The Dawoodi Bohras are a religious denomination within the
Ismā'īlī branch of
Shia Islam. Their largest numbers reside in
India,
Pakistan,
Yemen,
East Africa
East Africa, Eastern Africa, or East of Africa, is the eastern subregion of the African continent. In the United Nations Statistics Division scheme of geographic regions, 10-11-(16*) territories make up Eastern Africa:
Due to the historical ...
, and the
Middle East, with a growing presence across Europe, North America, South East Asia, and Australia. Most estimates put the worldwide population to be one million.
The Dawoodi Bohras are known to be a close-knit community who, like all Muslims, follow the tenets of Islam; namely reciting the Quran, observing the five daily prayers, fasting during the month of Ramadan, performing the pilgrimages of Hajj and Umra and offering Zakat. Whilst adherence to traditional values is important for the community,
they are also known for their mercantilism
and having a modernist approach to their lifestyles.
The cultural heritage of this denomination is found in the traditions of the Fatimid Imams; direct descendants of the
Islamic prophet
Prophets in Islam ( ar, الأنبياء في الإسلام, translit=al-ʾAnbiyāʾ fī al-ʾIslām) are individuals in Islam who are believed to spread God in Islam, God's message on Earth and to serve as models of ideal human behaviour. So ...
Muhammad through his daughter Fatima. The Fatimids
ruled
''Ruled'' is the fifth full-length LP by The Giraffes. Drums, bass and principal guitar tracks recorded at The Bunker in Brooklyn, NY. Vocals and additional guitars recorded at Strangeweather in Brooklyn, NY. Mixed at Studio G in Brooklyn, NY ...
over North Africa between 10th and 11th century CE.
Mostly self-reliant, the Bohras are typically traders, businesspersons, and entrepreneurs. The word "Bohra", in fact, comes from the
Gujarati word ''vohrvu'' or ''vyavahar'', meaning "to trade".
History
Dawoodi Bohras are a subset of
Taiyebi,
Musta'li
The Musta‘lī ( ar, مستعلي) are a branch of Isma'ilism named for their acceptance of al-Musta'li as the legitimate nineteenth Fatimid caliph and legitimate successor to his father, al-Mustansir Billah. In contrast, the Nizari—the other l ...
,
Isma'ili,
Shia Islam
Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism#Islam, monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God in Islam, God (or ...
.
The Bohras trace their heritage to the
Fatimid Caliphate
The Fatimid Caliphate was an Isma'ilism, Ismaili Shia Islam, Shi'a caliphate extant from the tenth to the twelfth centuries AD. Spanning a large area of North Africa, it ranged from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Red Sea in the ea ...
, named after
Fatimah, the daughter of
Muhammad, and so veneration of the
Fatimid Imams and
Muhammad's family is central to their faith.
The Fatimid Imams
The
Fatimids
The Fatimid Caliphate was an Isma'ilism, Ismaili Shia Islam, Shi'a caliphate extant from the tenth to the twelfth centuries AD. Spanning a large area of North Africa, it ranged from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Red Sea in the ea ...
, from the lineage of the
Hashimites
The Hashemites ( ar, الهاشميون, al-Hāshimīyūn), also House of Hashim, are the royal family of Jordan, which they have ruled since 1921, and were the royal family of the kingdoms of Hejaz (1916–1925), Syria (1920), and Iraq (19 ...
of
Mecca, ruled over
North Africa and Egypt,
Hejaz
The Hejaz (, also ; ar, ٱلْحِجَاز, al-Ḥijāz, lit=the Barrier, ) is a region in the west of Saudi Arabia. It includes the cities of Mecca, Medina, Jeddah, Tabuk, Yanbu, Taif, and Baljurashi. It is also known as the "Western Provin ...
, and
Levant between the 10th and 11th centuries.
The Fatimids flourished during what Maurice Lombard called the
Golden age of Islam, and were patrons of arts, learning, and scientific discovery.
The 14th Imam,
al-Mui’zz, founded what is the modern day city of Cairo and established
Al-Azhar University
, image = جامعة_الأزهر_بالقاهرة.jpg
, image_size = 250
, caption = Al-Azhar University portal
, motto =
, established =
*970/972 first foundat ...
, which is one of the oldest universities in the world.
Before the empire's decline,
Al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah
Abu Ali al-Mansur ibn al-Musta'li ( ar, أبو علي المنصور بن المستعلي, Abū ʿAlī al-Manṣūr ibn al-Mustaʿlī; 31 December 1096 – 7 October 1130), better known by his regnal name al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah ( ar, الآمر ...
, the 20th
Fatimid Imam, directed his grand emissary,
Arwa bint Ahmad, the
Sulayhid queen of Yemen, to establish the office of the ''
Da'i al-Mutlaq'' () to act as vicegerent of his son, the 21st Imam
At-Tayyib Abu'l-Qasim while he was in
occultation, and to lead ''al-Da'wah al-Hadiyah''.
Arwa bint Ahmad appointed
Zoeb bin Musa
Dhuʾayb ibn Mūsā al-Wādiʿī al-Hamdānī (; died 29 April 1151 CE in Hooth, Yemen) was the first '' dāʿī al-muṭlaq'', a position of spiritual authority in Tayyibi Isma'ili Islam. He was appointed to the position by Queen Arwa al-Sulayhi. ...
as the first ''Da'i al-Mutlaq''.
[Alt URL]
/ref>
Succession to the office of ''al-Da'i al-Mutlaq'' happens through '' nass'', whereby each Da'i—inspired
Inspiration, inspire, or inspired often refers to:
* Artistic inspiration, sudden creativity in artistic production
* Biblical inspiration, the doctrine in Judeo-Christian theology concerned with the divine origin of the Bible
* Creative inspir ...
and guided by the Imam al-Zamaan—appoints a successor in his own lifetime, and this chain of succession continues uninterrupted to this day. The present incumbent to the office is the 53rd ''Da'i al-Mutlaq'', Mufaddal Saifuddin.
