![Sarcophagus Marcus Cornelius Statius Louvre Ma659 n1](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Sarcophagus_Marcus_Cornelius_Statius_Louvre_Ma659_n1.jpg)
In
ancient Roman religion
Religion in ancient Rome consisted of varying imperial and provincial religious practices, which were followed both by the people of Rome as well as those who were brought under its rule.
The Romans thought of themselves as highly religious, ...
, birth and childhood deities were thought to care for every aspect of
conception,
pregnancy
Pregnancy is the time during which one or more offspring develops ( gestates) inside a woman's uterus (womb). A multiple pregnancy involves more than one offspring, such as with twins.
Pregnancy usually occurs by sexual intercourse, but ca ...
,
childbirth
Childbirth, also known as labour and delivery, is the ending of pregnancy where one or more babies exits the internal environment of the mother via vaginal delivery or caesarean section. In 2019, there were about 140.11 million births globall ...
, and
child development
Child development involves the Human development (biology), biological, developmental psychology, psychological and emotional changes that occur in human beings between birth and the conclusion of adolescence. Childhood is divided into 3 stages o ...
. Some major
deities of Roman religion had a specialized function they contributed to this sphere of human life, while other deities are known only by the name with which they were
invoked to promote or avert a particular action. Several of these slight "divinities of the moment" are mentioned in surviving texts only by
Christian polemicists.
An extensive Greek and Latin medical literature covered
obstetrics
Obstetrics is the field of study concentrated on pregnancy, childbirth and the postpartum period. As a medical specialty, obstetrics is combined with gynecology under the discipline known as obstetrics and gynecology (OB/GYN), which is a surgi ...
and infant care, and the 2nd century Greek gynecologist
Soranus of Ephesus
Soranus of Ephesus ( grc-gre, Σωρανός ὁ Ἑφέσιος; 1st/2nd century AD) was a Greek physician. He was born in Ephesus but practiced in Alexandria and subsequently in Rome, and was one of the chief representatives of the Methodic s ...
advised
midwives
A midwife is a health professional who cares for mothers and newborns around childbirth, a specialization known as midwifery.
The education and training for a midwife concentrates extensively on the care of women throughout their lifespan; con ...
not to be superstitious. But childbirth in antiquity remained a life-threatening experience for both the woman and her newborn, with
infant mortality
Infant mortality is the death of young children under the age of 1. This death toll is measured by the infant mortality rate (IMR), which is the probability of deaths of children under one year of age per 1000 live births. The under-five morta ...
as high as 30 or 40 percent. Rites of passage pertaining to birth and death had several parallel aspects.
Maternal death
Maternal death or maternal mortality is defined in slightly different ways by several different health organizations. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines maternal death as the death of a pregnant mother due to complications related to pre ...
was common: one of the most famous was
Julia
Julia is usually a feminine given name. It is a Latinate feminine form of the name Julio and Julius. (For further details on etymology, see the Wiktionary entry "Julius".) The given name ''Julia'' had been in use throughout Late Antiquity (e.g. ...
, daughter of
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, and ...
and wife of
Pompey
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (; 29 September 106 BC – 28 September 48 BC), known in English as Pompey or Pompey the Great, was a leading Roman general and statesman. He played a significant role in the transformation of ...
. Her infant died a few days later, severing the family ties between her father and husband and hastening the
Caesar's Civil War
Caesar's civil war (49–45 BC) was one of the last politico-military conflicts of the Roman Republic before its reorganization into the Roman Empire. It began as a series of political and military confrontations between Gaius Julius Caesar and ...
, which ended the
Roman Republic
The Roman Republic ( la, Res publica Romana ) was a form of government of Rome and the era of the classical Roman civilization when it was run through public representation of the Roman people. Beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Kin ...
. Some ritual practices may be characterized as anxious superstitions, but the religious aura surrounding childbirth reflects the high value Romans placed on family, tradition ''(
mos maiorum
The ''mos maiorum'' (; "ancestral custom" or "way of the ancestors," plural ''mores'', cf. English "mores"; ''maiorum'' is the genitive plural of "greater" or "elder") is the unwritten code from which the ancient Romans derived their social norms ...
)'', and compatibility of the sexes. Under the
Empire
An empire is a "political unit" made up of several territories and peoples, "usually created by conquest, and divided between a dominant center and subordinate peripheries". The center of the empire (sometimes referred to as the metropole) ex ...
, children were celebrated on coins, as was
Juno Lucina
Juno ( ; Latin ) was an ancient Roman goddess, the protector and special counsellor of the state. She was equated to Hera, queen of the gods in Greek mythology. A daughter of Saturn, she was the sister and wife of Jupiter and the mother of ...
