resurgence of interest in diesel engines for aircraft. High-compression piston aircraft engines that run on aviation gasoline (" avgas") generally require the addition of toxic Tetraethyl lead
Tetraethyllead (commonly styled tetraethyl lead), abbreviated TEL, is an organolead compound with the formula Pb( C2H5)4. It is a fuel additive, first being mixed with gasoline beginning in the 1920s as a patented octane rating booster that al ...
to avgas, to avoid engine pre-ignition and detonation; but diesel engines do not require leaded fuel. Also, biodiesel
Biodiesel is a form of diesel fuel derived from plants or animals and consisting of long-chain fatty acid esters. It is typically made by chemically reacting lipids such as animal fat ( tallow), soybean oil, or some other vegetable oil ...
can, theoretically, provide a net reduction in atmospheric carbon compared to avgas. For these reasons, the general aviation
General aviation (GA) is defined by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) as all civil aviation aircraft operations with the exception of commercial air transport or aerial work, which is defined as specialized aviation services ...
community has begun to fear the possible banning or discontinuance of leaded avgas.[ Wood, Janice (editor)]
Congressman urges FAA to expand use of existing unleaded fuel,"
October 24, 2012, ''General Aviation News,'' retrieved December 6, 2022[Hanke, Kurt F., engineer](_blank)
Turbocraft, Inc.
"Diesels are the Way for GA to Go,"
July 21, 2006, ''Ge eral Aviation News,'' retrieved December 6, 2022
Additionally, avgas is a specialty fuel in very low (and declining) demand, compared to other fuels, and its makers are susceptible to costly aviation-crash lawsuits, reducing refiners' interest in producing it. Outside the United States, avgas has already become increasingly difficult to find at airports (and generally), than less-expensive, diesel-compatible fuels like Jet-A and other jet fuels.
By the late 1990s / early 2000s, diesel engines were beginning to appear in light aircraft. Most notably, Frank Thielert and his Austrian engine enterprise, began developing diesel engines to replace the - gasoline/piston engines in common light aircraft use.["Powerplant"](_blank)
in Chapter 7: "Aircraft Systems," ''Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge,'' Federal Aviation Administration
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is the largest transportation agency of the U.S. government and regulates all aspects of civil aviation in the country as well as over surrounding international waters. Its powers include air traffic ...
, retrieved December 5, 2022 First successful application of the Theilerts to production aircraft was in the Diamond DA42 Twin Star
The Diamond DA42 Twin Star is a four seat, twin engine, propeller-driven airplane developed and manufactured by the Chinese-owned, Austria-based company Diamond Aircraft Industries. It was Diamond's first twin engine design, as well as the f ...
light twin, which exhibited exceptional fuel efficiency surpassing anything in its class,[Collins, Peter]
"FLIGHT TEST: Diamond Aircraft DA42 - Sparkling performer,"
July 12,2004, ''FlightGLobal
FlightGlobal is an online news and information website which covers the aviation and aerospace industries.
The website was established in February 2006 as the website of ''Flight International
''Flight International'' is a monthly magazi ...
'' retrieved December 5, 2022 and its single-seat predecessor, the Diamond DA40 Diamond Star
The Diamond DA40 Diamond Star is an Austrian four-seat, single-engine, light aircraft constructed from composite materials. Built in both Austria and Canada, it was developed as a four-seat version of the earlier DA20 by Diamond Aircraft ...
.
In subsequent years, several other companies have developed aircraft diesel engines, or have begun to -- most notably Continental Aerospace Technologies
Continental Aerospace Technologies is an aircraft engine manufacturer located at the Brookley Aeroplex in Mobile, Alabama, United States. It was originally spun off from automobile engine manufacturer Continental Motors Company in 1929 and own ...
which, by 2018, was reporting it had sold over 5,000 such engines worldwide.["Certified Jet-A Engines,"](_blank)
Continental Aerospace Technologies
Continental Aerospace Technologies is an aircraft engine manufacturer located at the Brookley Aeroplex in Mobile, Alabama, United States. It was originally spun off from automobile engine manufacturer Continental Motors Company in 1929 and own ...
, retrieved December 5, 2022
The United States' Federal Aviation Administration
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is the largest transportation agency of the U.S. government and regulates all aspects of civil aviation in the country as well as over surrounding international waters. Its powers include air traffic ...
has reported that "by 2007, various jet-fueled piston aircraft had logged well over 600,000 hours of service". In early 2019, AOPA
The Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA) is a Frederick, Maryland-based American non-profit political organization that advocates for general aviation. AOPA's membership consists mainly of general aviation pilots in the United States ...
reported that a diesel engine model for general aviation aircraft is “approaching the finish line.”[''EPS gives certification update on diesel engine,''](_blank)
January 23, 2019, AOPA
The Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA) is a Frederick, Maryland-based American non-profit political organization that advocates for general aviation. AOPA's membership consists mainly of general aviation pilots in the United States ...
. Retrieved November 1, 2019. By late 2022, Continental was reporting that its "Jet-A" fueled engines had exceeded "2,000... in operation today," with over "9 million hours," and were being "specified by major OEMs" for Cessna, Piper
Piper may refer to:
People
* Piper (given name)
* Piper (surname)
Arts and entertainment Fictional characters Comics
* Piper (Morlock), in the Marvel Universe
* Piper (Mutate), in the Marvel Universe
Television
* Piper Chapman, lea ...
, Diamond
Diamond is a solid form of the element carbon with its atoms arranged in a crystal structure called diamond cubic. Another solid form of carbon known as graphite is the chemically stable form of carbon at room temperature and pressure, ...
, Mooney
Mooney is a family name, which is probably predominantly derived from the Irish Ó Maonaigh, pronounced Om-weeneey. It can also be spelled Moony, Moonie, Mainey, Mauney, Meaney and Meeney depending on the dialectic pronunciation that was angli ...
