In India, a devadasi was a female artist who was dedicated to the worship and service of a deity or a temple for the rest of her life. The dedication took place in a ceremony that was somewhat similar to a marriage ceremony. In addition to taking care of the temple and performing rituals, these women also learned and practiced classical Indian artistic traditions such as
Bharatanatyam
Bharatanatyam () is a major form of Indian classical dance that originated in Tamil Nadu. It is one of the eight widely recognized Indian classical dance forms, and expresses South Indian religious themes and spiritual ideas, particularly of ...
,
Mohiniyattam
Mohiniyattam, ( ml, മോഹിനിയാട്ടം), is an Indian classical dance form that developed and remained popular in the state of Kerala. Kathakali is another classical dance form of Kerala. Mohiniyattam dance gets its name fr ...
Odissi
Odissi (), also referred to as Orissi in old literature, is a major ancient Indian classical dance that originated in the temples of Odisha – an eastern coastal state of India. After becoming Devadasis, the women would spend their time learning religious rites, rituals, and dances. Devadasis were expected to live a life of celibacy, however, there have been instances of exceptions.
During the period of
British rule
The British Raj (; from Hindi ''rāj'': kingdom, realm, state, or empire) was the rule of the British Crown on the Indian subcontinent;
*
* it is also called Crown rule in India,
*
*
*
*
or Direct rule in India,
* Quote: "Mill, who was hims ...
in the Indian subcontinent, kings who were the patrons of temples lost their power, thus the temple artist communities also lost their significance. As a result, Devadasis were left without their traditional means of support and patronage and were now commonly associated with
temple prostitution
Sacred prostitution, temple prostitution, cult prostitution, and religious prostitution are rites consisting of paid intercourse performed in the context of religious worship, possibly as a form of fertility rite or divine marriage (). Scholar ...
. The practice of Devadasi was banned during
British rule
The British Raj (; from Hindi ''rāj'': kingdom, realm, state, or empire) was the rule of the British Crown on the Indian subcontinent;
*
* it is also called Crown rule in India,
*
*
*
*
or Direct rule in India,
* Quote: "Mill, who was hims ...
, starting with the
Bombay Devadasi Protection Act Bombay Devadasi Protection Act (1934) was passed by the Bombay High Court under British India to protect existing Devadasis
In India, a devadasi was a female artist who was dedicated to the worship and service of a deity or a temple for the res ...
in 1934. The colonial view of Devadasi practices remains debated as the British colonial government were unable to distinguish the Devadasis from non-religious street dancers.
The Devadasi system though is still in existence in rudimentary form but with social activism state governments of different states at different times outlawed this ritual such as Andhra Pradesh Devdasis (Prohibition of dedication) Act, 1988, or the Madras Devdasis Act 1947.
History
The practice became significant when one of the great queens of the
Somavamshi dynasty
The Somavamshi (IAST: Somavaṃśī, "Lunar dynasty") or Keshari (IAST: Keśarī) dynasty ruled parts of present-day Odisha in eastern India between the 9th and the 12th centuries. Their capitals included Yayatinagara (modern Binka) and Abhina ...
decided that in order to honour the gods, certain women who were trained in classical dancing, should be married to the deities. The inception of the practice was one that was imbued with great respect as the women who were chosen to become ''devadasi'' were subject to two great honors: first, because they were literally married to the deity, they were to be treated as if they were the
goddess Lakshmi
Lakshmi (; , sometimes spelled Laxmi, ), also known as Shri (, ), is one of the principal goddesses in Hinduism. She is the goddess of wealth, fortune, power, beauty, fertility and prosperity, and associated with '' Maya'' ("Illusion"). A ...
herself, and second, the women were honored because they were considered to be “those great women who (could) control natural human impulses, their five senses and ouldsubmit themselves completely to God.” As they were married to an immortal, the women were considered to be auspicious. Their main duties, in addition to committing to a life without marriage (to a mortal, in the common, popular sense), were to take care of a temple and learn classical Indian dances, usually the
Bharatnatyam
Bharatanatyam () is a major form of Indian classical dance that originated in Tamil Nadu. It is one of the eight widely recognized Indian classical dance forms, and expresses South Indian religious themes and spiritual ideas, particularly of ...
, which they would perform at temple rituals. Patrons were considered to have higher status for their ability to financially sponsor Devadasis.
According to temple worship rules, or
Agamas
Religion
*Āgama (Buddhism), a collection of Early Buddhist texts
*Āgama (Hinduism), scriptures of several Hindu sects
*Jain literature (Jain Āgamas), various canonical scriptures in Jainism
Other uses
* ''Agama'' (lizard), a genus of lizards ...