, the primary goddess of childbirth, as well as in public art. Funerary art, such as
relief
Relief is a sculptural method in which the sculpted pieces are bonded to a solid background of the same material. The term ''relief'' is from the Latin verb ''relevo'', to raise. To create a sculpture in relief is to give the impression that the ...
on
sarcophagi
A sarcophagus (plural sarcophagi or sarcophaguses) is a box-like funeral receptacle for a cadaver, corpse, most commonly carved in stone, and usually displayed above ground, though it may also be buried. The word ''sarcophagus'' comes from ...
, sometimes showed scenes from the deceased's life, including birth or the first bath.
Only those who died after the age of 10 were given full
funeral and commemorative rites, which in ancient Rome were observed by families several days during the year (see
Parentalia
In ancient Rome, the Parentalia () or ''dies parentales'' (, "ancestral days") was a nine-day festival held in honor of family ancestors, beginning on 13 February.
Although the Parentalia was a holiday on the Roman religious calendar, its observa ...
). Infants less than one year of age received no formal rites. The lack of ritual observances pertains to the
legal status
Legal status is the status or position held by an entity as determined by the law. It includes or entails a set of privileges, obligations, powers or restrictions that a person or thing has as encompassed in or declared by legislation.
Jack Balki ...
of the individual in society, not the emotional response of families to the loss. As
Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the estab ...
reflected:
Some think that if a small child dies this must be borne with equanimity; if it is still in its cradle there should not even be a lament. And yet it is from the latter that nature has more cruelly demanded back the gift she had given.
Sources
The most extensive lists of deities pertaining to the conception-birth-development cycle come from the
Church Fathers
The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, Christian Fathers, or Fathers of the Church were ancient and influential Christian theologians and writers who established the intellectual and doctrinal foundations of Christianity. The historical per ...
, especially
Augustine of Hippo
Augustine of Hippo ( , ; la, Aurelius Augustinus Hipponensis; 13 November 354 – 28 August 430), also known as Saint Augustine, was a theologian and philosopher of Berber origin and the bishop of Hippo Regius in Numidia, Roman North Af ...
and
Tertullian
Tertullian (; la, Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus; 155 AD – 220 AD) was a prolific early Christian author from Carthage in the Roman province of Africa. He was the first Christian author to produce an extensive corpus of L ...
. Augustine in particular is known to have used the now-fragmentary theological works of
Marcus Terentius Varro
Marcus Terentius Varro (; 116–27 BC) was a Roman polymath and a prolific author. He is regarded as ancient Rome's greatest scholar, and was described by Petrarch as "the third great light of Rome" (after Vergil and Cicero). He is sometimes calle ...
, the 1st century BC Roman scholar, who in turn referenced the
books of the Roman pontiffs. The purpose of the
patristic
Patristics or patrology is the study of the early Christian writers who are designated Church Fathers. The names derive from the combined forms of Latin ''pater'' and Greek ''patḗr'' (father). The period is generally considered to run from ...
writers was to debunk traditional Roman religion, but they provide useful information despite their mocking tone. Scattered mentions occur throughout
Latin literature
Latin literature includes the essays, histories, poems, plays, and other writings written in the Latin language. The beginning of formal Latin literature dates to 240 BC, when the first stage play in Latin was performed in Rome. Latin literature ...
.
The following list of deities is organized chronologically by the role they play in the process.
Conception and pregnancy
The gods of the marriage bed ''(di coniugales)'' are also gods of conception.
Juno
Juno commonly refers to:
*Juno (mythology), the Roman goddess of marriage and queen of the gods
*Juno (film), ''Juno'' (film), 2007
Juno may also refer to:
Arts, entertainment and media Fictional characters
*Juno, in the film ''Jenny, Juno''
*Ju ...
, one of the three
deities
A deity or god is a supernatural being who is considered divine or sacred. The ''Oxford Dictionary of English'' defines deity as a god or goddess, or anything revered as divine. C. Scott Littleton defines a deity as "a being with powers greate ...
of the
Capitoline Triad
The Capitoline Triad was a group of three deities who were worshipped in Religion in ancient Rome, ancient Roman religion in an elaborate temple on Rome's Capitoline Hill (Latin ''Capitolium''). It comprised Jupiter (mythology), Jupiter, Juno (my ...
, presides over union and marriage as well, and some of the minor deities invoked for success in conceiving and delivering a child may have been
functional aspects of her powers.
* Jugatinus is a conjugal god, from ''iugare'', "to join, yoke, marry."
* Cinxia functions within the belt ''(cingulum)'' that the bride wears to symbolize that her husband is "belted and bound" ''(cinctus vinctusque)'' to her. It was tied with the
knot of Hercules, intended to be intricate and difficult to untie. Augustine calls this goddess Virginiensis (''virgo'', "
virgin
Virginity is the state of a person who has never engaged in sexual intercourse. The term ''virgin'' originally only referred to sexually inexperienced women, but has evolved to encompass a range of definitions, as found in traditional, modern ...