, Tecnam
Costruzioni Aeronautiche Tecnam is an Italian aeronautics manufacturer. It was founded in 1986. The company has two primary activities: producing aircraft components for various other manufacturers, and manufacturing its own range of light ai ...
, Glasair
Glasair Aviation USA, LLC is a Chinese-owned aircraft manufacturer based in Arlington, Washington that produces the Glasair and Sportsman 2+2 line of homebuilt aircraft. More than 3000 Glasair kits have been delivered worldwide.
History
Tom ...
and Robin aircraft.
In recent years (2016), diesel engines have also found use in unmanned aircraft (UAV), due to their reliability, durability, and low fuel consumption.[Rik D Meininger et al.: "Knock criteria for aviation diesel engines", ''International Journal of Engine Research,'' Vol 18, Issue 7, 2017]
doi/10.1177
/ref>
Non-road diesel engines
Non-road diesel engines are commonly used for construction equipment
Heavy equipment or heavy machinery refers to heavy-duty vehicles specially designed to execute construction tasks, most frequently involving earthwork operations or other large construction tasks. ''Heavy equipment'' usually comprises five e ...
and agricultural machinery
Agricultural machinery relates to the mechanical structures and devices used in farming or other agriculture. There are many types of such equipment, from hand tools and power tools to tractors and the countless kinds of farm implements that ...
. Fuel efficiency, reliability and ease of maintenance are very important for such engines, whilst high power output and quiet operation are negligible. Therefore, mechanically controlled fuel injection and air-cooling are still very common. The common power outputs of non-road diesel engines vary a lot, with the smallest units starting at 3 kW, and the most powerful engines being heavy duty lorry engines.
Stationary diesel engines
Stationary diesel engines are commonly used for electricity generation, but also for powering refrigerator compressors, or other types of compressors or pumps. Usually, these engines either run continuously with partial load, or intermittently with full load. Stationary diesel engines powering electric generators that put out an alternating current, usually operate with alternating load, but fixed rotational frequency. This is due to the mains' fixed frequency of either 50 Hz (Europe), or 60 Hz (United States). The engine's crankshaft rotational frequency is chosen so that the mains' frequency is a multiple of it. For practical reasons, this results in crankshaft rotational frequencies of either 25 Hz (1500 per minute) or 30 Hz (1800 per minute).
Low heat rejection engines
A special class of prototype internal combustion piston engines has been developed over several decades with the goal of improving efficiency by reducing heat loss. These engines are variously called adiabatic engines; due to better approximation of adiabatic expansion; low heat rejection engines, or high temperature engines. They are generally piston engines with combustion chamber parts lined with ceramic thermal barrier coatings. Some make use of pistons and other parts made of titanium which has a low thermal conductivity and density. Some designs are able to eliminate the use of a cooling system and associated parasitic losses altogether. Developing lubricants able to withstand the higher temperatures involved has been a major barrier to commercialization.
Future developments
In mid-2010s literature, main development goals for future diesel engines are described as improvements of exhaust emissions, reduction of fuel consumption, and increase of lifespan (2014). It is said that the diesel engine, especially the diesel engine for commercial vehicles, will remain the most important vehicle powerplant until the mid-2030s. Editors assume that the complexity of the diesel engine will increase further (2014). Some editors expect a future convergency of diesel and Otto engines' operating principles due to Otto engine development steps made towards homogeneous charge compression ignition Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) is a form of internal combustion in which well-mixed fuel and oxidizer (typically air) are compressed to the point of auto-ignition. As in other forms of combustion, this exothermic reaction releas ...
(2017).
See also
* Aircraft diesel engine
An aircraft is a vehicle that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet engines. ...
* Diesel locomotive
* Diesel automobile racing
* Diesel–electric transmission
A diesel–electric transmission, or diesel–electric powertrain is a transmission system for vehicles powered by diesel engines in road, rail, and marine transport. Diesel–electric transmission is based on petrol–electric transmission, a ...
* Diesel cycle
The Diesel cycle is a combustion process of a reciprocating internal combustion engine. In it, fuel is ignited by heat generated during the compression of air in the combustion chamber, into which fuel is then injected. This is in contrast to ign ...
* Diesel exhaust
Diesel exhaust is the gaseous exhaust produced by a diesel type of internal combustion engine, plus any contained particulates. Its composition may vary with the fuel type or rate of consumption, or speed of engine operation (e.g., idling or at ...
* DieselHouse
* Diesel generator
A diesel generator (DG) (also known as a diesel Genset) is the combination of a diesel engine with an electric generator (often an alternator) to generate electrical energy. This is a specific case of engine generator. A diesel compression-ig ...
* Dieselisation
Dieselisation (US: dieselization) is the process of equipping vehicles with a diesel engine or diesel engines. It can involve replacing an internal combustion engine powered by petrol (gasoline) fuel with an engine powered by diesel fuel, as o ...
* History of the internal combustion engine
Various scientists and engineers contributed to the development of internal combustion engines. In 1791, the English inventor John Barber patented a gas turbine. In 1794 Thomas Mead patented a gas engine. Also in 1794 Robert Street patented an i ...
* Indirect injection
Indirect injection in an internal combustion engine is fuel injection where fuel is not directly injected into the combustion chamber.
Gasoline engines equipped with indirect injection systems, wherein a fuel injector delivers the fuel at some p ...
* Partially premixed combustion Partially premixed combustion (PPC), also known as PPCI (partially-premixed compression ignition) or GDCI (gasoline direct-injection compression-ignition) is a modern combustion process intended to be used in internal combustion engines of automobi ...
* Reactivity controlled compression ignition
Reactivity controlled compression ignition (RCCI) is a form of internal combustion developed at the Engine Research Center, University of Wisconsin–Madison, by the research group of Wisconsin Distinguished Professor Rolf Reitz.
During RCCI combu ...