, dance and music are the necessary aspects of daily puja for temple deities. Devadasis were known by various local terms such as ''Basivi'' in
Karnataka
Karnataka (; ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a state in the southwestern region of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act. Originally known as Mysore State , it was renamed ''Karnat ...
, ''Matangi'' in Maharashtra, and ''Kalavantin'' in
Goa and Damaon
Goa, Daman and Diu (, ) was a union territory of the Republic of India established in 1961 following the annexation of Portuguese India, with Maj Gen K P Candeth as its first Military Governor. The Goa portion of the territory was granted ful ...
. Devadasis were also known as ''Jogini'', ''Venkatasani'', ''Nailis'', ''Muralis'' and ''Theradiyan''. Devadasi is sometimes referred to as a caste ( varna); however some question the accuracy of this usage. "According to the devadasi themselves there exists a devdasi 'way of life' or 'professional ethic' (vritti, murai) but not a devadasi jāti (sub-caste). Later, the office of devdasi became hereditary but it did not confer the right to work without adequate qualification" (Amrit Srinivasan, 1985). In Europe the term ''bayadere'' (from french: bayadère, from pt, balhadeira, literally ''dancer'') was occasionally used.
Ancient and medieval period
The definite origin of the Devadasi tradition is murky due to its early inception. The first known mention of a Devadasi is to a girl named
Amrapali
Āmrapālī, also known as "Ambapālika", "Ambapali", or "Amra" was a celebrated '' nagarvadhu'' (royal courtesan) of the republic of Vaishali (located in present-day Bihar) in ancient India around 500 BC. Following the Buddha's teachings, she ...
, who was declared
nagarvadhu
Nagarvadhu or Nagar Vadhu (Devanagari: नगरवधू) ("bride of the city") was a tradition followed in some parts of ancient India.
Women competed to win the title of a Nagarvadhu, and there was no taboo against the practice. The most bea ...
by the king during the time of the Buddha. Many scholars have noted that the tradition has no basis in scriptures.
A.S. Altekar
Anant Sadashiv Altekar (24 September 1898 – 25 November 1960; ) was a historian, archaeologist, and numismatist from Maharashtra, India. He was the Manindra Chandra Nandy's Professor and Head of the Department of Ancient Indian History and Cu ...
states that, "the custom of association of dancing girls with temples is unknown to ''
Jataka
The Jātakas (meaning "Birth Story", "related to a birth") are a voluminous body of literature native to India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, th ...
'' literature. It is not mentioned by Greek writers, and the Arthashastra, which describes in detail the life of ''Ganik'', is silent about it."
The tradition of female artists in temples is said to have developed during the 3rd century CE. A reference to such dancers is found in the
Meghadūta }
''Meghadūta'' ( sa, मेघदूत literally ''Cloud Messenger'') is a lyric poem written by Kālidāsa (c. 4th–5th century CE), considered to be one of the greatest Sanskrit poets. It describes how a '' yakṣa'' (or nature spirit), wh ...
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
writer of the
Gupta Empire
The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire which existed from the early 4th century CE to late 6th century CE. At its zenith, from approximately 319 to 467 CE, it covered much of the Indian subcontinent. This period is considered as the Gold ...
. The first confirmed reference to a Devadasi was during the Keshari Dynasty in the 6th century CE in
South India
South India, also known as Dakshina Bharata or Peninsular India, consists of the peninsular southern part of India. It encompasses the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana, as well as the union territ ...
. Other sources include the works of authors such as
Xuanzang
Xuanzang (, ; 602–664), born Chen Hui / Chen Yi (), also known as Hiuen Tsang, was a 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making contributions to Chinese Buddhism, the travelogue of ...
, a Chinese traveller, and
Kalhana
Kalhana ( sa, कल्हण, translit=kalhaṇa) was the author of ''Rajatarangini'' (''River of Kings''), an account of the history of Kashmir. He wrote the work in Sanskrit between 1148 and 1149. All information regarding his life has to be ...
, a Kashmiri historian. An inscription dated to the 11th century suggests that there were 400 ''Devadasi'' attached to the
Tanjore
Thanjavur (), also Tanjore, Pletcher 2010, p. 195 is a city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is the 11th biggest city in Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is an important center of South Indian religion, art, and architecture. Most of the ...
temple in South India. Similarly, there were 500 ''Devdasi'' at the ''Someshwer'' shrine of
Gujarat
Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...
. Between the 6th and 13th centuries, ''Devadasi'' had a high rank and dignity in society and were exceptionally affluent as they were seen as the protectors of the arts. During this period royal patrons provided them with gifts of land, property, and jewellery.