Origins in India
The roots of the community's establishment in India go back to the Fatimid era, when Al Mustansir Billah, the 18th Imam, sent a Dai named Abd Allah from Yemen to initiate the Da’wah on his behalf. Abd Allah arrived in Cambay (modern day Khambhat, Gujarat) in AD 1067/ H 460 and soon won many converts, including local rulers.
The seclusion of al-Tayyeb led to the establishment of the office of al-Dai al-Mutlaq in Yemen. Subsequently, the Indian community which had pledged allegiance to the Fatimids continued to remain loyal to the Dais in Yemen. This resulted in a secession with the Hafizis, led by Al-Tayyeb's uncle, Abd al-Majid. Twenty three Dais operated from their mountain bases in Yemen for nearly four centuries, preserving the faith and authoring seminal works. The 19th Dai, Idris Imaduddin wrote numerous works, including a comprehensive and detailed history of the Fatimid faith.
Meanwhile, the community in Gujarat had maintained ties with their leaders in Yemen, who closely supervised their affairs and regularly welcomed Bohra delegations from Gujarat. During this time, the community grew in size, especially in Cambay, Patan, Sidhpur, and Ahmedabad.
Yusuf bin Sulayman Najmuddin, originally from Sidhpur, a town in Gujarat, was one of the Bohras who travelled to Yemen to seek knowledge from the Dai. Najmuddin arrived in Yemen while still in his youth and first studied under Hasan bin Nuh al-Bharuchi. He was eventually nominated by the twenty-third Dai as his successor and became the first from the Indian community to lead the Tayyibi Da’wa as the twenty-fourth al-Dai al-Mutlaq. When Najmuddin died in CE 1567/H 974, the central headquarters of the Da’wa were transferred from Yemen to Gujarat by his Indian successor, Jalal bin Hasan, who established residence at Ahmedabad.
When the 26th al-Dai al-Mutlaq died in CE 1589 /H 997, he was succeeded by his deputy, Dawood bin Qutubshah. However, three years later, Sulayman bin Hasan, a high-ranking dignitary in Yemen, claimed the succession to the leadership of the community for himself. This succession dispute was brought before the Mughal emperor Akbar
Abu'l-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar (25 October 1542 – 27 October 1605), popularly known as Akbar the Great ( fa, ), and also as Akbar I (), was the third Mughal emperor, who reigned from 1556 to 1605. Akbar succeeded his father, Hum ...
in 1597. A special tribunal decided in favour of Dawood bin Qutubshah. However, this did not dissolve tensions, leading to a schism in the community. A majority of Bohras acknowledged Dawood bin Qutubshah as the rightful successor and henceforth came to be known as Dawoodis (or Da’udis.)
Major Centres
Over the next few centuries, the Bohra headquarters moved within India with the changing location of the Dai. The centre of the Da’wah has shifted six times: Ahmedabad
Ahmedabad ( ; Gujarati: Amdavad ) is the most populous city in the Indian state of Gujarat. It is the administrative headquarters of the Ahmedabad district and the seat of the Gujarat High Court. Ahmedabad's population of 5,570,585 (per t ...
(eight Dais, from 1567/974 to 1655/1065); Jamnagar
Jamnagar () is a city located on the western coast of India in the state of Gujarat of Saurashtra (region), Saurashtra region. It is the administrative headquarters of the Jamnagar district and the fifth largest city in Gujarat. The city lies ...
in the Kathiawar region of Gujarat (five Dais, from 1655/1065 to 1737/1150); Ujjan in present day state of Madhya Pradesh (two Dais, from 1737/1150 to 1779/1193); Burhanpur, Madhya Pradesh (one Dai, from 1779/1193 to 1785/1200); Surat
Surat is a city in the western Indian state of Gujarat. The word Surat literally means ''face'' in Gujarati and Hindi. Located on the banks of the river Tapti near its confluence with the Arabian Sea, it used to be a large seaport. It is now ...
in present day state of Gujarat (eight Dais, from 1785/1200 to 1933/1351) and Mumbai in the state of Maharashtra where the current Dai resides.
Beginning from the early 19th century, several community members emigrated to different lands in search for better livelihoods. The first wave of Bohra traders migrating to East Africa took place in the aftermath of a severe drought in Kathiawar. The 43rd Dai, Abdeali Saifuddin, invited 12,000 of his followers to Surat, and provided food, work and lodgings for all of them. His only conditions were that they learn and practice vocational skills, and he gave them their earnings when it was time for them to leave Surat. Many from this group decided to use this capital to venture forth to trade in East Africa.
A century on from Abdeali Saifuddin, Taher Saifuddin succeeded him to the office of al-Dai al-Mutlaq as the 51st Dai, and his leadership was challenged almost immediately upon assuming the office. Taher Saifuddin is credited with revitalising the community by restructuring its organisation on modern lines.
He shifted the community headquarters from Surat to Mumbai, which had become a major centre of trade and commerce in India. His emphasis on acquiring higher education across disciplines saw many young Dawoodi Bohras go on to settle in different parts of the globe resulting in thriving new communities.
There is a tiny community of Bohras in Kerala too, who migrated 150 years ago from Gujarat.
Office of the al-Dai al-Mutlaq
During the seclusion of the imam, al-dai al-mutlaq is the vicegerent of the imam appointed to lead the community and administer with complete authority, its secular and religious affairs.
The dai preaches Quranic precepts, which are the foundation of the faith, and guides the community upon the path of salvation. Over the last nine centuries that this office has been in existence, each dai has played an important role in shaping the community’s social and economic progress. Community members seek and abide by his counsel in different aspects of life. Their disciplined life, piety, scholarship and judicious guidance have defined the office of al-dai al-mutlaq.
The first dai, Dhu'ayb bin Musa, was appointed in 532/1138 in Yemen by Queen Arwa bint Ahmed when the 21st Imam went into seclusion. Since then, 23 dais, one following the other, established the Dawat in Yemen over the next 400 years. After nearly four centuries, the seat of the Dawat was transferred from Yemen to India, where the 24th dai, Yusuf bin Sulayman Najmuddin, became the first dai to assume office from this region. Despite territorial and political upheavals through different periods, the dais persevered and continued to lead the faithful and preserve the faith.