References
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[Richard van Basshuysen (ed.), Fred Schäfer (ed.): ''Handbuch Verbrennungsmotor: Grundlagen, Komponenten, Systeme, Perspektiven'', 8th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2017, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-10901-1. p. 1018]
[Richard van Basshuysen (ed.), Fred Schäfer (ed.): ''Handbuch Verbrennungsmotor: Grundlagen, Komponenten, Systeme, Perspektiven'', 8th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2017, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-10901-1. p. 1289]
[Richard van Basshuysen (ed.): ''Ottomotor mit Direkteinspritzung und Direkteinblasung: Ottokraftstoffe, Erdgas, Methan, Wasserstoff'', 4th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden, 2017. {{ISBN, 978-3658122157. pp. 24, 25]
[Richard van Basshuysen (ed.): ''Ottomotor mit Direkteinspritzung und Direkteinblasung: Ottokraftstoffe, Erdgas, Methan, Wasserstoff'', 4th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden, 2017. {{ISBN, 978-3658122157. p. 141]
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;Böge 2017
[Alfred Böge, Wolfgang Böge (ed.): ''Handbuch Maschinenbau – Grundlagen und Anwendungen der Maschinenbau-Technik'', 23rd edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2017, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-12528-8, p. 1150]
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[Hans-Hermann Braess (ed.), Ulrich Seiffert (ed.): Vieweg Handbuch Kraftfahrzeugtechnik, 6th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2012, {{ISBN, 978-3-8348-8298-1. p. 225]
;BMW 1985
[BMW AG (ed.)]
BMW E28 owner's manual
1985, section 4–20
;Bryzik 1993
[{{Cite book , last1=Bryzik , first1=Walter , title=SAE Technical Paper Series , last2=Schwarz , first2=Ernest , last3=Kamo , first3=Roy , last4=Woods , first4=Melvin , date=March 1, 1993 , volume=1 , chapter=Low Heat Rejection From High Output Ceramic Coated Diesel Engine and Its Impact on Future Design , doi=10.4271/931021 , chapter-url=http://papers.sae.org/931021/ , via=papers.sae.org]
;Cole 2014
[Lance Cole: ''Citroën – The Complete Story'', The Crowood Press, Ramsbury 2014, {{ISBN, 978-1-84797-660-4. p. 64]
;Cummins
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[US Patent #3,220,392, filed June 4, 1962, granted Nov 30, 1965.]
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[Daimler Media ]
Vorkammer Adieu: Im Jahr 1964 kommen erste Direkteinspritzer bei Lkw und Bus
12 Februar 2009, retrieved 22 February 2019.
[Daimler AG: ]
Die Geburt einer Legende: Die Baureihe 300 ist ein großer Wurf
', 22 April 2009, retrieved 23 February 2019
;Danielson 1993
[{{Cite book , last1=Danielson , first1=Eugene , title=SAE Technical Paper Series , last2=Turner , first2=David , last3=Elwart , first3=Joseph , last4=Bryzik , first4=Walter , date=March 1, 1993 , volume=1 , chapter=Thermomechanical Stress Analysis of Novel Low Heat Rejection Cylinder Head Designs , doi=10.4271/930985 , chapter-url=http://papers.sae.org/930985/ , via=papers.sae.org]
;Diehl 2013
[Peter Diehl: ''Auto Service Praxis'', magazine 06/2013, pp. 100]
;Diesel
[Method Of and Apparatus For Converting Heat Into Work](_blank)
United States Patent No. 542,846, Filed Aug 26, 1892, Issued July 16, 1895, Inventor Rudolf Diesel of Berlin Germany
[{{Cite book , last=Diesel , first=Rudolf , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2fRLAAAAMAAJ&q=rudolph+diesel+experiments , title=Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat Motor , date=August 23, 1894 , publisher=E. & F. N. Spon]
Rudolf Diesel
Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel (, ; 18 March 1858 – 29 September 1913) was a German inventor and mechanical engineer who is famous for having invented the diesel engine, which burns diesel fuel; both are named after him.
Early life and educat ...
: '' Theorie und Konstruktion eines rationellen Wärmemotors zum Ersatz der Dampfmaschine und der heute bekannten Verbrennungsmotoren'', Springer, Berlin 1893, {{ISBN, 978-3-642-64949-3.
Rudolf Diesel
Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel (, ; 18 March 1858 – 29 September 1913) was a German inventor and mechanical engineer who is famous for having invented the diesel engine, which burns diesel fuel; both are named after him.
Early life and educat ...
: '' Theorie und Konstruktion eines rationellen Wärmemotors zum Ersatz der Dampfmaschine und der heute bekannten Verbrennungsmotoren'', Springer, Berlin 1893, {{ISBN, 978-3-642-64949-3. p. 91
[{{Cite book , last=Diesel , first=Rudolf , url=https://archive.org/details/dieselsrational00diesgoog , title=Diesel's Rational Heat Motor: A Lecture , date=October 28, 1897 , publisher=Progressive Age Publishing Company , quote=diesel rational heat motor. , access-date=October 28, 2017]
[Internal-Combustion Engine](_blank)
U.S. Patent number 608845, Filed Jul 15 1895, Issued August 9, 1898, Inventor Rudolf Diesel, Assigned to the Diesel Motor Company of America (New York)
[{{Cite web , title=Patent Images , url=http://pdfpiw.uspto.gov/.piw?Docid=00608845&homeurl=http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1%2526Sect2=HITOFF%2526d=PALL%2526p=1%2526u=%25252Fnetahtml%25252FPTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r=1%2526f=G%2526l=50%2526s1=0608845.PN.%2526OS=PN/0608845%2526RS=PN/0608845&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&Input=View+first+page , website=Pdfpiw.uspto.gov]
Rudolf Diesel
Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel (, ; 18 March 1858 – 29 September 1913) was a German inventor and mechanical engineer who is famous for having invented the diesel engine, which burns diesel fuel; both are named after him.