"), indicating that the untying is the symbolic loss of virginity. Cinxia may have been felt as present during a ritual meant to ease
labor
Labour or labor may refer to:
* Childbirth, the delivery of a baby
* Labour (human activity), or work
** Manual labour, physical work
** Wage labour, a socioeconomic relationship between a worker and an employer
** Organized labour and the labour ...
. The man who fathered the child removes his own belt ''(cinctus)'', binds it ''(cinxerit)'' around the laboring woman, then releases it with a prayer that the one who has bound her in labor should likewise release her: "he should then leave." Women who had experienced
spontaneous abortions
Miscarriage, also known in medical terms as a spontaneous abortion and pregnancy loss, is the death of an embryo or fetus before it is fetal viability, able to survive independently. Miscarriage before 6 weeks of gestation is defined by ESHRE a ...
were advised to bind their bellies for the full nine months with a belt ''(cingulum)'' of wool from a lamb fed upon by a wolf.
* Subigus is the god ''(deus)'' who causes the bride to give in to her husband. The name derives from the verb ''subigo, subigere'', "to cause to go under; tame, subdue," used of the active role in sexual intercourse, hence "cause to submit sexually".
* Prema is the insistent sex act, from the verb ''primo, primere'', to press upon. Although the verb usually describes the masculine role, Augustine calls Prema ''
dea Mater'', a mother goddess.
*
Inuus
In ancient Roman religion, Inuus () was a god, or aspect of a god, who embodied sexual intercourse. The evidence for him as a distinct entity is scant. Maurus Servius Honoratus wrote that Inuus is an epithet of Faunus (Greek Pan), named from his h ...
("Entry"), the phallic god
Mutunus Tutunus
In Religion in ancient Rome, ancient Roman religion, Mutunus Tutunus or Mutinus Titinus was a phallus, phallic marriage deity, in some respects equated with Priapus. His shrine was located on the Velian Hill, supposedly since the founding of Rome, ...
, and Pertunda enable sexual penetration. Inuus, sometimes identified with
Faunus
In ancient Roman religion and myth, Faunus was the rustic god of the forest, plains and fields; when he made cattle fertile he was called Inuus. He came to be equated in literature with the Greek god Pan, after which Romans depicted him as a ...
, embodies the mammalian impulse toward mating. The cult of Mutunus was associated with the sacred ''
fascinum
In ancient Roman religion and magic, the ''fascinus'' or ''fascinum'' was the embodiment of the divine phallus. The word can refer to phallus effigies and amulets, and to the spells used to invoke his divine protection. Pliny calls it a ''medicu ...
''. Both these gods are attested outside conception litany. Pertunda is the female
personification
Personification occurs when a thing or abstraction is represented as a person, in literature or art, as a type of anthropomorphic metaphor. The type of personification discussed here excludes passing literary effects such as "Shadows hold their b ...
of the verb ''pertundere'', "to penetrate", and seems to be a name for invoking a divine power specific to this function.
*
Janus
In ancient Roman religion and myth, Janus ( ; la, Ianvs ) is the god of beginnings, gates, transitions, time, duality, doorways, passages, frames, and endings. He is usually depicted as having two faces. The month of January is named for Janu ...
, the forward- and backward-facing god of doorways and passages, "opened up access to the generative seed which was provided by
Saturn
Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second-largest in the Solar System, after Jupiter. It is a gas giant with an average radius of about nine and a half times that of Earth. It has only one-eighth the average density of Earth; h ...
," the god of sowing.
* Consevius or Deus Consevius, also Consivius, is the god of propagation and insemination, from ''con-serere'', "to sow." It is a title of Janus as a creator god or god of beginnings.
![Roman - Sarcophagus Depicting the Birth of Dionysus - Walters 2333](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Roman_-_Sarcophagus_Depicting_the_Birth_of_Dionysus_-_Walters_2333.jpg)
*
Liber Pater
In ancient Roman religion and mythology, Liber ( , ; "the free one"), also known as Liber Pater ("the free Father"), was a god of viticulture and wine, male fertility and freedom. He was a patron deity of Rome's plebeians and was part of the ...
("Father Liber") empowers the man to release his semen, while
Libera
Libera may refer to:
* Libera (mythology), a Roman goddess of fertility
* Libera (choir), a boy vocal group from London
* ''Libera'' (film), a 1993 comedy film
* "Libera" (song), a song by Italian artist Mia Martini
* ''Libera'' (gastropod), a ...
does the same for the woman, who was regarded as also contributing ''semina'', "seed."
* Mena or Dea Mena with Juno assured
menstrual flow
Menstruation (also known as a period, among other colloquial terms) is the regular discharge of blood and mucosal tissue from the inner lining of the uterus through the vagina. The menstrual cycle is characterized by the rise and fall of ho ...