The current leader of the Dawoodi Bohra community is the 53rd al Dai al Mutlaq, Syedna Mufaddal Saifuddin who lives in India.
Faith & Belief
Monotheism
As Muslims, the Dawoodi Bohras believe in Tawhid, Islam's central monotheistic concept of a single, indivisible God, Allah
Allah (; ar, الله, translit=Allāh, ) is the common Arabic word for God. In the English language, the word generally refers to God in Islam. The word is thought to be derived by contraction from '' al- ilāh'', which means "the god", an ...
. They recite the Shahada stating there is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is the messenger of Allah
Allah (; ar, الله, translit=Allāh, ) is the common Arabic word for God. In the English language, the word generally refers to God in Islam. The word is thought to be derived by contraction from '' al- ilāh'', which means "the god", an ...
.
Walayah
Walayah, which is devotion to Allah, Muhammad, his family, and his descendants, is the central of the seven pillars of the Dawoodi Bohra faith. The other six are tahaarat (purity in body and thought), salaat
(, plural , romanized: or Old Arabic ͡sˤaˈloːh, ( or Old Arabic ͡sˤaˈloːtʰin construct state) ), also known as ( fa, نماز) and also spelled , are prayers performed by Muslims. Facing the , the direction of the Kaaba with ...
(daily ritual prayers), zakaat
Zakat ( ar, زكاة; , "that which purifies", also Zakat al-mal , "zakat on wealth", or Zakah) is a form of almsgiving, often collected by the Muslim Ummah. It is considered in Islam as a religious obligation, and by Quranic ranking, is n ...
(offering a portion of one's income in the cause of Allah), sawm (fasting, particularly in the month of Ramadan
, type = islam
, longtype = Religious
, image = Ramadan montage.jpg
, caption=From top, left to right: A crescent moon over Sarıçam, Turkey, marking the beginning of the Islamic month of Ramadan. Ramadan Quran reading in Bandar Torkaman, Iran. ...
), hajj
The Hajj (; ar, حَجّ '; sometimes also spelled Hadj, Hadji or Haj in English) is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest city for Muslims. Hajj is a mandatory religious duty for Muslims that must be carried ...
(a ritual pilgrimage to Mecca), and jihad
Jihad (; ar, جهاد, jihād ) is an Arabic word which literally means "striving" or "struggling", especially with a praiseworthy aim. In an Islamic context, it can refer to almost any effort to make personal and social life conform with Go ...
(striving in the way of Allah). The Bohras build mosques wherever they live to congregate for prayers and ''majalis'' (religious occasions) for the '' zikr'' of Allah and his prophets, imams, and da'is.
Traditions & Practices
Qardan Hasana
Islam prohibits riba () and interest, and so the Dawoodi Bohras follow the practice of ''Qardan Hasana'' (), which are essentially interest-free loans. Based on the ideal of being advantageous to the borrower (as opposed to the lender), this model has played an important role in the economic growth within the community.
The Bohras voluntarily contribute to an institutionally-maintained loan corpus on a regular basis, which is seeded by a substantial contribution from the Da'i al-Mutlaq themself. This corpus is managed by respective city-wise committees appointed by the office of the Da'i al-Mutlaq. The Bohras use these loans to buy houses, pay for education, and fund businesses.[Hasanaat al-Qard al-Hasan al-Burhaniyah Department, Pg 11]
Mithaq
The central rite of initiation and adoption for the Bohras is the ''mithaq''. This ceremony is a covenant between the believer
Believer(s) or The Believer(s) may refer to:
Religion
* Believer, a person who holds a particular belief
** Believer, a person who holds a particular religious belief
*** Believers, Christians with a religious faith in the divine Christ
*** Beli ...
and God, effected through God's representative on earth. The ''mithaq'' binds a believer to the duties owed to Allah, including an oath of allegiance
An oath of allegiance is an oath whereby a subject or citizen acknowledges a duty of allegiance and swears loyalty to a monarch or a country. In modern republics, oaths are sworn to the country in general, or to the country's constitution. For ...
: a vow to accept the spiritual guidance of the ''Da'i al-Mutlaq'' wholeheartedly and without reservation. This ceremony, akin to baptism in Christianity
Baptism (from grc-x-koine, βάπτισμα, váptisma) is a form of ritual purification—a characteristic of many religions throughout time and geography. In Christianity, it is a Christian sacrament of initiation and adoption, almost ...
, is mandatory to enter the fold of the faith.
The mithaq is first taken at whatever age a child is deemed to have reached maturity: most commonly, thirteen years for girls, fourteen or fifteen for boys. These vows are renewed over a period of Bohra's adult life: In one such instance, on the eighteenth day of the Islamic month of Zil Hijjah
Dhu al-Hijja ( ar, ذُو ٱلْحِجَّة, translit=Ḏū al-Ḥijja, ), also spelled Zu al-Hijja, is the twelfth and final month in the Islamic calendar. It is a very sacred month in the Islamic calendar, one in which the ''Ḥajj'' ( Pilgr ...
, Bohras renew their mithaq vows together.
Calendar
The Dawoodi Bohra follow Fatimid-era tabular calendar which matches exactly with the lunar cycle of 354 days and hence requires no adjustments. The odd-numbered months have 30 days and the even-numbered months have 29 days, except in a leap year when the final month, the 12th month Zil Hajj
Dhu al-Hijja ( ar, ذُو ٱلْحِجَّة, translit=Ḏū al-Ḥijja, ), also spelled Zu al-Hijja, is the twelfth and final month in the Islamic calendar. It is a very sacred month in the Islamic calendar, one in which the ''Ḥajj'' (Pilgrim ...
, has 30 days. This contrasts with other Muslim communities, which base the beginnings of specific Islamic months on sightings of the moon crescent.
Festivals
During Ramadan
, type = islam
, longtype = Religious
, image = Ramadan montage.jpg
, caption=From top, left to right: A crescent moon over Sarıçam, Turkey, marking the beginning of the Islamic month of Ramadan. Ramadan Quran reading in Bandar Torkaman, Iran. ...