Early life and educat ...
: ''Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors'', Springer, Berlin 1913, {{ISBN, 978-3-642-64940-0. p. 1
Rudolf Diesel
Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel (, ; 18 March 1858 – 29 September 1913) was a German inventor and mechanical engineer who is famous for having invented the diesel engine, which burns diesel fuel; both are named after him.
Early life and educat ...
: ''Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors'', Springer, Berlin 1913, {{ISBN, 978-3-642-64940-0. p. 6
Rudolf Diesel
Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel (, ; 18 March 1858 – 29 September 1913) was a German inventor and mechanical engineer who is famous for having invented the diesel engine, which burns diesel fuel; both are named after him.
Early life and educat ...
: ''Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors'', Springer, Berlin 1913, {{ISBN, 978-3-642-64940-0. p. 8
Rudolf Diesel
Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel (, ; 18 March 1858 – 29 September 1913) was a German inventor and mechanical engineer who is famous for having invented the diesel engine, which burns diesel fuel; both are named after him.
Early life and educat ...
: ''Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors'', Springer, Berlin 1913, {{ISBN, 978-3-642-64940-0. p. 13
Rudolf Diesel
Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel (, ; 18 March 1858 – 29 September 1913) was a German inventor and mechanical engineer who is famous for having invented the diesel engine, which burns diesel fuel; both are named after him.
Early life and educat ...
: ''Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors'', Springer, Berlin 1913, {{ISBN, 978-3-642-64940-0. p. 17
Rudolf Diesel
Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel (, ; 18 March 1858 – 29 September 1913) was a German inventor and mechanical engineer who is famous for having invented the diesel engine, which burns diesel fuel; both are named after him.
Early life and educat ...
: ''Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors'', Springer, Berlin 1913, {{ISBN, 978-3-642-64940-0. p. 21
Rudolf Diesel
Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel (, ; 18 March 1858 – 29 September 1913) was a German inventor and mechanical engineer who is famous for having invented the diesel engine, which burns diesel fuel; both are named after him.
Early life and educat ...
: ''Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors'', Springer, Berlin 1913, {{ISBN, 978-3-642-64940-0. p. 22
Rudolf Diesel
Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel (, ; 18 March 1858 – 29 September 1913) was a German inventor and mechanical engineer who is famous for having invented the diesel engine, which burns diesel fuel; both are named after him.
Early life and educat ...
: ''Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors'', Springer, Berlin 1913, {{ISBN, 978-3-642-64940-0. p. 38
Rudolf Diesel
Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel (, ; 18 March 1858 – 29 September 1913) was a German inventor and mechanical engineer who is famous for having invented the diesel engine, which burns diesel fuel; both are named after him.
Early life and educat ...
: ''Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors'', Springer, Berlin 1913, {{ISBN, 978-3-642-64940-0. p. 64
Rudolf Diesel
Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel (, ; 18 March 1858 – 29 September 1913) was a German inventor and mechanical engineer who is famous for having invented the diesel engine, which burns diesel fuel; both are named after him.
Early life and educat ...
: ''Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors'', Springer, Berlin 1913, {{ISBN, 978-3-642-64940-0. p. 75
Rudolf Diesel
Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel (, ; 18 March 1858 – 29 September 1913) was a German inventor and mechanical engineer who is famous for having invented the diesel engine, which burns diesel fuel; both are named after him.
Early life and educat ...
: ''Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors'', Springer, Berlin 1913, {{ISBN, 978-3-642-64940-0. p. 78
Rudolf Diesel
Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel (, ; 18 March 1858 – 29 September 1913) was a German inventor and mechanical engineer who is famous for having invented the diesel engine, which burns diesel fuel; both are named after him.
Early life and educat ...
: ''Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors'', Springer, Berlin 1913, {{ISBN, 978-3-642-64940-0. p. 107
Rudolf Diesel
Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel (, ; 18 March 1858 – 29 September 1913) was a German inventor and mechanical engineer who is famous for having invented the diesel engine, which burns diesel fuel; both are named after him.
Early life and educat ...
: ''Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors'', Springer, Berlin 1913, {{ISBN, 978-3-642-64940-0. p. 110
;Dubbel 1981
[Wolfgang Beitz, Karl-Heinz Küttner (ed): ''Dubbel – Taschenbuch für den Maschinenbau'', 14th edition, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1981, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-28196-3, p. 712]