, which is redirected to feed the developing child.
* Fluonia or Fluvionia, from ''fluo, fluere,'' "to flow," is a form of Juno who retains the nourishing blood within the womb. Women attended to the cult of Juno Fluonia "because she held back the flow of blood (i.e., menstruation) in the act of conception." Medieval mythographers noted this aspect of Juno, which marked a woman as a ''mater'' rather than a ''virgo''.
* Alemona feeds the embryo or generally nourished growth ''in utero.''
* Vitumnus endows the fetus with ''vita'', "life" or the vital principle or power of life (see also
quickening
In pregnancy terms, quickening is the moment in pregnancy when the pregnant woman starts to feel the fetus' movement in the uterus.
Medical facts
The first natural sensation of quickening may feel like a light tapping or fluttering. These sensat ...
). Augustine calls him the ''vivificator'', "creator of life," and links him with Sentinus (following) as two "very obscure" gods who are examples of the misplaced priorities of the Roman pantheon. These two gods, he suggests, should merit inclusion among the ''
di selecti
Di or DI may refer to:
Arts and media Music
* Di, a tone in the solfège ascending chromatic scale existing between Do and Re
* dizi (instrument) or di, a Chinese transverse flute
* D.I. (band), ''D.I.'' (band), a punk band from Southern Califor ...
'', "select" or principal gods, instead of those who preside over physical functions such as Janus, Saturn, Liber and Libera. Both Vitumnus and Sentinus were most likely names that focalized the functions of Jove.
* Sentinus or Sentia gives
sentience
Sentience is the capacity to experience feelings and sensations. The word was first coined by philosophers in the 1630s for the concept of an ability to feel, derived from Latin '':wikt:sentientem, sentientem'' (a feeling), to distinguish it fro ...
or the powers of sense perception ''(sensus)''. Augustine calls him the ''sensificator,'' "creator of sentience."
The Parcae
The
Parcae
In ancient Roman religion and myth, the Parcae (singular, Parca) were the female personifications of destiny who directed the lives (and deaths) of humans and gods. They are often called the Fates in English, and their Greek equivalent were the ...
are the three goddesses of fate ''(tria fata)'':
Nona,
Decima, and Parca (singular of ''Parcae''), also known as Partula in relation to birthing. Nona and Decima determine the right time for birth, assuring the completion of the nine-month term (ten in Roman
inclusive counting
Counting is the process of determining the number of elements of a finite set of objects, i.e., determining the size of a set. The traditional way of counting consists of continually increasing a (mental or spoken) counter by a unit for every ele ...
). Parca or Partula oversees ''partus'', birth as the initial separation from the mother's body (as in English '"
postpartum
The postpartum (or postnatal) period begins after childbirth and is typically considered to end within 6 weeks as the mother's body, including hormone levels and uterus size, returns to a non-pregnant state. The terms puerperium, puerperal perio ...
"). At the very moment of birth, or immediately after, Parca establishes that the new life will have a limit, and therefore she is also a goddess of death called Morta (English "mortal"). The ''profatio Parcae'', "prophecy of Parca," marked the child as a mortal being, and was not a pronouncement of individual destiny. The first week of the child's life was regarded as an extremely perilous and tentative time, and the child was not recognized as an individual until the ''
dies lustricus
In ancient Rome the ''dies lustricus'' ("day of lustration" or "purification day") was a traditional naming ceremony in which an infant was purified and given a ''praenomen'' (given name). This occurred on the eighth day for girls and the ninth da ...
''.
Birthing
The primary deity presiding over the delivery was
Juno Lucina
Juno ( ; Latin ) was an ancient Roman goddess, the protector and special counsellor of the state. She was equated to Hera, queen of the gods in Greek mythology. A daughter of Saturn, she was the sister and wife of Jupiter and the mother of ...
, who may in fact be a form of
Diana. Those invoking her aid let their hair down and loosened their clothing as a form of reverse
binding ritual intended to facilitate labor. Soranus advised women about to give birth to unbind their hair and loosen clothing to promote relaxation, not for any magical effect.
![Bébé Ex-voto gallo-romain Musée Saint-Remi 120208](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/B%C3%A9b%C3%A9_Ex-voto_gallo-romain_Mus%C3%A9e_Saint-Remi_120208.jpg)
*
Egeria, the nymph, received sacrifices from pregnant women in order to bring out ''(egerere)'' the baby.
*
Postverta In Roman mythology, Postverta or Postvorta was the goddess of the past and one of the two Carmentes (along with her sister Antevorta, or prorsa contracted form of ''Proversa''). They were companions of the goddess Carmenta, and probably embodied ...
and Prosa avert
breech birth
A breech birth is when a baby is born bottom first instead of head first, as is normal. Around 3–5% of pregnant women at term (37–40 weeks pregnant) have a breech baby. Due to their higher than average rate of possible complications for the ...