Devdasis in South India and the Chola Empire
The Chola empire supported the Devdasi system; in Tamil Devdasis were known as ''Devar Adigalar'', ("Deva" means "Divine" and "Adigalar" "Servants", i.e. "Servants of the Divine"). Both male and female Devadasi were dedicated to the service of a temple and its deity. The Chola empire developed the tradition of music and dance employed during temple festivals.
Inscriptions indicate that 400 dancers, along with their
guru
Guru ( sa, गुरु, IAST: ''guru;'' Pali'': garu'') is a Sanskrit term for a "mentor, guide, expert, or master" of certain knowledge or field. In pan-Indian traditions, a guru is more than a teacher: traditionally, the guru is a reverential ...
s and orchestras, were maintained by the Brihadeesvarar temple,
Thanjavur
Thanjavur (), also Tanjore, Pletcher 2010, p. 195 is a city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is the 11th biggest city in Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is an important center of South Indian religion, art, and architecture. Most of the Gr ...
, with munificent grants including the daily disbursement of oil, turmeric, betel leaves, and nuts. Nattuvanars were the male accompanists of the Devadasis during their performances. The Nattuvanars conducted the orchestra while the Devadasi performed her service. Inscriptions indicate that Nattuvanars taught the Chola princess Kuntavai.
As the Chola empire expanded in wealth and size, more temples were built throughout the country. Soon other emperors started imitating the Chola empire and adopted Devadasi systems of their own.
Natavalollu
A community of Karnataka living in
Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh (, abbr. AP) is a state in the south-eastern coastal region of India. It is the seventh-largest state by area covering an area of and tenth-most populous state with 49,386,799 inhabitants. It is bordered by Telangana to the ...
, the ''Natavalollu'' were are also known as ''Nattuvaru'', ''Bogam'', ''Bhogam'', and ''Kalavanthulu''.
It was customary in the Krishna district of
Tenali
Tenali is a city in Guntur district of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. It is a municipality and the headquarters of Tenali mandal and Tenali revenue division. The city is renowned for art, culture, drama and hence, it is called ''Andhra ...
for each family to give one girl to the Devadasi system. These dancers were known as ''Jakkulas''. As part of a social reform, a written agreement was made to formally end the practice.
''Ādapāpas'' were female attendants to the ladies of the families of
Zamindar
A zamindar ( Hindustani: Devanagari: , ; Persian: , ) in the Indian subcontinent was an autonomous or semiautonomous ruler of a province. The term itself came into use during the reign of Mughals and later the British had begun using it as ...
s. Ādapāpas led a life of prostitution as they were not allowed to marry. In some places such as the Krishna and Godāvari districts, Ādapāpas were known as ''Khasa'' or ''Khasavandlu''.
''Natavalollu''/''Kalawants'' were a community that was distributed throughout the state of
Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh (, abbr. AP) is a state in the south-eastern coastal region of India. It is the seventh-largest state by area covering an area of and tenth-most populous state with 49,386,799 inhabitants. It is bordered by Telangana to the ...
. They were also referred to as ''Devadasi'', ''Bogamvallu'', ''Ganikulu'', and ''Sani''. ''Kalavantulu'' means one who is engaged in art.Davesh Soneji writes that, "By the early twenty-first century, large numbers of women in the Kalavanthulu community had converted to Christianity, because this promised them a stable monthly income as members of the new rehabilitation programs of these missions."
Mahari Devadasi of Odisha
In the eastern state of
Odisha
Odisha (English: , ), formerly Orissa ( the official name until 2011), is an Indian state located in Eastern India. It is the 8th largest state by area, and the 11th largest by population. The state has the third largest population of ...
Devadasis were known colloquially as Maharis of the Jagannath temple complex. The term ''Devadasi'' referred to the women who danced inside the temple. Devadasi, or mahari, means "those great women who can control natural human impulses, their five senses and can submit themselves completely to God (Vachaspati)." Mahari means ''Mahan Nari'' that is, the woman belonging to God. Sri Chaitanayadev had defined Devadasis as ''Sebayatas'' who served God through dance and music.
Pankaj Charan Das
Guru Pankaj Charan Das (1919-2003) was an Indian classical dancer, choreographer and the ''Ādi Guru'' of Odissi dance. He is known as the 'Father of Odissi dance'.
Life
He was the adopted son of a ''mahari'' (temple dancer) Ratna Prabha De ...
, the oldest guru of
Odissi
Odissi (), also referred to as Orissi in old literature, is a major ancient Indian classical dance that originated in the temples of Odisha – an eastern coastal state of India.