, the 9th month of the Islamic calendar, the Dawoodi Bohras observe mandatory fast from dusk to dawn. The Bohras congregate in their local mosques for daily prayers, but particularly for the evening prayers, and break the day-long fast and have the ''iftaar'' () meal together. Like in the rest of Islamic world, Ramadan is a month of heightened devotional activity for the Bohras, which ends with Eid al-Fitr
, nickname = Festival of Breaking the Fast, Lesser Eid, Sweet Eid, Sugar Feast
, observedby = Muslims
, type = Islamic
, longtype = Islamic
, significance = Commemoration to mark the end of fasting in Ramadan
, dat ...
.
In the month of Zil Hajj al-Haram, the Bohras undertake ''hajj
The Hajj (; ar, حَجّ '; sometimes also spelled Hadj, Hadji or Haj in English) is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest city for Muslims. Hajj is a mandatory religious duty for Muslims that must be carried ...
'' and celebrate Eid al-Adha at its conclusion. In line with Shi'a
Shīʿa Islam or Shīʿīsm is the second-largest Islamic schools and branches, branch of Islam. It holds that the Prophets and messengers in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad in Islam, Muhammad designated Ali, ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his S ...
traditions, on the 18th of Zil Hajj, the day Muhammad publicly anointed Ali ibn Abi Talib
ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib ( ar, عَلِيّ بْن أَبِي طَالِب; 600 – 661 CE) was the last of four Rightly Guided Caliphs to rule Islam (r. 656 – 661) immediately after the death of Muhammad, and he was the first Shia Imam. ...
his successor, the Bohras celebrate Eid al-Ghadir, observe fast, and offer special prayers. Special prayers and congregations are also held during other major events such as the day Muhammad first began his '' Da'wah'' (), the night of Isra and Mi'raj, the birthday of Muhammad, the '' urs mubarak'' () of prominent community leaders, and the birthday of the current Da'i al-Mutlaq.
Muharram
Husayn ibn Ali
Abū ʿAbd Allāh al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib ( ar, أبو عبد الله الحسين بن علي بن أبي طالب; 10 January 626 – 10 October 680) was a grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a son of Ali ibn Abi ...
was martyred along with his family and companions in the plains of Karbala while on a journey from Mecca, through the deserts of modern-day Iraq, to Kufa, the seat of the erstwhile Rashidun caliphate
The Rashidun Caliphate ( ar, اَلْخِلَافَةُ ٱلرَّاشِدَةُ, al-Khilāfah ar-Rāšidah) was the first caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was ruled by the first four successive caliphs of Muhammad after his ...
. The Bohras believe that Husayn's sacrifice was foretold by Muhammad, and that he was destined to change the course of Islam as a result of his martyrdom. Remembrance of the martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali, often linked to the hagiography of John the Baptist and Jesus Christ, is among the most important events of the year for the Bohras.
Known as ''ʿAshara Mubāraka'' (), a series of ten ''majālis'' () that happen in the beginning of the month of Muharram al-Haram, is a source of blessing and a means to spiritual purification for the Bohras. For them, Husayn ibn Ali's martyrdom epitomizes the values of humanity, justice, and truth. That his stand against tyranny, even at the cost of great personal sacrifice, offers lessons in bravery, loyalty, and compassion. These values, they believe, inculcate in them a spirit of self-sacrifice, forbearance, and adherence to their faith.
During the ''ʿAshara Mubāraka'', the Bohra communities all over the world host a series of ''majālis'' twice a day, one each in the morning and in the evening, recounting Husayn ibn Ali's sacrifice, which forms the central theme of the discourse amidst regular prayers. The ''majālis'' led by the ''Da'i al-Mutlaq'' on occasion attract hundreds of thousands of followers.
In 2020, in accordance with government regulations in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the community observed ''ʿAshara Mubāraka'' remotely from their homes. Audio and video recording of sermons delivered in the preceding years by Taher Saifuddin, Mohammed Burhanuddin, and Mufaddal Saifuddin were broadcast to the community worldwide. While volunteers of community kitchens, ''Faiz al-Mawaid al-Burhaniyah'', prepared and distributed cooked meals to every home; members of local ''Jami'ats'', especially the young, ensured senior members had access to sermons and prayers broadcast online.
Office and administration
The office of the Da'i al-Mutlaq, known as ''Alvazartus Saifiyah'', oversees ''Dawat-e-Hadiyah'', which in turn governs secular and religious affairs of the close-knit Dawoodi Bohra community through a distributed network of ''Jamaat committees''. ''Dawat-e-Hadiyah'' head office is at ''Badri Mahal'' in Fort, Mumbai.
Several sub-committees and trusts administering different aspects of a local Bohra community operate under the purview of respective ''Jamiat'' (also called ''Jamaat'' or ''Anjuman''). Setup anywhere where Bohras live and work, a ''jamiat'' usually numbers around hundred to tens of thousands of Bohras. A resident ''Amil'', appointed by ''Dawat–e-Hadiyah'', is the de facto president of a given ''jamiat''. The appointed Amil administers and manages socio-religious affairs of a ''jamiat''. At the local mosque or ''markaz'' under their jurisdiction, the Amil leads daily prayers, and presides over sermons and discourses on various religious occasions.
Demographics and culture
As of 2021, there are an estimated two to five million Dawoodi Bohras that reside in over 100 countries. The majority reside in the Indian state of Gujarat and in the Pakistani city of Karachi. A sizeable diaspora
A diaspora ( ) is a population that is scattered across regions which are separate from its geographic place of origin. Historically, the word was used first in reference to the dispersion of Greeks in the Hellenic world, and later Jews after ...
is spread across Europe, North America, the Middle East, and East Africa.
The Bohras are primarily traders and businesspersons, while some are industrialists and skilled professionals.
Name and etymology
The word ''Bohra'' takes root in the Gujarati word ''vohrvu'', in reference to their traditional occupation as traders. The prefix ''Dawoodi'' is in reference to Dawood Bin Qutub, the 27th ''Da'i al-Mutlaq'', who was the leader of the majority following a schism in 1588.