.
*
Diespiter (Jupiter) brings the baby toward the daylight.
*
Lucina introduces the baby to the light ''(lux, lucis)''.
*
Vagitanus
In ancient Roman religion, Vagitanus or Vaticanus was one of a number of childbirth deities who influenced or guided some aspect of parturition, in this instance the newborn's crying. The name is related to the Latin noun ''vagitus'', "crying, squa ...
or Vaticanus opens the newborn's mouth for its first cry.
*
Levana
Levana (from Latin ''levare,'' "to lift") is an ancient Roman goddess involved in rituals pertaining to childbirth. Augustine says that ''dea Levana'' is invoked when the child is lifted ''de terra'', from the earth or ground. Her function may be ...
lifts the baby, who was ceremonially placed on the ground after birth in symbolic contact with Mother Earth. (In antiquity,
kneeling
Kneeling is a basic human position where one or both knees touch the ground. Kneeling is defined as “to position the body so that one or both knees rest on the floor,” according to Merriam-Webster. Kneeling when only composed of one knee, and ...
or
squatting
Squatting is the action of occupying an abandoned or unoccupied area of land or a building, usually residential, that the squatter does not own, rent or otherwise have lawful permission to use. The United Nations estimated in 2003 that there ...
was a more common
birthing position than it is in modern times; see ''
di nixi
In ancient Roman religion, the ''di nixi'' (or ''dii nixi''), also ''Nixae'', were birth deities. They were depicted kneeling or squatting, a more common birthing position in antiquity than in the modern era. The 2nd-century grammarian Festus exp ...
''.) The midwife then cut the umbilical cord and presented the newborn to the mother, a scene sometimes depicted on
sarcophagi
A sarcophagus (plural sarcophagi or sarcophaguses) is a box-like funeral receptacle for a cadaver, corpse, most commonly carved in stone, and usually displayed above ground, though it may also be buried. The word ''sarcophagus'' comes from ...
. A grandmother or maternal aunt next cradled the infant in her arms; with a finger covered in
lustral saliva, she massaged the baby's forehead and lips, a gesture meant to ward off the
evil eye
The Evil Eye ( grc, ὀφθαλμὸς βάσκανος; grc-koi, ὀφθαλμὸς πονηρός; el, (κακό) μάτι; he, עַיִן הָרָע, ; Romanian: ''Deochi''; it, malocchio; es, mal de ojo; pt, mau-olhado, olho gordo; ar ...
.
* Statina (also Statilina, Statinus or Statilinus) gives the baby fitness or "straightness," and the father held it up to acknowledge his responsibility to raise it. Unwanted children might be abandoned at the Temple of Pietas or the
Columna Lactaria
The ''Columna Lactaria'' ("Milk Column") was a landmark in ancient Rome in the Forum Holitorium, or produce market. The Roman grammarian Festus says it was so called "because they would bring babies there to be fed with milk." It seems to have been ...
. Newborns with serious birth defects might be drowned or smothered.
Into the light
![Deesse mere MAN St Germain](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Deesse_mere_MAN_St_Germain.jpg)
''Lucina'' as a title of the birth goddess is usually seen as a metaphor for bringing the newborn into the light ''(lux, lucis)''. ''Luces'', plural ("lights"), can mean "periods of light, daylight hours, days." ''Diespiter'', "Father of Day," is thus her masculine counterpart; if his name is taken as a doublet for Jupiter, then Juno Lucina and Diespiter can be understood as a male-female complement.
Diespiter, however, is also identified in Latin literature with the ruler of the underworld,
Dis pater
Dis, DIS or variants may refer to:
Arts and entertainment Music
* ''Dis'' (album), by Jan Garbarek, 1976
* ''Dís'', a soundtrack album by Jóhann Jóhannsson, 2004
* "Dis", a song by The Gazette from the 2003 album '' Hankou Seimeibun''
* "dis ...
. The functions of "
chthonic
The word chthonic (), or chthonian, is derived from the Ancient Greek word ''χθών, "khthon"'', meaning earth or soil. It translates more directly from χθόνιος or "in, under, or beneath the earth" which can be differentiated from Γῆ ...
" deities such as Dis (or
Pluto
Pluto (minor-planet designation: 134340 Pluto) is a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt, a ring of trans-Neptunian object, bodies beyond the orbit of Neptune. It is the ninth-largest and tenth-most-massive known object to directly orbit the S ...
) and his consort
Proserpina
Proserpina ( , ) or Proserpine ( ) is an ancient Roman goddess whose iconography, functions and myths are virtually identical to those of Greek Persephone. Proserpina replaced or was combined with the ancient Roman fertility goddess Libera, whos ...
are not confined to death; they are often concerned with agricultural fertility and the giving of nourishment for life, since plants for food grow from seeds hidden in the ground. In the
mystery religions
Mystery religions, mystery cults, sacred mysteries or simply mysteries, were religious schools of the Greco-Roman world for which participation was reserved to initiates ''(mystai)''. The main characterization of this religion is the secrecy ass ...