Unlike other parts of India, the Odia Mahari Devadasis were never sexually liberal and were expected to remain celibate upon becoming Devadasis. However, there are records of Odia Mahari Devadasi having relationships and children. It is said that the daughters of the Maharis of the Jagannath temple took to other professions such as nursing in the mid-20th century due to stigma attached to their inherent profession, which may suggest prostitution.
The 1956 Orissa Gazette lists nine Devadasis and eleven temple musicians. By 1980, only four Devadasis were left – Harapriya, Kokilaprabha, Parashmani, and Shashimani. By 1998, only Shashimani and Parashmani were still alive. The daily ritualistic dance had stopped, although Shashimani and Parashmani served in a few of the yearly temple rituals such as ''Nabakalebara'', ''Nanda Utsava'', and ''Duara Paka'' during ''Bahuda Jatra''. The last of the Devadasis, Shashimani, died on 19 March 2015, at the age of 92.
Yellamma Cult of Karnataka in South India
In the southern Indian state of Karnataka the Devadasi system was practiced for over 10 centuries. Chief among them was the
Yellamma
Renuka, also known as Yellamma, is a Hindu goddess worshipped predominantly in the South Indian states of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and western state of Maharashtra. She is also known as the mother of Parashuram ...
cult.
There are many stories about the origin of the Yellamma cult. The most popular story indicates that Renuka was the daughter of a
Brahmin
Brahmin (; sa, ब्राह्मण, brāhmaṇa) is a varna as well as a caste within Hindu society. The Brahmins are designated as the priestly class as they serve as priests (purohit, pandit, or pujari) and religious teachers (gur ...
, married the sage Jamadagni, and was the mother of five sons. She used to bring water from the Malaprabha river for the sage's worship and rituals. One day at the river she saw a group of youths engaged in water sports and forgot to return home in time for her husband's worship and rituals, which made Jamadagni question her chastity. He ordered their sons one by one to punish their mother, but four of them refused on one pretext or the other. The sage cursed them to become eunuchs and had Renuka beheaded by his fifth son, Parashuram. To everybody's astonishment, Renuka's head multiplied by tens and hundreds and moved to different regions. This miracle inspired her four eunuch sons as well as others to become her followers and worship her head.Yellamma Slaves
Colonial Era
Reformists and abolitionists
Reformists and abolitionists considered the Devadasi a social evil due to their way of life, which seemed like prostitution according to the Western eye. The first anti-
Nautch
The nautch (; meaning "dance" or "dancing")Scott A. Kugle, 2016When Sun Meets Moon: Gender, Eros, and Ecstasy in Urdu Poetry p.230. was a popular court dance performed by girls (known as "nautch girls") in India. The culture of the performing ...
and anti-dedication movement began in 1882. The portrayal of the Devadasi system as "prostitution" was done to advertise the supposed grotesqueness of Indian culture for political means, even though the British colonial authorities officially maintained most brothels in India.
In later period the devadasis were equated with prostitutes and their children were again given away to temples. Stigma was attached to a particular caste of devadasis and they were seen as prostitutes. After a certain age they were left to fend for themselves.
As the Devadasi were equated with prostitutes, they also became associated with the spread of the
venereal disease
Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), also referred to as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and the older term venereal diseases, are infections that are Transmission (medicine), spread by Human sexual activity, sexual activity, especi ...
syphilis in India. During the British colonial period many British soldiers were exposed to venereal diseases in brothels, and Devadasis were misunderstood to be responsible. In an effort to control the spread of venereal disease the British Government mandated that all prostitutes register themselves. Devadasis were required to register, as they were thought to be prostitutes by the British Government.
In addition to obligatory registration, the British Government also established institutions known as Lock Hospitals where women were brought in order to be treated for venereal diseases. However, many of the women admitted to these hospitals, including many Devadasi, were identified through the registry and then forcibly brought to the hospitals. A number of these women were confined in the hospitals permanently.
Today, Sitavva Joddati of Karnataka helps former Devadasi find a foothold in mainstream society. In 1982 she was made a Devadasi at age seven. In 1997 she began the non-governmental organisation MASS (Mahila Abhivrudhi-Samrakshana Sansthe) in the Belagavi district of
Ghataprabha
Ghataprabha is a village in the southern state of Karnataka, in north Karnataka India.Village code= 47500 It is located in the Gokak taluk of Belgaum district in Karnataka.