Language
Dawoodi Bohras are a blend of Yemeni, Egyptian, African, Pakistani, and Indian cultures. Their common tongue, Lisan al-Dawat, written in Perso-Arabic script, derives from Arabic, Urdu, Persian, Sanskrit, and Gujarati. When the Fatimid ''Dawah'' () first came to Gujarat, Lisan al-Dawat, which takes its basic structure from Gujarati and a vast majority of vocabulary from Arabic, developed as a medium to articulate Islamic values and heritage. Though Arabic remains community's dominant liturgical language, Lisan al-Dawat is its language of sermons and its medium of official and day to day communication.
Dress
The Dawoodi Bohras wear a distinct form of attire. The men traditionally dress in a predominantly white, three-piece outfit: ''kurta'', a form of tunic; ''saaya'', an overcoat of equal length; and '' izaar'', loose-fit trousers; with ''topi'', a white cap usually laced in a golden arabesque design. Men, adhering to the customs of Muhammad, are expected to grow a full beard.
The women wear a two piece dress called ''rida'' distinct from hijab
In modern usage, hijab ( ar, حجاب, translit=ḥijāb, ) generally refers to headcoverings worn by Muslim women. Many Muslims believe it is obligatory for every female Muslim who has reached the age of puberty to wear a head covering. While ...
, purdah, and chador. The bright colors, decorative patterns and lace, and the fact that it does not cover a woman's face are its distinguishing features. The ''rida'' is of any colour except black. A flap called ''pardi'' is folded to one side to allow a woman's face to be visible but it can be worn over the face when desired.
Cuisine
Joining each other for meals is a well-known Dawoodi Bohra custom. Families and friends gather around sharing the meal from a single large raised circular tray called ''thaal''. The ''thaal'' is raised upon a ''kundali'' or ''tarakti'' made of wood or metal, on top of a ''safra'', a large cloth that covers the floor. Each course of meal is served one after the other for those at the ''thaal'' to share.
The meal begins and ends with a taste of salt, which per their tradition, cleanses the palette and prevents diseases. Bohras usually cover their heads during the meal with a ''topi'', a cap; and eat with their hands. A common etiquette is for the host to offer to clean their guests' hands using a ''chilamchi lota'' (basin and jug). At community feasts, the Bohras first eat (sweet dish), followed by (savoury dish), and then the main course. Leftovers are a cultural faux pas. Those seated at the ''thaal'' are encouraged to take smaller portions and expected to finish those.
The Bohra cuisine, influenced by Gujarati, Persian, Yemeni, and Egyptian cuisines, is known for its unique taste and dishes such as bohra-style biryani, ''dal chaawal palidu'' (rice, lentils, and curry), ''kheema samosa'', ''dabba gosht'', and ''masala bateta''.
Community kitchens
In 2012, Mohammed Burhanuddin II, the 52nd Da'i al-Mutlaq, established ''Faiz al-Mawaid al-Burhaniyah'' (FMB) community kitchens in Mumbai to deliver at least one meal per day to all Bohra families in the city, and to ensure no one goes to bed hungry. FMB proved beneficial to women in particular as household work reduced, freeing up time to pursue other productive activities. Meals are delivered in tiffin containers daily, and has a rotating menu. As of 2021, FMB community kitchens, usually built near mosques, are operational in every Bohra community throughout the world.
Whilst FMB has substantially increased food security within the Bohra community, in times of wider crisis (such as the flooding in Texas or the COVID-19 pandemic), it has also supplied meals and provisions to the wider society. Bohras consider ''Niyaz'', feeding their brethren and those less fortunate, an obligation.
Rasm-e Saifee
To subsidize costs and facilitate marriages among the Dawoodi Bohra, Taher Saifuddin, the 51st Da'i al-Mutlaq, started ''Rasm-e Saifee'' in Jamnagar
Jamnagar () is a city located on the western coast of India in the state of Gujarat of Saurashtra (region), Saurashtra region. It is the administrative headquarters of the Jamnagar district and the fifth largest city in Gujarat. The city lies ...
and later institutionalised it . ''Rasm-e Saifee'' is a singular occasion when multiple '' Nikah'' are solemnized at the hands of the Da'i al-Mutlaq and his representatives.
Later, Mohammed Burhanuddin, Saifuddin's son and successor, founded ''International Taiyseer al-Nikah Committee'' (ITNC), which now organizes ''Rasm-e Saifee'' throughout the year at various ''miqaat'' (). Burhanuddin's successor, Mufaddal Saifuddin, continues to uphold the tradition.
Community centres
Masjid
While a Dawoodi Bohra mosque is primarily a place of worship and congregation, it forms an important socio-cultural hub for the community. Besides sermons and discourses, the mosques are also a center for education and special religious lessons, keeping in line with Fatimid traditions. A mosque complex usually houses several administrative offices along with ceremonial halls. The mosques are built in a distinct Neo-Fatimid style, with the names of Allah
Allah (; ar, الله, translit=Allāh, ) is the common Arabic word for God. In the English language, the word generally refers to God in Islam. The word is thought to be derived by contraction from '' al- ilāh'', which means "the god", an ...
and verses from the Quran engraved on its walls. The mosques are multi-storied structures; the main prayer hall in the ground floor, a voluminous space, is used by men while women congregate in the upper floors. The centre of the prayer hall is left as a void making it possible for the women to hear and follow religious liturgy and sermons from the floors above.
The ''Masjid-e-Moazzam'' complex in Surat
Surat is a city in the western Indian state of Gujarat. The word Surat literally means ''face'' in Gujarati and Hindi. Located on the banks of the river Tapti near its confluence with the Arabian Sea, it used to be a large seaport. It is now ...
is among the largest in the community.
The first Dawoodi Bohra mosque in the Middle East was inaugurated in Dubai, UAE in 1983, by Mohammed Burhanuddin. Later, mosques in Sharjah, Dubai, and Ajman were opened in 2003, 2004, and 2006 respectively. Middle East is home to an estimated 60,000 Bohras who first migrated there in the .
In 1988, Burhanuddin Assalamualikum and Burhan al-Din ( ar, برھان الدین) is a male Muslim name, formed from the elements Burhan and ad-Din, meaning ''proof of the religion''. It may refer to:
*Burhan al-Din al-Marghinani (1135–1197), Islamic scholar
*Bur ...
inaugurated ''Burhani Masjid'' in Farmington Hills, Michigan
Farmington Hills is a city in Oakland County in the U.S. state of Michigan. Part of the affluent suburbs northwest of Detroit, Farmington Hills is the second most-populated city in Oakland County, after Troy, with a population of 83,986 at the 20 ...