, the divine couple preside over the soul's "birth" or rebirth in the afterlife. The shadowy goddess
Mana Genita
In ancient Roman religion, Mana Genita or Geneta Mana is an obscure goddess mentioned only by Pliny, Plutarch, and Horace. Both Pliny and Plutarch tell that her rites were carried out by the sacrifice of a puppy or a bitch. Plutarch alone has left ...
was likewise concerned with both birth and mortality, particularly of infants, as was
Hecate
Hecate or Hekate, , ; grc-dor, Ἑκάτᾱ, Hekátā, ; la, Hecatē or . is a goddess in ancient Greek religion and mythology, most often shown holding a pair of torches, a key, snakes, or accompanied by dogs, and in later periods depicte ...
.
In contrast to the vast majority of deities, both birth goddesses and underworld deities received sacrifices at night. Ancient writers conventionally situate labor and birth at night; it may be that night is thought of as the darkness of the womb, from which the newborn emerges into the (day)light.
The cyclical place of the goddess Candelifera, "She who bears the candle", is uncertain. It is sometimes thought that she provides an artificial light for labor that occurs at night. A long labor was considered likely for first-time mothers, so at least a part of the birthing process would occur at night. According to
Plutarch
Plutarch (; grc-gre, Πλούταρχος, ''Ploútarchos''; ; – after AD 119) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ''P ...
, light symbolizes birth, but the candle may have been thought of as less a symbol than an actual kindling of life, or a magic equivalent to the life of the infant. Candelifera may also be the nursery light kept burning against spirits of darkness that would threaten the infant in the coming week. Even in the Christian era, lamps were lit in nurseries to illuminate sacred images and drive away child-snatching demons such as the
Gello
Gello ( grc, Γελλώ), in Greek mythology, is a female demon or revenant who threatens the reproductive cycle by causing infertility, miscarriage, and infant mortality. By the Byzantine era, the () were considered a class of beings. Women bel ...
.
Neonatal care
Once the child came into the light, a number of rituals were enacted over the course of the following week. An offerings table received congratulatory sacrifices from the mother's female friends. Three deities—Intercidona, Pilumnus, and Deverra—were invoked to drive away
Silvanus, the wild woodland god of trees: three men secured the household every night by striking the threshold (''limen''; see
liminality
In anthropology, liminality () is the quality of ambiguity or disorientation that occurs in the middle stage of a rite of passage, when participants no longer hold their pre-ritual status but have not yet begun the transition to the status they w ...
) with an axe and then a pestle, followed by sweeping it.
![Uni et hercle](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Uni_et_hercle.jpg)
In the
atrium
Atrium may refer to:
Anatomy
* Atrium (heart), an anatomical structure of the heart
* Atrium, the genital structure next to the genital aperture in the reproductive system of gastropods
* Atrium of the ventricular system of the brain
* Pulmona ...
of the house, a bed was made up for Juno, and a table set for
Hercules
Hercules (, ) is the Roman equivalent of the Greek divine hero Heracles, son of Jupiter and the mortal Alcmena. In classical mythology, Hercules is famous for his strength and for his numerous far-ranging adventures.
The Romans adapted the Gr ...
. In the
Hellenized mythological tradition, Juno tried to prevent the birth of Hercules, as it resulted from Jupiter's infidelity.
Ovid
Pūblius Ovidius Nāsō (; 20 March 43 BC – 17/18 AD), known in English as Ovid ( ), was a Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus. He was a contemporary of the older Virgil and Horace, with whom he is often ranked as one of the th ...
has Lucina crossing her knees and fingers to bind the labor.
Etruscan religion
Etruscan religion comprises a set of stories, beliefs, and religious practices of the Etruscan civilization, heavily influenced by the mythology of ancient Greece, and sharing similarities with concurrent Roman mythology and Religion in ancient ...
, however, emphasized the role that Juno (as
Uni
Uni or UNI may refer to:
Entertainment
*Uni Records, a division of MCA, formally called Universal City Records
*"U.N.I.", a song by Ed Sheeran from ''+'' (''Plus'')
*Uni, a species in the Neopets Trading Card Game
*Uni, a character in the anim ...
) played in endowing
Hercle
In Etruscan religion, Hercle (also ''Heracle'' or ''Hercl''), the son of Tinia and Uni, was a version of the Greek Heracles, depicted as a muscular figure often carrying a club and wearing a lionskin. He is a popular subject in Etruscan art, parti ...
with his divine nature through the drinking of her breast milk.