Demographics
As of the 2001 India census, Ghataprabha had a popul ...
to help women like her escape the Devadasi system and live a life of dignity. Between 1997 and 2017 MASS helped over 4,800 Devadasis reintegrate into mainstream society. In 2018 she received the
Padmashri
Padma Shri (IAST: ''padma śrī''), also spelled Padma Shree, is the fourth-highest civilian award of the Republic of India, after the Bharat Ratna, the Padma Vibhushan and the Padma Bhushan. Instituted on 2 January 1954, the award is conferred ...
theosophist
Theosophy is a religion established in the United States during the late 19th century. It was founded primarily by the Russian Helena Blavatsky and draws its teachings predominantly from Blavatsky's writings. Categorized by scholars of religion ...
trained in ballet, sought to re-appropriate the Devadasi dance traditions in a context perceived respectably by Indian society which had by then adopted the western morales. She altered the dance repertoire to exclude pieces perceived as erotic in their description of a deity. She also systematized the dance in a way that incorporated the extension and use of space associated with dance traditions such as ballet. The product of this transformation was a new version of
Bharatnatyam
Bharatanatyam () is a major form of Indian classical dance that originated in Tamil Nadu. It is one of the eight widely recognized Indian classical dance forms, and expresses South Indian religious themes and spiritual ideas, particularly of ...
, which she taught professionally at the ''Kalakshetra'' school she established in Madras. Bharatnatyam is commonly seen as a very ancient dance tradition associated with the Natyasastra. However, Bharatnatyam as it is performed and known today is actually a product of Arundale's recent endeavour to remove the Devadasi dance tradition from the perceived immoral context associated with the Devadasi community and bring it into the upper caste performance milieu. She also adopted a lot of technical elements of Ballet into the modified form of Bharathanatyam. To give the dance form a measure of respect E Krishna Iyer and Rukmini Devi Arundale proposed a resolution at a 1932 meeting of the Madras Music Academy to rename ''Sadiraattam'' as "Bharatanatyam" or Indian dance.Weidman, Pg 120
Legislative Initiatives
The first legal initiative to outlaw the Devadasi system dates back to the 1934
Bombay Devadasi Protection Act Bombay Devadasi Protection Act (1934) was passed by the Bombay High Court under British India to protect existing Devadasis
In India, a devadasi was a female artist who was dedicated to the worship and service of a deity or a temple for the res ...
. This act pertained to the
Bombay
Mumbai (, ; also known as Bombay — the official name until 1995) is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra and the ''de facto'' financial centre of India. According to the United Nations, as of 2018, Mumbai is the second-m ...
province as it existed in the
British Raj
The British Raj (; from Hindi ''rāj'': kingdom, realm, state, or empire) was the rule of the British Crown on the Indian subcontinent;
*
* it is also called Crown rule in India,
*
*
*
*
or Direct rule in India,
* Quote: "Mill, who was him ...
. The Bombay Devadasi Protection Act made dedication of women illegal, whether consensual or not. In 1947, the year of Indian independence, the Madras Devadasi (Prevention of Dedication) Act outlawed dedication in the southern Madras Presidency. The Devadasi system was formally outlawed in all of India in 1988, although some Devadasis still practice the system illegally.
Devadasi practices
From the late medieval period until 1910, the Pottukattu or ''tali-tying'' dedication ceremony, was a widely advertised community event requiring the full cooperation of the local religious authorities. It initiated a young girl into the Devadasi profession and was performed in the temple by a priest. In the Hindu tradition, marriage is viewed as the only religious initiation (''diksha'') permissible to women. Thus, the dedication was a symbolic "marriage" of the pubescent girl to the temple's deity.
In the ''sadanku'' or puberty ceremonies, the Devadasi initiate began her marriage with an emblem of the god borrowed from the temple as a stand-in
bridegroom
A bridegroom (often shortened to groom) is a man who is about to be married or who is newlywed.
When marrying, the bridegroom's future spouse (if female) is usually referred to as the bride. A bridegroom is typically attended by a best man ...
. From then onward, the Devadasi was considered a ''nitya sumangali'', a woman eternally free from the adversity of widowhood. She would then perform her ritual and artistic duties in the temple. The puberty ceremonies were not only a religious occasion, but also a community feast and celebration in which the local elites also participated.
Odisha
The 1956 Orissa Gazette references Devadasis dances. They had two daily rituals. The ''Bahara Gaaunis'' would dance at the ''Sakaala Dhupa''. After breakfast
Lord Jagannatha
Jagannath ( or, ଜଗନ୍ନାଥ, lit=Lord of the Universe, Jagannātha; formerly en, Juggernaut) is a deity worshipped in regional Hindu traditions in India and Bangladesh as part of a triad along with his brother Balabhadra, and sister ...
would give Darshana to the ''bhaktas'' (the devotees). In the main hall, a Devadasi, accompanied by musicians and the Rajaguru (the court guru), would dance standing near the
Garuda
Garuda (Sanskrit: ; Pāli: ; Vedic Sanskrit: गरुळ Garuḷa) is a Hindu demigod and divine creature mentioned in the Hindu, Buddhist and Jain faiths. He is primarily depicted as the mount (''vahana'') of the Hindu god Vishnu. Garuda ...