;Dubbel 2018
[Karl-Heinrich Grote, Beate Bender, Dietmar Göhlich (ed.): ''Dubbel – Taschenbuch für den Maschinenbau'', 25th edition, Springer, Heidelberg 2018, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-54804-2, 1191 pp. (P79)]
[Karl-Heinrich Grote, Beate Bender, Dietmar Göhlich (ed.): ''Dubbel – Taschenbuch für den Maschinenbau'', 25th edition, Springer, Heidelberg 2018, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-54804-2, 1205 pp. (P93)]
;Egger 2002
[Klaus Egger, Johann Warga, Wendelin Klügl (auth.): ]
Neues Common-Rail-Einspritzsystem mit Piezo-Aktorik für Pkw-Dieselmotoren
', in MTZ – Motortechnische Zeitschrift, Springer, September 2002, Volume 63, Issue 9, pp. 696–704
;EPA 2004
[{{Cite web , year=2004 , title=Medium and Heavy Duty Diesel Vehicle Modeling Using a Fuel Consumption Methodology , url=http://www.epa.gov/otaq/models/ngm/may04/crc0304c.pdf , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061010095104/http://www.epa.gov/otaq/models/ngm/may04/crc0304c.pdf , archive-date=2006-10-10 , url-status=live , access-date=2017-04-25 , publisher=US EPA]
;Hawks 1939
[Ellison Hawks: ''How it works and how it's done'', Odhams Press, London 1939, p. 73]
;Von Fersen
[Olaf von Fersen (ed.): ''Ein Jahrhundert Automobiltechnik: Personenwagen'', Springer, Düsseldorf 1986, {{ISBN, 978-3-642-95773-4. p. 272]
[Olaf von Fersen (ed.): ''Ein Jahrhundert Automobiltechnik: Personenwagen'', Springer, Düsseldorf 1986, {{ISBN, 978-3-642-95773-4. p. 274]
[Olaf von Fersen (ed.): ''Ein Jahrhundert Automobiltechnik: Nutzfahrzeuge'', Springer, Heidelberg 1987, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-01120-1, p. 156]
;Flatz 1946
[E. Flatz: ''Der neue luftgekühlte Deutz-Fahrzeug-Dieselmotor''. MTZ 8, 33–38 (1946)]
;Fleet Owner 1964
[Fleet Owner, Volume 59, Primedia Business Magazines & Media, Incorporated, 1964, p. 107]
;Hemmerlein 1991
[{{Cite journal , last1=Hemmerlein , first1=Norbert , last2=Korte , first2=Volker , last3=Richter , first3=Herwig , last4=Schröder , first4=Günter , date=1991-02-01 , title=Performance, Exhaust Emissions and Durability of Modern Diesel Engines Running on Rapeseed Oil , journal=SAE Technical Paper Series , volume=1 , doi=10.4271/910848]
;Kamo 1996
[{{Cite book , last1=Kamo , first1=Lloyd , title=SAE Technical Paper Series , last2=Kleyman , first2=Ardy , last3=Bryzik , first3=Walter , last4=Schwarz , first4=Ernest , date=February 1, 1995 , volume=1 , chapter=Recent Development of Tribological Coatings for High Temperature Engines , doi=10.4271/950979 , chapter-url=http://papers.sae.org/950979/ , via=papers.sae.org]
;Karim 2015
[Ghazi A. Karim: ''Dual-fuel Diesel engines'', CRC Press, Boca Raton London New York 2015, {{ISBN, 978-1-4987-0309-3, p. 2]
;Kremser 1942
[Hans Kremser (auth.): ''Der Aufbau schnellaufender Verbrennungskraftmaschinen für Kraftfahrzeuge und Triebwagen''. In: Hans List (ed.): Die Verbrennungskraftmaschine. Vol. 11. Springer, Wien 1942, {{ISBN, 978-3-7091-5016-0 p. 22]
[Hans Kremser (auth.): ''Der Aufbau schnellaufender Verbrennungskraftmaschinen für Kraftfahrzeuge und Triebwagen''. In: Hans List (ed.): Die Verbrennungskraftmaschine. Vol. 11. Springer, Wien 1942, {{ISBN, 978-3-7091-5016-0 p. 23]
[Hans Kremser (auth.): ''Der Aufbau schnellaufender Verbrennungskraftmaschinen für Kraftfahrzeuge und Triebwagen''. In: Hans List (ed.): Die Verbrennungskraftmaschine. Vol. 11. Springer, Wien 1942, {{ISBN, 978-3-7091-5016-0 p. 24]
[Hans Kremser (auth.): ''Der Aufbau schnellaufender Verbrennungskraftmaschinen für Kraftfahrzeuge und Triebwagen''. In: Hans List (ed.): Die Verbrennungskraftmaschine. V. 11. Springer, Wien 1942, {{ISBN, 978-3-7091-5016-0 p. 125]
[Hans Kremser (auth.): ''Der Aufbau schnellaufender Verbrennungskraftmaschinen für Kraftfahrzeuge und Triebwagen''. In: Hans List (ed.): Die Verbrennungskraftmaschine. Vol. 11. Springer, Wien 1942, {{ISBN, 978-3-7091-5016-0 p. 190]
;List 1939
[Hans List: ''Thermodynamik der Verbrennungskraftmaschine''. In: Hans List (ed.): ''Die Verbrennungskraftmaschine''. Vol. 2. Springer, Wien 1939, {{ISBN, 978-3-7091-5197-6, p. 1]
;MAN 1991
[Wilfried Lochte (auth): ''Vorwort'', in: Nutzfahrzeuge AG (ed.): ''Leistung und Weg: Zur Geschichte des MAN Nutzfahrzeugbaus'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 1991. {{ISBN, 978-3-642-93490-2. p. XI]
[Hans Christian Graf von Seherr-Thoß (auth): ''Die Technik des MAN Nutzfahrzeugbaus'', in MAN Nutzfahrzeuge AG (ed.): ''Leistung und Weg: Zur Geschichte des MAN Nutzfahrzeugbaus'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 1991. {{ISBN, 978-3-642-93490-2. p. 436.]
[Hans Christian Graf von Seherr-Thoß (auth): ''Die Technik des MAN Nutzfahrzeugbaus'', in MAN Nutzfahrzeuge AG (ed.): ''Leistung und Weg: Zur Geschichte des MAN Nutzfahrzeugbaus'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 1991. {{ISBN, 978-3-642-93490-2. p. 438.]
[Hans Christian Graf von Seherr-Thoß (auth): ''Die Technik des MAN Nutzfahrzeugbaus'', in MAN Nutzfahrzeuge AG (ed.): ''Leistung und Weg: Zur Geschichte des MAN Nutzfahrzeugbaus'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 1991. {{ISBN, 978-3-642-93490-2. p. 465.]