* Intercidona provides the axe without which trees cannot be cut ''(intercidere)''.
*
Pilumnus
In Roman mythology, Pilumnus ("staker") was a nature deity, brother of Picumnus. He ensured children grew properly and stayed healthy. Ancient Romans made an extra bed after the birth of a child in order to ensure the help of Pilumnus. He also ...
or
Picumnus grants the pestle necessary for making flour from grain.
*
Deverra
In Roman mythology, Deverra (apparently from Latin ''deverro'' "to sweep away") was one of the three gods that protected midwives and women in labor, the other two being Pilumnus and Intercidona. Symbolised by a broom used to sweep away evil inf ...
gives the broom with which grain was swept up ''(verrere)'' (compare
Averruncus In ancient Roman religion, Averruncus or Auruncus is a god of averting harm. Aulus Gellius says that he is one of the potentially malignant deities who must be propitiated for their power to both inflict and withhold disaster from people and the har ...
).
* Juno in her bed represents the nursing mother.
* Hercules represents the child who requires feeding.
*
Rumina
In ancient Roman religion, Rumina, also known as Diva Rumina, was a goddess who protected breastfeeding mothers, and possibly nursing infants. Her domain extended to protecting animal mothers, not just human ones. As one of the ''indigitamenta'', ...
promotes suckling. This goddess received
libation
A libation is a ritual pouring of a liquid, or grains such as rice, as an offering to a deity or spirit, or in memory of the dead. It was common in many religions of antiquity and continues to be offered in cultures today.
Various substa ...
s of milk, an uncommon liquid offering among the Romans.
* Nundina presides over the ''
dies lustricus
In ancient Rome the ''dies lustricus'' ("day of lustration" or "purification day") was a traditional naming ceremony in which an infant was purified and given a ''praenomen'' (given name). This occurred on the eighth day for girls and the ninth da ...
''.
* At some point in time the two Carmentes (
Antevorta In ancient Roman religion, Antevorta was a goddess of the future, also known as Porrima. She and her sister Postverta (or Postvorta) were described as companions or siblings of the goddess Carmenta, sometimes referred to as "the Carmentae". They may ...
and
Postverta In Roman mythology, Postverta or Postvorta was the goddess of the past and one of the two Carmentes (along with her sister Antevorta, or prorsa contracted form of ''Proversa''). They were companions of the goddess Carmenta, and probably embodied ...
), had something to do with children's fates as well.
Child development
In
well-to-do households, children were cared for by nursemaids (''nutrices'', singular ''nutrix'', which can mean either a
wet nurse
A wet nurse is a woman who breastfeeds and cares for another's child. Wet nurses are employed if the mother dies, or if she is unable or chooses not to nurse the child herself. Wet-nursed children may be known as "milk-siblings", and in some cu ...
who might be a slave or a paid professional of free status, or more generally any
nursery maid, who would be a household slave). Mothers with a nursery staff were still expected to supervise the quality of care, education, and emotional wellbeing of children. Ideally, fathers would take an interest even in their infant children;
Cato liked to be present when his wife bathed and
swaddled their child. Nursemaids might make their own bloodless offerings to deities who protected and fostered the growth of children. Most of the "teaching gods" are female, perhaps because they themselves were thought of as divine nursemaids. The gods who encourage speech, however, are male. The ability to speak well was a defining characteristic of the elite citizen. Although women were admired for speaking persuasively,
oratory was regarded as a masculine pursuit essential to public life.
![Tête d'enfant d'époque Antonine profil](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/T%C3%AAte_d%27enfant_d%27%C3%A9poque_Antonine_profil.JPG)
* Potina (Potica or Potua) from the noun ''potio'' "drink" (Bibesia in some source editions, cf verb ''bibo'', ''bibere'' "drink") enables the child to drink.
* Edusa, from the verb ''edo, edere, esus'', "eat," also as Edulia, Edula, Educa, Edesia etc., enables the taking of nourishment. The variations of her name may indicate that while her functional focus was narrow, her name had not stabilized; she was mainly a divine force to be invoked ''ad hoc'' for a specific purpose.
* Ossipago builds strong bones; probably a title of Juno, from ''ossa'', "bones," + ''pango, pangere'', "insert, fix, set." Alternative
readings of the text include Ossipagina, Ossilago, Opigena, Ossipanga, Ossipango, and Ossipaga.
*
Carna makes strong muscles, and defends the internal organs from witches or ''strigae''.
* Cunina protects the cradle from malevolent magic.
* Cuba helps the child transition from cradle to a bed.
* Paventia or Paventina averts fear ''(pavor)'' from the child.
* Peta sees to its "first wants."
*
Agenoria endows the child with a capacity to lead an active life.
* Adeona and Abeona monitor the child's comings and goings
* Interduca and
Domiduca accompany it leaving the house and coming home again.