stambha (pillar). They would perform only pure dance, and could be watched by the audience. The ''Bhitara Gaunis'' would sing at the ''Badashinghara'', the main ceremony for ornamenting and dressing the God. At bedtime, Lord Jagannatha would first be served by male Sebayatas, who would fan him and decorate him with flowers. After they left, a ''Bhitara Gaauni'' would then enter the room, stand near the door (Jaya Vijaya), sing
Gita Govinda
The ''Gita Govinda'' ( sa, गीत गोविन्दम्; ) is a work composed by the 12th-century Hindu poet, Jayadeva. It describes the relationship between Krishna, Radha and ''gopis'' (female cow herders) of Vrindavan.
The ''Gita ...
songs, and perhaps perform a ritualistic dance. Later she would come out and announce that the Lord has gone to sleep and the guard would close the main gate.
Social status
A Devadasi was believed to be immune from widowhood and was called ''akhanda saubhagyavati'' ("woman never separated from good fortune"). Since she was wedded to a divine deity, she was supposed to be one of the especially welcome guests at weddings and was regarded as a bearer of good fortune. At weddings, people would receive a string of the ''tali'' (wedding lock) prepared by her, threaded with a few beads from her own necklace. The presence of a Devadasi on any religious occasion in the house of a dvija member was regarded as sacred and she was treated with due respect, and was presented with gifts.
Contemporary statistical data
Indian
National Commission for Women
The National Commission for Women (NCW) is the statutory body of the Government of India, generally concerned with advising the government on all policy matters affecting women. It was established on 31 January 1992 under the provisions of the I ...
, which is mandated to protect and promote the welfare of women, collected information on the prevalence of Devadasi culture in various states. The government of
Odisha
Odisha (English: , ), formerly Orissa ( the official name until 2011), is an Indian state located in Eastern India. It is the 8th largest state by area, and the 11th largest by population. The state has the third largest population of ...
stated that the Devadasi system is not prevalent in the state. There is only one Devadasi in Odisha, in a
Puri
Puri () is a coastal city and a municipality in the state of Odisha in eastern India. It is the district headquarters of Puri district and is situated on the Bay of Bengal, south of the state capital of Bhubaneswar. It is also known as '' ...
temple. In March 2015, a newspaper report said that the last devadasi, Sashimoni, attached to
Jagannath temple
The Jagannath Temple is an important Hindu temple dedicated to Jagannath, a form of Vishnu - one of the trinity of supreme divinity in Hinduism. Puri is in the state of Odisha, on the eastern coast of India. The present temple was rebuilt f ...
had died, bringing the curtain down on the institution.
Similarly, the government of
Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu (; , TN) is a state in southern India. It is the tenth largest Indian state by area and the sixth largest by population. Its capital and largest city is Chennai. Tamil Nadu is the home of the Tamil people, whose Tamil language ...
wrote that this system has been eradicated and there are now no Devadasis in the state.
Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh (, abbr. AP) is a state in the south-eastern coastal region of India. It is the seventh-largest state by area covering an area of and tenth-most populous state with 49,386,799 inhabitants. It is bordered by Telangana to the ...
has identified 16,624 Devadasis within its state. The
Karnataka State Women's University
Karnataka State Akkamahadevi Women's University (KSAWU, Vijayapura) also known as Karnataka State Women's University was established in August 2003 and is the first university exclusively for women in the state of Karnataka. It is in the city of ...
found more than 80,000 Devadasi
Karnataka
Karnataka (; ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a state in the southwestern region of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act. Originally known as Mysore State , it was renamed ''Karnat ...
in 2018; while a government study found 40,600 in 2008. The government of Maharashtra did not provide the information as sought by the commission. However, the state government provided statistical data regarding the survey conducted by them to sanction a "Devadasi Maintenance Allowance". A total of 8,793 applications were received and after conducting a survey 6,314 were rejected and 2,479 Devadasis were declared eligible for the allowance. At the time of sending the information, 1,432 Devadasis were receiving this allowance.
According to a study by the Joint Women's Programme of Bangalore for National Commission for Women, girls who have to accept becoming a Devadasi, few reasons were provided, which included dumbness, deafness, poverty, and others. The
life expectancy
Life expectancy is a statistical measure of the average time an organism is expected to live, based on the year of its birth, current age, and other demographic factors like sex. The most commonly used measure is life expectancy at birth ...
of Devadasi girls is low compared to the average of the country, it is rare to find Devadasis older than fifty.