, the first Dawoodi Bohra mosque in North America
North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Car ...
, and a year later, in 1990, the first Canadian mosque in Toronto.
The Bohras first moved to London in the from East Africa and settled around Ealing
Ealing () is a district in West London, England, west of Charing Cross in the London Borough of Ealing. Ealing is the administrative centre of the borough and is identified as a major metropolitan centre in the London Plan.
Ealing was histor ...
. A community center was later set up at Fulham
Fulham () is an area of the London Borough of Hammersmith & Fulham in West London, England, southwest of Charing Cross. It lies on the north bank of the River Thames, bordering Hammersmith, Kensington and Chelsea. The area faces Wandsworth ...
. Decades later, in 1996, Burhanuddin Assalamualikum and Burhan al-Din ( ar, برھان الدین) is a male Muslim name, formed from the elements Burhan and ad-Din, meaning ''proof of the religion''. It may refer to:
*Burhan al-Din al-Marghinani (1135–1197), Islamic scholar
*Bur ...
presided over the opening of the first Bohra mosque in Europe in Northolt. Burhanuddin's wife, Amatullah Aaisaheba, is buried within its premises. On 8 July 2007, the first Bohra mosque in France in Paris was inaugurated.
The Bohras migrated to the erstwhile British colony of Ceylon
Sri Lanka (, ; si, ශ්රී ලංකා, Śrī Laṅkā, translit-std=ISO (); ta, இலங்கை, Ilaṅkai, translit-std=ISO ()), formerly known as Ceylon and officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an ...
from Gujarat . An estimated 2,500 Bohras live in Sri Lanka and the capital city of Colombo is their largest settlement. In 2000, Burhanuddin inaugurated ''Masjid al-Hussaini'' at Glen Aber Place, Colombo, the largest Dawoodi Bohra mosque in Sri Lanka, which was the venue of ''Ashara Mubaraka'' in 2008, 2009, and 2019. The masjid is part of a bigger complex called ''Burhani Park'', which has a community centre and a school.
Burhanuddin commemorated the 2001 ''Ashara'' in Houston, where the Bohras have been since the . Burhanuddin's son, Mufaddal Saifuddin inaugurated ''Mohammedi Masjid'', the largest Bohra mosque complex in North America
North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Car ...
, at Katy Area, Houston during the 2015 ''Ashara'', which was, at the time, the largest Bohra community event held in the West. The same year, in March 2015, Saifuddin inaugurated four more mosques in California in Los Angeles, San Jose, Bakersfield
Bakersfield is a city in Kern County, California, United States. It is the county seat and largest city of Kern County. The city covers about near the southern end of the San Joaquin Valley and the Central Valley region. Bakersfield's populat ...
, and Orange County.
In 2014, as his first official act as the 53rd Da'i al-Mutlaq, Mufaddal Saifuddin inaugurated ''Masjid Mansoor al-Yemen'' in the Haraaz
Jabal Haraz ( ar, جَبَل حَرَاز, Jabal Ḥarāz) is a mountainous region of Yemen, between Sanaa and Al-Hudaydah, which is considered to be within the Sarat range. In the 11th century, it was the stronghold of the Sulaihid dynasty, m ...
region of Sanaa governorate. Burhanuddin had built the masjid in memory of Amatullah, his wife.
Markaz
A bohra community (or ''jamaat'') is centered around a ''markaz'' when there is no existing mosque nearby.
Jamaat Khaana
Communal meals are served in dining halls called the ''jamaat khaana'', which are generally part of the mosque complex.
Mausoleums
It is customary among the Bohras to visit mausoleums, mosques, and other places of religious importance in Palestine, Israel, Jordan, Syria, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Iran, Iraq, and India. In most places, a community-administered complex (''mazaar'') provides accommodation, business centers, dining, and various recreational activities to the traveling Bohras.
A Bohra mausoleum typically has white exteriors with a golden finial at the apex of the dome. The interior is usually lit up in incandescent light and Quranic verses are inscribed on its walls. These mausoleums embody several meanings in the form of its structure and build. As an example, Raudat Tahera, an austere structure, has a range of intricacies deliberated into its design. The inner height of Raudat Tahera is 80 feet above the plinth: the number signifies the age of Taher Saifuddin, who is buried there. The sanctum of the mausoleum is 51 × 51 feet, which symbolises Saifuddin's position as the 51st Dai al-Mutlaq. The entire Quran is inscribed in gold on its walls, whilst ''Bismillah
''Bismillah'' ( ar, بسم الله, link=no) is a phrase in Arabic meaning "in the name of Allah". It is also the first word in the Qur'an, and refers to the Qur'an's opening phrase, the Basmala. It may also refer to:
People
* Bismillah Khan (1 ...
'' is engraved 113 times in precious stones, and four doors, one on each side of the wall, are made of silver. The inner side of the dome proclaims, "Allah holds the sky and earth together which none else can."
Education
In line with Islamic traditions, the Bohras seek both religious and secular education. Women education is actively encouraged. In the modern day, higher education is commonplace in the community.
Community-run Madrasah Saifiyah Burhaniyah (MSB) chain of international co-ed schools teach sciences, humanities, and arts, in addition to theological subjects. In 1984, Mohammad Burhanuddin established the first MSB in Nairobi and Mumbai. As of 2021, 24 MSB schools in Asia and Africa operate affiliated to IGCSE and ICSE boards.