;Mau 1984
[Günter Mau: ''Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks- und Schiffsbetrieb'', Vieweg (Springer), Braunschweig/Wiesbaden 1984, {{ISBN, 978-3-528-14889-8. p. 7]
[Günter Mau: ''Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks- und Schiffsbetrieb'', Vieweg (Springer), Braunschweig/Wiesbaden 1984, {{ISBN, 978-3-528-14889-8. p. 8]
[Günter Mau: ''Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks- und Schiffsbetrieb'', Vieweg (Springer), Braunschweig/Wiesbaden 1984, {{ISBN, 978-3-528-14889-8. pp. 9–11]
[Günter Mau: ''Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks- und Schiffsbetrieb'', Vieweg (Springer), Braunschweig/Wiesbaden 1984, {{ISBN, 978-3-528-14889-8. p. 15]
[Günter Mau: ''Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks- und Schiffsbetrieb'', Vieweg (Springer), Braunschweig/Wiesbaden 1984, {{ISBN, 978-3-528-14889-8. p. 16]
[Günter Mau: ''Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks- und Schiffsbetrieb'', Vieweg (Springer), Braunschweig/Wiesbaden 1984, {{ISBN, 978-3-528-14889-8. p. 17]
[Günter Mau: ''Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks- und Schiffsbetrieb'', Vieweg (Springer), Braunschweig/Wiesbaden 1984, {{ISBN, 978-3-528-14889-8. p. 23]
[Günter Mau: ''Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks- und Schiffsbetrieb'', Vieweg (Springer), Braunschweig/Wiesbaden 1984, {{ISBN, 978-3-528-14889-8. p. 33]
[Günter Mau: ''Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks- und Schiffsbetrieb'', Vieweg (Springer), Braunschweig/Wiesbaden 1984, {{ISBN, 978-3-528-14889-8. p. 42]
[Günter Mau: ''Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks- und Schiffsbetrieb'', Vieweg (Springer), Braunschweig/Wiesbaden 1984, {{ISBN, 978-3-528-14889-8. p. 43]
[Günter Mau: ''Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks- und Schiffsbetrieb'', Vieweg (Springer), Braunschweig/Wiesbaden 1984, {{ISBN, 978-3-528-14889-8. p. 50]
[Günter Mau: ''Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks- und Schiffsbetrieb'', Vieweg (Springer), Braunschweig/Wiesbaden 1984, {{ISBN, 978-3-528-14889-8. pp. 53]
[Günter Mau: ''Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks- und Schiffsbetrieb'', Vieweg (Springer), Braunschweig/Wiesbaden 1984, {{ISBN, 978-3-528-14889-8. p. 121]
[Günter Mau: ''Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks- und Schiffsbetrieb'', Vieweg (Springer), Braunschweig/Wiesbaden 1984, {{ISBN, 978-3-528-14889-8. p. 129]
[Günter Mau: ''Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks- und Schiffsbetrieb'', Vieweg (Springer), Braunschweig/Wiesbaden 1984, {{ISBN, 978-3-528-14889-8. p. 136]
[Günter Mau: ''Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks- und Schiffsbetrieb'', Vieweg (Springer), Braunschweig/Wiesbaden 1984, {{ISBN, 978-3-528-14889-8. p. 148]
;Merker 2014
[Günter P. Merker, Rüdiger Teichmann (ed.): ''Grundlagen Verbrennungsmotoren – Funktionsweise · Simulation · Messtechnik'', 7th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-03194-7, p. 48]
[Günter P. Merker, Rüdiger Teichmann (ed.): ''Grundlagen Verbrennungsmotoren – Funktionsweise · Simulation · Messtechnik'', 7th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-03194-7, p. 58]
[Günter P. Merker, Rüdiger Teichmann (ed.): ''Grundlagen Verbrennungsmotoren – Funktionsweise · Simulation · Messtechnik'', 7th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-03194-7, p. 179]
[Günter P. Merker, Rüdiger Teichmann (ed.): ''Grundlagen Verbrennungsmotoren – Funktionsweise · Simulation · Messtechnik'', 7th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-03194-7, p. 264]
[Günter P. Merker, Rüdiger Teichmann (ed.): ''Grundlagen Verbrennungsmotoren – Funktionsweise · Simulation · Messtechnik'', 7th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-03194-7, p. 273]
[Günter P. Merker, Rüdiger Teichmann (ed.): ''Grundlagen Verbrennungsmotoren – Funktionsweise · Simulation · Messtechnik'', 7th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-03194-7, p. 276]
[Günter P. Merker, Rüdiger Teichmann (ed.): ''Grundlagen Verbrennungsmotoren – Funktionsweise · Simulation · Messtechnik'', 7th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-03194-7, p. 280]
[Günter P. Merker, Rüdiger Teichmann (ed.): ''Grundlagen Verbrennungsmotoren – Funktionsweise · Simulation · Messtechnik'', 7th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-03194-7, p. 284]
[Günter P. Merker, Rüdiger Teichmann (ed.): ''Grundlagen Verbrennungsmotoren – Funktionsweise · Simulation · Messtechnik'', 7th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-03194-7, p. 381]
[Günter P. Merker, Rüdiger Teichmann (ed.): ''Grundlagen Verbrennungsmotoren – Funktionsweise · Simulation · Messtechnik'', 7th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-03194-7, p. 382]
;Moon 1974
[{{Cite book , last=Moon , first=John F. , url=https://archive.org/details/rudolfdieseldies00moon , title=Rudolf Diesel and the Diesel Engine , publisher=Priory Press , year=1974 , isbn=978-0-85078-130-4 , location=London , ref=Moon, 1974 , url-access=registration]
;Nanlin 1993
[{{Cite book , last1=Nanlin , first1=Zhang , title=SAE Technical Paper Series , last2=Shengyuan , first2=Zhong , last3=Jingtu , first3=Feng , last4=Jinwen , first4=Cai , last5=Qinan , first5=Pu , last6=Yuan , first6=Fan , date=March 1, 1993 , volume=1 , chapter=Development of Model 6105 Adiabatic Engine , doi=10.4271/930984 , chapter-url=http://papers.sae.org/930984/ , via=papers.sae.org]
;Von Philippovich 1939
[A. v. Philippovich (auth.): ''Die Betriebsstoffe für Verbrennungskraftmaschinen''. In: Hans List (ed.): ''Die Verbrennungskraftmaschine''. Vol. 1. Springer, Wien 1939, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-27981-6. p. 41]
[A. v. Philippovich (auth.): ''Die Betriebsstoffe für Verbrennungskraftmaschinen''. In: Hans List (ed.): ''Die Verbrennungskraftmaschine''. Vol. 1. Springer, Wien 1939, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-27981-6. p. 42]
[A. v. Philippovich (auth.): ''Die Betriebsstoffe für Verbrennungskraftmaschinen''. In: Hans List (ed.): ''Die Verbrennungskraftmaschine''. Vol. 1. Springer, Wien 1939, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-27981-6. p. 43]
[A. v. Philippovich (auth.): ''Die Betriebsstoffe für Verbrennungskraftmaschinen''. In: Hans List (ed.): ''Die Verbrennungskraftmaschine''. Vol. 1. Springer, Wien 1939, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-27981-6. p. 45]
;Pischinger 2016
[Stefan Pischinger, Ulrich Seiffert (ed.): ''Vieweg Handbuch Kraftfahrzeugtechnik''. 8th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2016. {{ISBN, 978-3-658-09528-4. p. 348.]