In popular culture
See also
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Isai Vellalar
Isai Vellalar is a community found in India in Tamil Nadu. They are traditionally involved as performers of classical dance and music in Hindu temples and courts of the patrons. The term "Isai Vellalar" is a recent community identity, people of min ...
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Sacred prostitution
Sacred prostitution, temple prostitution, cult prostitution, and religious prostitution are rites consisting of paid intercourse performed in the context of religious worship, possibly as a form of fertility rite or divine marriage (). Scholars ...
Nagarvadhu
Nagarvadhu or Nagar Vadhu (Devanagari: नगरवधू) ("bride of the city") was a tradition followed in some parts of ancient India.
Women competed to win the title of a Nagarvadhu, and there was no taboo against the practice. The most bea ...
Tawaif
A ''tawaif'' was a highly successful entertainer who catered to the nobility of the Indian subcontinent, particularly during the Mughal era. The tawaifs excelled in and contributed to music, dance ( mujra), theatre, and the Urdu literary tradi ...
Chakyar
Chakyar ( ml, ചാക്യാർ; ; ; also spelled Cakyar, Chakkiar, Chakiar, etc.) is an intermediate priestly caste coming under the Ambalavasi community of Hindus in the Kerala state of India. The women in this caste are called ''Illo ...
Kerala
Kerala ( ; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South ...
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Kanjirottu Yakshi
Kanjirottu Yakshi is a folkloric deity of South India. According to the myth, she was born into an affluent Nair tharavad by name Mangalathu at Kanjiracode in Southern Travancore (now in Tamil Nadu). Also known as Chiruthevi, she was a beaut ...
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Muthulaxmi Reddy
Muthulakshmi Reddy (also spelled Reddi in some British Indian sources; 30 July 1886 – 22 July 1968) was an Indian medical practitioner, social reformer and Padma Bhushan award recipient.
Muthulakshmi Reddy was appointed to the Madras Legisl ...
* Altekar, A.S., ''The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization'', Benaras: Motilal Banarasi Das, 1956.
* Amrit Srinivasan, "Reform and Revival: The Devadasi and Her Dance", ''Economic and Political Weekly'', Vol. XX, No. 44, 2 November 1985, pp. 1869–1876.
* Artal R.O., "Basavis in Peninsular India", ''Journal of Anthropological Society of Bombay'', Vol. IX, No. 2, 1910.
* Asha Ramesh, ''Impact of Legislative Prohibition of the Devadasi Practice in Karnataka: A Study'', (Carried out under financial assistance from NORAD), May 1993.
* Banerjee, G.R., ''Sex Delinquent Women and Their Rehabilitation'', Bombay: Tata Institute of Social Sciences, 1953.
* Basham, A.L., ''The Wonder That Was India'', New York: Grove Press, 1954.
* Chakrabothy, K. (2000). ''Women as Devadasis: Origin and Growth of the Devadasi Profession''. Delhi, Deep & Deep Publications.
* Chakrapani, C, "Jogin System: A Study in Religion and Society", ''Man in Asia'', Vol. IV, No. II, 1991.
* Cornwall, Andrea (2016) Save us from Saviours: Disrupting Development Narratives of the Rescue and Uplift of the 'Third World Woman' in Hemer, Oscar and Thomas Tufte (Eds.) (2016 Voice and Matter: Communication, Development and the Cultural Return Gothenburg: Nordicom.
* Crooke Williams, ''The Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India'', (Third Reprint), Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1968.
* Crooke, W., "Prostitution", ''Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics'', Vol. X, Eds., James Hastings and Clark Edinburg, Second Impression, 1930.
* Desai Neera, ''Women in India'', Bombay: Vora Publishers, 1957.
* Dubois Abbe J.A and Beachampes H.K., ''Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies'', Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1928
* Dumont Louis, ''Religion, Politics and History in India'', The Hague, Mouton and Co., 1970
* Dumont Louis, ''Homo Hierarchius: The Caste System and Its Implications'', Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1972.
* Durrani, K.S., ''Religion and Society'', New Delhi: Uppal, 1983.
* Fuller Marcus B., ''The Wrongs of Indian Womanhood'', Edinburgh: Oliphant Anderson and Ferrier, 1900.
* Goswami, Kali Prasad., Devadāsī: dancing damsel ', APH Publishing, 2000.
* Gough Kathleen, "Female Initiation Rites on the Malabar Coast", ''Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute'', No. 85, 1952.
* Gupta Giri Raj, ''Religion in Modern India'', New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1983.
* Heggade Odeyar D., "A Socio-economic strategy for Rehabilitating Devadasis", ''Social Welfare'', Feb–Mar 1983.