Al Jamea tus Saifiyah (''Jamea'') is community's primary educational and cultural institute. Select students go through rigorous Islamic and Arabic studies for up to 11 years, and are trained to subsequently lead various institutions run by ''Dawat-e-Hadiyah''. Jamea precedes ''Dars-e-Saifee'', an Islamic theology school established by the 43rd Da'i al-Mutlaq Abdeali Saifuddin, in 1814 in Surat, Gujarat. A century later, the 51st Da'i al-Mutlaq Taher Saifuddin renovated and institutionalized it as a University. His son and successor, Mohammed Burhanuddin, further expanded its reach and scope, opening up campuses in three more cities and establishing a dedicated center for Qur'anic sciences, ''Mahad al-Zahra''. The second campus was founded in 1983 in Karachi, Pakistan. A third campus was established in Nairobi, Kenya in 2011, with a fourth in 2013 in Mumbai, India. The libraries of Jamea preserve some of the oldest known Arabic manuscripts. Other departments of Jamea specialize in the art of Quran recitation
In Islam, ''Qirāah'', (pl. ''Qirāāt''; ar, قراءات , lit= recitations or readings) are different linguistic, lexical, phonetic, morphological and syntactical forms permitted with reciting the holy book of Islam, the Quran. Differ ...
, Arabic calligraphy, and Arabesque design.
A significant volume of treatises, discourses, and sermons of the Dua't Mutlaqeen are part of the Jamea curriculum. Per tradition, the current Da'i al-Mutlaq presides over annual examinations (''al-Imtihan al-Sanawi'') every year. Senior Jamea students additionally undergo a public viva voce examination (''Shafahi Imtihan'') where they are questioned by rectors of the institute and occasionally by the Da'i al-Mutlaq, as well.
Social work
The Bohras are politically neutral. The community's stance, in line with sunnah
In Islam, , also spelled ( ar, سنة), are the traditions and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad that constitute a model for Muslims to follow. The sunnah is what all the Muslims of Muhammad's time evidently saw and followed and passed ...
, has been to be loyal to one's country of residence. A migratory race, they participate in the culture and society they live in, but stay conservative enough to preserve their own identity. The Bohra philosophy and way of life is informed by the Aristotelian and Neo-Platonic Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa. Such that, they believe every religion is related to one another, that all creation share the same purpose. and that true fulfillment is in achieving balance between religious and societal duties, in resourcefulness and philanthropy.
Environmental activism
The Bohras actively participate in environmental activism and consider it their religious duty. Since ''Nazafat'' () is an integral component of Islamic faith, the Bohras engage in clean-up drives, tree planting, and other such initiatives wherever they reside.
The Burhani Foundation
In 1991, Mohammed Burhanuddin established ''Burhani Foundation,'' a charitable trust with the object to promote and foster concern for environmental security, the conservation of the biological diversity of the planet and the green movement through fuel conservation, optimum utilisation of resources, pollution management and related measures. In 2017, Mufaddal Saifuddin, Burhanuddin's successor, initiated a worldwide program to plant 200,000 saplings. In 2018, the Bohras, together with '' Champions of the Earth'', launched ''Turning the Tide'', a campaign to remove plastic from oceans, rivers, and beaches in India.
''Zero food waste''
Under the aegis of FMB, ''Dana Committee'' () is charted to eliminate food wastage. As of 2021, the committee has 6000 volunteers across 40 countries. After congregations, these volunteers collect leftovers and distribute it to the deprived. To prevent wastage of food due to over-cooking or poor turnout, the committee uses custom web and mobile RSVP apps. Before a meal commences, volunteers are on-hand to remind attendees of their responsibility as Muslims in ensuring no food goes waste. The Bohras also participate in the United Nations annual World Food Day campaigns.
In September 2019 over 24,000 who gathered in Colombo to commemorate ''Ashara Mubaraka'' with Mufaddal Saifuddin, the 53rd Da'i al-Mutlaq, followed "a zero food waste policy". The ''Dana Committee'' volunteers helped with portion control and distributed leftover food to the disadvantaged. This policy was first adopted at the 2018 ''Ashara'' in Indore attended by over 150,000 people.
Social upliftment
In June 2018, the Bohra community launched ''Project Rise'', a philanthropy focused on the marginalized and the poor. Their first initiative, undertaken in collaboration with Action Against Hunger
Action Against Hunger (french: Action Contre La Faim - ACF) is a global humanitarian organization which originated in France and is committed to ending world hunger. The organization helps malnourished children and provides communities with acce ...
, sought to address malnutrition among those living in Palghar and Govandi districts. During the 2019 floods, volunteers sent aid to the Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Gujarat; while during the 2020 lockdown in India, volunteers distributed food packets among the poor. Narendra Modi, the Prime Minister of India, acknowledged community's charity and service. The same year, just like a year before in 2019, volunteers in North America marked United Nations World Food Day by donating to local food banks.
Since then, based on Islamic traditions of philanthropy, Project Rise widened its scope with "upliftment" programs that focus on healthcare, nutrition, sanitation and hygiene, and environmental conservation. Annually, as part of these "upliftment" drives, volunteers attempt to raise the standard of living of the elderly and the disadvantaged through revamped housing, access to food, and improved physical and spiritual well-being.
Bhendi Bazaar cluster redevelopment
In 2009, Mohammed Burhanuddin, the 52nd Da'i al-Mutlaq, founded Saifee Burhani Upliftment Trust (SBUT). Work on its first initiative, ''Saifee Burhani Upliftment Project'' (SBUP), to rebuild Bhendi Bazaar—a decrepit, under-developed, and dense Bohra-majority locale in South Bombay
South Mumbai, colloquially SoBo from South Bombay in Anglo-Indian English, administratively the Mumbai City District, is the city centre and the southernmost precinct of Greater Bombay. It extends from Colaba to Mahim and Sion neighbour ...
—commenced shortly after. Within a year of its formation, the trust which is composed of members of the Bohra community had acquired 70% of the identified land. 250 existing buildings, 1250 shops, and 3200 families in over 16.5 acres of land will make way for 13 new buildings, better infrastructure, open spaces, with designated commercial areas. Relocated tenants will own their new premises at no cost to them. Divided into 9 clusters, the project is expected to complete in 2025. 7 of the 9 clusters, representing over 80% of the project, are reserved for existing tenants and the government-run housing board, MHADA. Due to the scope of SBUP, the largest "cluster redevelopment" project in India at an estimated cost of $550 million (₹
The Indian rupee sign (₹) is the currency symbol for the Indian rupee (ISO 4217: INR), the official currency of India. Designed by D. Udaya Kumar, it was presented to the public by the Government of India on 15 July 2010, following its select ...