;Reif
[Konrad Reif (ed.): ''Dieselmotor-Management – Systeme Komponenten und Regelung'', 5th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2012, {{ISBN, 978-3-8348-1715-0, p. 103]
[Konrad Reif (ed.): ''Dieselmotor-Management – Systeme Komponenten und Regelung'', 5th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2012, {{ISBN, 978-3-8348-1715-0, p. 223]
[Konrad Reif (ed.): ''Dieselmotor-Management – Systeme Komponenten und Regelung'', 5th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2012, {{ISBN, 978-3-8348-1715-0, p. 271]
[Konrad Reif (ed.): ''Dieselmotor-Management – Systeme Komponenten und Regelung'', 5th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2012, {{ISBN, 978-3-8348-1715-0, p. 286]
[Konrad Reif (ed.): ''Dieselmotor-Management im Überblick''. 2nd edition. Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-06554-6. p. 10]
[Konrad Reif (ed.): ''Dieselmotor-Management im Überblick''. 2nd edition. Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-06554-6. p. 11]
[Konrad Reif (ed.): ''Dieselmotor-Management im Überblick''. 2nd edition. Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-06554-6. p. 12]
[Konrad Reif (ed.): ''Dieselmotor-Management im Überblick''. 2nd edition. Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-06554-6. p. 13]
[Konrad Reif (ed.): ''Dieselmotor-Management im Überblick''. 2nd edition. Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-06554-6. p. 18]
[Konrad Reif (ed.): ''Dieselmotor-Management im Überblick''. 2nd edition. Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-06554-6. p. 23]
[Konrad Reif (ed.): ''Dieselmotor-Management im Überblick''. 2nd edition. Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-06554-6. p. 28]
[Konrad Reif (ed.): ''Dieselmotor-Management im Überblick''. 2nd edition. Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-06554-6. p. 31]
[Konrad Reif (ed.): ''Dieselmotor-Management im Überblick''. 2nd edition. Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-06554-6. p. 41]
[Konrad Reif (ed.): ''Dieselmotor-Management im Überblick''. 2nd edition. Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-06554-6. p. 53]
[Konrad Reif (ed.): ''Dieselmotor-Management im Überblick''. 2nd edition. Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-06554-6. p. 70]
[Konrad Reif (ed.): ''Dieselmotor-Management im Überblick''. 2nd edition. Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-06554-6. p. 136]
[Konrad Reif (ed.): ''Dieselmotor-Management im Überblick''. 2nd edition. Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-06554-6. p. 140]
[Konrad Reif (ed.): ''Dieselmotor-Management im Überblick''. 2nd edition. Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-06554-6. p. 182]
[Konrad Reif (ed.): ''Ottomotor-Management: Steuerung, Regelung und Überwachung'', Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, {{ISBN, 978-3-8348-1416-6, p. 7]
[Konrad Reif (ed.): ''Grundlagen Fahrzeug- und Motorentechnik''. Springer Fachmedien, Wiesbaden 2017, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-12635-3. pp. 16]
;Schreiner 2014
[Klaus Schreiner: ''Basiswissen Verbrennungsmotor: Fragen – rechnen – verstehen – bestehen''. Springer, Wiesbaden 2014, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-06187-6, p. 22.]