![Young man Garde-Meuble Louvre Br625](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Young_man_Garde-Meuble_Louvre_Br625.jpg)
* Catius pater, "Father Catius," is invoked for sharpening the minds of children as they develop intellectually.
* Farinus enables speech.
* Fabulinus prompts the child's first words.
* Locutius enables it to form sentences.
*
Mens
In Roman mythology, Mens, also known as Mens Bona (Latin for "Good Mind"), was the personification of thought, consciousness and the mind, and also of "right-thinking". Her festival was celebrated on June 8. A temple on the Capitoline Hill in Rome ...
("Mind") provides it with intelligence.
* Volumnus or Volumna grants the child the will to do good.
* Numeria gives the child the ability to count.
*
Camena enables it to sing.
* The
Muses
In ancient Greek religion and mythology, the Muses ( grc, Μοῦσαι, Moûsai, el, Μούσες, Múses) are the inspirational goddesses of literature, science, and the arts. They were considered the source of the knowledge embodied in the p ...
give the ability to appreciate the arts, literature, and science.
Children wore the ''
toga praetexta
The toga (, ), a distinctive garment of ancient Rome, was a roughly semicircular cloth, between in length, draped over the shoulders and around the body. It was usually woven from white wool, and was worn over a tunic. In Roman historical tra ...
'', with a purple band that marked them as sacred and inviolable, and an amulet ''(
bulla
Bulla (Latin, 'bubble') may refer to:
Science and medicine
* Bulla (dermatology), a bulla
* Bulla, a focal lung pneumatosis, an air pocket in the lung
* Auditory bulla, a hollow bony structure on the skull enclosing the ear
* Ethmoid bulla, pa ...
'') to ward off malevolence.
Later literature
James Joyce
James Augustine Aloysius Joyce (2 February 1882 – 13 January 1941) was an Irish novelist, poet, and literary critic. He contributed to the modernist avant-garde movement and is regarded as one of the most influential and important writers of ...
mentions a few Roman birth deities by name in his works. In the "Oxen of the Sun" episode of ''
Ulysses
Ulysses is one form of the Roman name for Odysseus, a hero in ancient Greek literature.
Ulysses may also refer to:
People
* Ulysses (given name), including a list of people with this name
Places in the United States
* Ulysses, Kansas
* Ulysse ...
'', he combines an allusion to
Horace
Quintus Horatius Flaccus (; 8 December 65 – 27 November 8 BC), known in the English-speaking world as Horace (), was the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus (also known as Octavian). The rhetorician Quintilian regarded his ' ...
''(
nunc est bibendum
Nunc A/S of Denmark was founded in 1953. Nunc specialized in laboratory plastic ware including products for cell culture, cell biology assays, sample prep, and sample storage. The company merged with the Nalge Company, which was founded in 1949 ...
)'' with an invocation of Partula and Pertunda (''per deam Partulam et Pertundam'') in anticipation of the birth of Purefoy. Cunina, Statulina, and Edulia are mentioned in ''
Finnegans Wake
''Finnegans Wake'' is a novel by Irish literature, Irish writer James Joyce. It is well known for its experimental style and reputation as one of the most difficult works of fiction in the Western canon. It has been called "a work of fiction whi ...
''.
[R.J. Schork, ''Latin and Roman Culture in Joyce'' (University Press of Florida, 1997), p. 105.]
See also
* ''
Di nixi
In ancient Roman religion, the ''di nixi'' (or ''dii nixi''), also ''Nixae'', were birth deities. They were depicted kneeling or squatting, a more common birthing position in antiquity than in the modern era. The 2nd-century grammarian Festus exp ...
'', birth deities as a collective
* ''
Indigitamenta
In ancient Roman religion, the ''indigitamenta'' were lists of deities kept by the College of Pontiffs to assure that the correct divine names were invoked for public prayers. These lists or books probably described the nature of the various deiti ...
'', lists of invocational epithets that include many of the birth and child development deities
*
Mana Genita
In ancient Roman religion, Mana Genita or Geneta Mana is an obscure goddess mentioned only by Pliny, Plutarch, and Horace. Both Pliny and Plutarch tell that her rites were carried out by the sacrifice of a puppy or a bitch. Plutarch alone has left ...
, a goddess of infant mortality
*
Mater Matuta
Mater Matuta was an indigenous Latin goddess, whom the Romans eventually made equivalent to the dawn goddess Aurora, and the Greek goddess Eos. Her cult is attested several places in Latium; her most famous temple was located at Satricum. In Rome ...
*
Women in ancient Rome
Freeborn women in ancient Rome were citizens (''cives''), but could not vote or hold political office. Because of their limited public role, women are named less frequently than men by Roman historians. But while Roman women held no direct politi ...
References
{{Reflist
*Birth and childhood
*Roman
Religion and children
Childhood in ancient Rome