4000 crores), it has been subject to logistical and regulatory challenges, resulting in several delays.
Starting in 2010, the trust began building transit homes near Mazgaon. In 2012 the trust relocated tenants and demolished buildings it had acquired. More transit homes were built in Sion, Ghodapdeo, and Sewri. In early 2016 Mufaddal Saifuddin laid foundation for Clusters I and III. In 2020, 600 residents and 128 shop owners relocated to the completed twin towers ''Al Saadah'', marking completion of the ''Phase I'' of the project.
Healthcare
The Bohra community run over 25 hospitals and clinics in India, as well as a number of facilities in Pakistan and across the world.
Established in Mumbai in 1948, Saifee Hospital is the principal healthcare undertaking of the Bohra community. After it was rebuilt by Mohammed Burhanuddin, Manmohan Singh
Manmohan Singh (; born 26 September 1932) is an Indian politician, economist and statesman who served as the 13th prime minister of India from 2004 to 2014. He is also the third longest-serving prime minister after Jawaharlal Nehru and Indir ...
the then Prime Minister of India inaugurated it in 2005. The award-winning hospital is among the most sought after in the country.
Recognition
: 2011: The Burhani Foundation under its campaign "Save Our Sparrows" (SOS), received the Guinness World Records award for the largest distribution of bird feeders.
: 2018: the Dawoodi Bohra community received an award for organizing the largest zero waste religious event during the Ashara Mubaraka sermons in Indore, by the Golden Book of World Records.
: 2018: the Dawoodi Bohra community of Indore received the "Swachh City Award" for being the "best citizen led initiative" under the Swachh Bharat Mission on 9 March 2019.
V K Singh praised the role of the Dawoodi Bohra community in help with ''Operation Rahat'' carried out by the Indian Navy to evacuate civilians during the Yemeni Civil War of 2015.
Status of women
Overview
The status of women in the Bohra community underwent a major change in the latter half of the 20th century. According to Jonah Blank, women of the Bohra faith are among the best-educated women in the Indian subcontinent. Female Bohra in the U.S. and Europe have become
business owners, lawyers, doctors, teachers and leaders in a range of professions. At an interfaith celebration of Eid al-Fitr
, nickname = Festival of Breaking the Fast, Lesser Eid, Sweet Eid, Sugar Feast
, observedby = Muslims
, type = Islamic
, longtype = Islamic
, significance = Commemoration to mark the end of fasting in Ramadan
, dat ...
hosted by the Dawoodi Bohra community of Detroit, Michigan, United States on 7 June 2019, U.S. Congresswoman Brenda Lawrence (Democrat, Michigan's 14th congressional district) praised the Bohras for having "used their voices to make progress on countless issues including gender equality and the environment."
Female genital mutilation
The Dawoodi Bohra practice what they call ''khatna
Khitan ( ar, ختان) or Khatna ( ar, ختنة) is the Arabic term for circumcision, and the Islamic term for the recommended practice of male circumcision in Islamic culture. Male circumcision is widespread in the Muslim world, and accepted a ...
'',[, cited i]
''Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Global Concern''
New York: United Nations Children's Fund, February 2016, footnote 2. ''khafd'', or ''khafz'',[ a practice critics consider ]female genital mutilation
Female genital mutilation (FGM), also known as female genital cutting, female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) and female circumcision, is the ritual cutting or removal of some or all of the external female genitalia. The practice is found ...
(FGM). The procedure is for the most part performed without anaesthesia by a traditional circumciser when girls reach their seventh year. Non-Bohra women who seek to marry into the community are also required to undergo it. There are no authoritative studies on the extent of the practice among the Bohra.[ A 1911 Bombay census of unknown reliability noted that they were performing clitorectomy. According to a 1991 article in '']Manushi
''Manushi: A Journal about Women and Society'' is an Indian magazine devoted to feminism as well as to gender studies and activism. The magazine was founded in 1978 by Madhu Kishwar and Ruth Vanita, two scholars based in New Delhi. It is cur ...
'', the Bohra remove either the clitoral hood or the tip of the clitoris. Supporters of the practice say that the Bohra remove only the clitoral hood or perform symbolic nicking, and that it should be referred to as "female circumcision", not FGM.
A qualitative study
Qualitative research is a type of research that aims to gather and analyse non-numerical (descriptive) data in order to gain an understanding of individuals' social reality, including understanding their attitudes, beliefs, and motivation. This ...
in 2018 carried out by WeSpeakOut, a group opposed to FGM, concluded that most Bohra girls experience Type I FGM, removal of the clitoral hood or clitoral glans. A gynaecologist who took part in the study examined 20 Bohra women and found that both the clitoris and clitoral hood had been cut in most cases. According to the Dawoodi Bohra Women's Association for Religious Freedom, the study's conclusions did not reflect the views of most Bohra women.[ In Australia in 2018, the convictions of three members of the Bohra community, related to performing FGM on two girls, were overturned when the appeal court accepted that the tip of each girl's clitoris was still visible and had not been "mutilated"; the defence position was that only "symbolic khatna" had been performed.][.
] The High Court of Australia
The High Court of Australia is Australia's apex court. It exercises Original jurisdiction, original and appellate jurisdiction on matters specified within Constitution of Australia, Australia's Constitution.
The High Court was established fol ...
overturned that decision in October 2019, ruling that the phrase "otherwise mutilates" in Australian law does encompass cutting or nicking the clitoris. As a result, the convictions were upheld, and the defendants received custodial sentences of at least 11 months.[ .
]
See also
* Succession to 52nd Dai al-Mutlaq
The 52nd Da'i al-Mutlaq of the Dawoodi Bohras, Mohammed Burhanuddin died in January 2014. As per the tenets of the sect each predecessor is required to nominate his successor prior to his death. Following his death, a question on succession ar ...
* List of Dai of Dawoodi Bohra
* Progressive Dawoodi Bohra
Notes
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{{Dā'ī al-Mutlaq
Tayyibi Isma'ili branches
Social groups of Pakistan
Social groups of Sri Lanka
Muslim communities of India