;Stan 2017
[Cornel Stan: ''Thermodynamik des Kraftfahrzeugs: Grundlagen und Anwendungen – mit Prozesssimulationen'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 2017, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-53722-0. p. 252]
;SAE 2017
[{{Cite web , title=Browse Papers on Adiabatic engines : Topic Results , url=http://topics.sae.org/adiabatic-engines/papers/ , url-status=dead , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823204928/http://topics.sae.org/adiabatic-engines/papers/ , archive-date=August 23, 2017 , access-date=April 30, 2018 , website=topics.sae.org , publisher=SAE International , df=mdy-all]
;Sass 1962
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 395]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 398]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 399]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 400]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 402]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 408]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 412]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 414]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 415]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 444]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 462]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 463]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 464]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 466]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 467]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 474]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 475]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 479]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 480]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 484]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 485]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 486]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 487]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 493]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 501]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 502]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 505]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 506]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 518]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 523]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 524]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 530]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 532]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 541]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 545]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 559]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 569]
[Friedrich Sass: ''Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918'', Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1962, {{ISBN, 978-3-662-11843-6. p. 610]
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[{{Cite book , last1=Schwarz , first1=Ernest , title=SAE Technical Paper Series , last2=Reid , first2=Michael , last3=Bryzik , first3=Walter , last4=Danielson , first4=Eugene , date=March 1, 1993 , volume=1 , chapter=Combustion and Performance Characteristics of a Low Heat Rejection Engine , doi=10.4271/930988 , chapter-url=http://papers.sae.org/930988/ , via=papers.sae.org]
;Schwarz 2012
[Christian Schwarz, Rüdiger Teichmann: ''Grundlagen Verbrennungsmotoren: Funktionsweise, Simulation, Messtechnik''. Springer. Wiesbaden 2012, {{ISBN, 978-3-8348-1987-1, p. 102]
;Sittauer 1990
[Sittauer, Hans L. (1990), ''Nicolaus August Otto Rudolf Diesel, Biographien hervorragender Naturwissenschaftler, Techniker und Mediziner'' (in German), 32 (4th ed.), Leipzig, DDR: Springer (BSB Teubner), {{ISBN, 978-3-322-00762-9. p. 70]
[Sittauer, Hans L. (1990), ''Nicolaus August Otto Rudolf Diesel, Biographien hervorragender Naturwissenschaftler, Techniker und Mediziner'' (in German), 32 (4th ed.), Leipzig, DDR: Springer (BSB Teubner), {{ISBN, 978-3-322-00762-9. p. 71]
[Sittauer, Hans L. (1990), ''Nicolaus August Otto Rudolf Diesel, Biographien hervorragender Naturwissenschaftler, Techniker und Mediziner'' (in German), 32 (4th ed.), Leipzig, DDR: Springer (BSB Teubner), {{ISBN, 978-3-322-00762-9. p. 74]
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[{{Cite journal , last=Michael Soimar , date=April 2000 , title=The Challenge Of CVTs In Current Heavy-Duty Powertrains , url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FZX/is_4_66/ai_62371160/print?tag=artBody;col1 , url-status=dead , journal=Diesel Progress North American Edition , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207140743/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FZX/is_4_66/ai_62371160/print?tag=artBody%3Bcol1 , archive-date=December 7, 2008 , df=mdy-all]
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[Peter Speck: ''Employability – Herausforderungen für die strategische Personalentwicklung: Konzepte für eine flexible, innovationsorientierte Arbeitswelt von morgen'', 2nd edition, Springer, 2005, {{ISBN, 978-3409226837, p. 21]
;Tschöke 2018
[Helmut Tschöke, Klaus Mollenhauer, Rudolf Maier (ed.): ''Handbuch Dieselmotoren'', 8th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2018, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-07696-2, p. 6]
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[Helmut Tschöke, Klaus Mollenhauer, Rudolf Maier (ed.): ''Handbuch Dieselmotoren'', 8th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2018, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-07696-2, p. 310]
[Helmut Tschöke, Klaus Mollenhauer, Rudolf Maier (ed.): ''Handbuch Dieselmotoren'', 8th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2018, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-07696-2, p. 666]
[Helmut Tschöke, Klaus Mollenhauer, Rudolf Maier (ed.): ''Handbuch Dieselmotoren'', 8th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2018, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-07696-2, p. 981]
[Helmut Tschöke, Klaus Mollenhauer, Rudolf Maier (ed.): ''Handbuch Dieselmotoren'' 8th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2018, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-07696-2, p. 1000]
[Helmut Tschöke, Klaus Mollenhauer, Rudolf Maier (ed.): ''Handbuch Dieselmotoren'', 8th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2018, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-07696-2, p. 1066]
[Helmut Tschöke, Klaus Mollenhauer, Rudolf Maier (ed.): ''Handbuch Dieselmotoren'', 8th edition, Springer, Wiesbaden 2018, {{ISBN, 978-3-658-07696-2, p. 1110]
;Tucker-Jones 2015
[Anthony Tucker-Jones: ''T-34: The Red Army's Legendary Medium Tank'', Pen and Sword, 2015, {{ISBN, 978-1473854703, p. 36 and 37]
;Vogler 2016
[Carl-Heinz Vogler: ''Unimog 406 – Typengeschichte und Technik''. Geramond, München 2016, {{ISBN, 978-3-86245-576-8. p. 34.]
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[Barbara Waibel: ''Die Hindenburg: Gigant der Lüfte'', Sutton, 2016, {{ISBN, 978-3954007226. p. 159]
;Zhao 2009
[Hua Zhao: ]
Advanced Direct Injection Combustion Engine Technologies and Development: Diesel Engines
', Elsevier, 2009, {{ISBN, 978-1845697457, p. 8
[Hua Zhao: ]
Advanced Direct Injection Combustion Engine Technologies and Development: Diesel Engines
', Elsevier, 2009, {{ISBN, 978-1845697457, p. 45 and 46
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[The Free Librar]
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["IDI vs DI"](_blank)
Diesel hub
[US patent (granted in 1895]
/ref>
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[Kevin EuDaly, Mike Schafer, Steve Jessup, Jim Boyd, Andrew McBride, Steve Glischinski: '' The Complete Book of North American Railroading'', Book Sales, 2016, {{ISBN, 978-0785833895, p. 160]
[Brian Long: Zero Carbon Car: Green Technology and the Automotive Industry, Crowood, 2013, {{ISBN, 978-1847975140.]
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External links
{{Commons category, Diesel engines
{{Commons, Rudolf Diesel
{{Collier's Poster, Diesel Engine
* {{Cite web , title=Diesel Information Hub , url=https://dieselinformation.aecc.eu , publisher=Association for Emissions Control by Catalyst
* {{Internet Archive short film , 0613_Diesel_Story_The_06_30_42_18 , The Diesel Story (1952)
* {{YouTube, DDLJgUaBpmM , "Introduction to Two Stroke Marine Diesel Engine"
* {{YouTube, wCA5pInfPpM , "The Engine That Powers the World" BBC Documentary
Patents
* [http://pdfpiw.uspto.gov/.piw?Docid=00608845&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252FPTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%3D1%2526f%3DG%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D0608845.PN.%2526OS%3DPN%2F0608845%2526RS%3DPN%2F0608845&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&Input=View+first+page Internal Combustion Engine #608845 filed 1895]
{{Heat engines
{{Automotive engine
{{Automobile configuration
{{Authority control
Diesel engines,
Internal combustion piston engines
1893 introductions
1893 in Germany
German inventions