*
Iyer
Iyers (also spelt as Ayyar, Aiyar, Ayer, or Aiyer) are an ethnoreligious community of Tamil-speaking Hindu Brahmins. Most Iyers are followers of the ''Advaita'' philosophy propounded by Adi Shankara and adhere to the Smarta tradition. This is ...
, L.A.K, "Devadasis in South India: Their Traditional Origin And Development", ''Man in India'', Vol.7, No. 47, 1927.
* Jain Devki, ''Women’s Quest for Power'', New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1980.
* Jogan Shankar, ''Devadasi Cult – A Sociological Analysis'' (Second Revised Edition), New Delhi: Ashish Publishing House, 1994.
* JOINT WOMEN’S PROGRAMME, Regional Centre, Bangalore, ''An Exploratory Study on Devadasi Rehabilitation Programme'' Initiated by Karnataka State Women's Development Corporation and SC/ST Corporation, Government of Karnataka in Northern Districts of Karnataka, Report Submitted to National Commission for Women, New Delhi, 2001–02 (year not mentioned in the report).
* JONAKI (The Glow Worm), ''Devadasi System: Prostitution with Religious Sanction'', Indrani Sinha (Chief Editor), Calcutta, Vol.2 No.1 1998.
* Jordens, J.T.F., "Hindu Religions and Social Reform in British India", ''A Cultural History of India'', Ed. A.L. Basham, Clarendon Press,
* Jordan, K. (2003). ''From Sacred Servant to Profane Prostitute; A history of the changing legal status of the Devadasis in India'' 1857–1947. Delhi, Manohar. Oxford, 1975.
* Kadetotad, N.K., ''Religion and Society among the Harijans of Yellammana Jogatiyaru Hagu Devadasi Paddati (Jogati of Yellamma and Devadasi Custom)'', Dharwad, Karnatak University Press (Kannada), 1983.
* Kala Rani, ''Role Conflict in Working Women'', New Delhi: Chetna Publishers, 1976.
* Karkhanis, G.G., ''Devadasi: A Burning Problem of Karnataka'', Bijapur: Radha Printing Works, 1959.
* Levine, P. (2000). "Orientalist Sociology and the Creation of Colonial Sexualities." ''Feminist Review'' 65(17): Pages: 5–21.
* Marglin, F.A., ''Wives of The God-king: Rituals of Devadasi of Puri'', Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1985.
* Mies, M. (1980). ''Indian Women and Patriarchy''. Delhi, Concept Publishers.
* Mies, M. (1986). ''Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale: Women in the International Division of Labor''. London, Zed Books Ltd.
* Mukherjee, A.B., "Female Participation in India: Patterns & Associations", ''Tiydschrift: Voor Econ'', Geografie, 1972.
* Ostor Akos, ''Culture and Power'', New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1971.
* Patil, B.R., "The Devadasis", in ''The Indian Journal of Social Work'', Vol. XXXV, No. 4, January 1975, pp. 377–89
* Puekar S.D. and Kamalla Rao, ''A Study of Prostitution in Bombay'', Bombay: Lalwani Publishing House, 1967.
* Rajaladshmi, Suryanarayana and Mukherjee, "The Basavis in Chittoor District of Andhra Pradesh", ''Man in India'', Vol. 56, No. 4, 1976.
* Ranjana, "Daughters Married to Gods and Goddesses", ''Social Welfare'', Feb–Mar 1983, pp. 28–31.
* Sahoo, B.B, "Revival of the Devadasi system", ''Indian Journal of Social Work'', Vol 58, No 3, 1997.
* Srinivasan, K., ''Devadasi'' (a novel), Madras: Christian Literature Society, 1976.
* Sujana Mallika & Krishna Reddy, ''Devadasi System – A Universal Institution'', Paper presented in the A.P. History Congress at Warangal, January 1990.
* Tarachand K.C., ''Devadasi Custom – Rural Social Structure and Flesh Markets'', New Delhi: Reliance Publishing House, 1992.
* Upadhyaya, B.S., ''Women in Rig Veda'', New Delhi: S. Chand & Co., 1974.
* Vasant Rajas, ''Devadasi: Shodh Ani Bodh'' (Marathi), Pune: Sugawa Prakashan, July 1997.
* Vijaya Kumar, S & Chakrapani, c 1993, ''Joginism: A Bane of Indian Women'', Almora: Shri Almora Book Depot.
* Sanyal, Narayan, ''Sutanuka ekti debdasir nam'' (in
Bengali
Bengali or Bengalee, or Bengalese may refer to:
*something of, from, or related to Bengal, a large region in South Asia
* Bengalis, an ethnic and linguistic group of the region
* Bengali language, the language they speak
** Bengali alphabet, the w ...
Kannada
Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...