Computational economics is an interdisciplinary research discipline that combines methods in computational science and

economics Economics () is a behavioral science that studies the Production (economics), production, distribution (economics), distribution, and Consumption (economics), consumption of goods and services. Economics focuses on the behaviour and interac ...

to solve complex economic problems.''Computational Economics''.
"About This Journal"
an
"Aims and Scope
" This subject encompasses computational modeling of

economic systems An economic system, or economic order, is a system of production, resource allocation and distribution of goods and services within an economy. It includes the combination of the various institutions, agencies, entities, decision-making proces ...

. Some of these areas are unique, while others established areas of economics by allowing robust data analytics and solutions of problems that would be arduous to research without computers and associated numerical methods.• Hans M. Amman, David A. Kendrick, and John Rust, ed., 1996. ''Handbook of Computational Economics'', v. 1, Elsevier
Description
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• Kenneth L. Judd, 1998. ''Numerical Methods in Economics'', MIT Press. Links t
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chapter previews
Computational methods have been applied in various fields of economics research, including but not limiting to:

Econometrics Econometrics is an application of statistical methods to economic data in order to give empirical content to economic relationships. M. Hashem Pesaran (1987). "Econometrics", '' The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics'', v. 2, p. 8 p. 8 ...

: Non-parametric approaches, semi-parametric approaches, and

machine learning Machine learning (ML) is a field of study in artificial intelligence concerned with the development and study of Computational statistics, statistical algorithms that can learn from data and generalise to unseen data, and thus perform Task ( ...

. Dynamic systems modeling: Optimization, dynamic stochastic general equilibrium modeling, and agent-based modeling.Scott E. Page, 2008. "agent-based models," '' The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics'', 2nd Edition
Abstract

History

Computational economics developed concurrently with the mathematization of the field. During the early 20th century, pioneers such as

Jan Tinbergen Jan Tinbergen ( , ; 12 April 1903 – 9 June 1994) was a Dutch economist who was awarded the first Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1969, which he shared with Ragnar Frisch for having developed and applied dynamic models for the ana ...

and Ragnar Frisch advanced the computerization of economics and the growth of econometrics. As a result of advancements in Econometrics, regression models, hypothesis testing, and other computational statistical methods became widely adopted in economic research. On the theoretical front, complex

macroeconomic Macroeconomics is a branch of economics that deals with the performance, structure, behavior, and decision-making of an economy as a whole. This includes regional, national, and global economies. Macroeconomists study topics such as output/ GDP ...

models, including the real business cycle (RBC) model and dynamic stochastic general equilibrium (DSGE) models have propelled the development and application of numerical solution methods that rely heavily on computation. In the 21st century, the development of computational algorithms created new means for computational methods to interact with economic research. Innovative approaches such as machine learning models and agent-based modeling have been actively explored in different areas of economic research, offering economists an expanded toolkit that frequently differs in character from traditional methods.

Applications

Agent based modelling

Computational economics uses computer-based economic modeling to solve analytically and statistically formulated economic problems. A research program, to that end, is agent-based computational economics (ACE), the computational study of economic processes, including whole economies, as dynamic systems of interacting agents.• Scott E. Page, 2008. "agent-based models," ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics'', 2nd Edition
Abstract
   • Leigh Tesfatsion, 2006. "Agent-Based Computational Economics: A Constructive Approach to Economic Theory," ch. 16, ''Handbook of Computational Economics'', v. 2, p. 831-880 .    • Kenneth L. Judd, 2006. "Computationally Intensive Analyses in Economics," ''Handbook of Computational Economics'', v. 2, ch. 17, pp
881-
893. Pre-pu
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   • L. Tesfatsion and K. Judd, ed., 2006. ''Handbook of Computational Economics'', v. 2, ''Agent-Based Computational Economics'', Elsevier
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   • Thomas J. Sargent, 1994. ''Bounded Rationality in Macroeconomics'', Oxford
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/ref> As such, it is an economic adaptation of the complex adaptive systems

paradigm In science and philosophy, a paradigm ( ) is a distinct set of concepts or thought patterns, including theories, research methods, postulates, and standards for what constitute legitimate contributions to a field. The word ''paradigm'' is Ancient ...

.• W. Brian Arthur, 1994. "Inductive Reasoning and Bounded Rationality," ''American Economic Review'', 84(2), pp
406-411
. • Leigh Tesfatsion, 2003. "Agent-based Computational Economics: Modeling Economies as Complex Adaptive Systems," ''Information Sciences'', 149(4), pp
262-268
. • _____, 2002. "Agent-Based Computational Economics: Growing Economies from the Bottom Up," ''Artificial Life'', 8(1), pp.55-82
Abstract
and pre-pu
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. Here the "agent" refers to "computational objects modeled as interacting according to rules," not real people. Agents can represent social, biological, and/or physical entities. The theoretical assumption of

mathematical optimization Mathematical optimization (alternatively spelled ''optimisation'') or mathematical programming is the selection of a best element, with regard to some criteria, from some set of available alternatives. It is generally divided into two subfiel ...

by agents in equilibrium is replaced by the less restrictive postulate of agents with

bounded rationality Bounded rationality is the idea that rationality is limited when individuals decision-making, make decisions, and under these limitations, rational individuals will select a decision that is satisficing, satisfactory rather than optimal. Limitat ...

''adapting'' to market forces,• W. Brian Arthur, 1994. "Inductive Reasoning and Bounded Rationality," ''American Economic Review'', 84(2), pp
406-411
.    • John H. Holland and John H. Miller (1991). "Artificial Adaptive Agents in Economic Theory," ''American Economic Review'', 81(2), pp
365-370
.    • Thomas C. Schelling, 1978 006 ''Micromotives and Macrobehavior'', Norton
Description
,
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   • Thomas J. Sargent, 1994. ''Bounded Rationality in Macroeconomics'', Oxford
Description
and chapter-preview 1st-pag
links.
/ref> including game-theoretical contexts.• Joseph Y. Halpern, 2008. "computer science and game theory," ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics'', 2nd Edition.
Abstract
   • Yoav Shoham, 2008. "Computer Science and Game Theory," ''Communications of the ACM'', 51(8), pp
75-79
.    • Alvin E. Roth, 2002. "The Economist as Engineer: Game Theory, Experimentation, and Computation as Tools for Design Economics," ''Econometrica'', 70(4), pp
1341–1378
. Starting from initial conditions determined by the modeler, an ACE model develops forward through time driven solely by agent interactions. The scientific objective of the method is to test theoretical findings against real-world data in ways that permit empirically supported theories to cumulate over time.Leigh Tesfatsion, 2006. "Agent-Based Computational Economics: A Constructive Approach to Economic Theory," ch. 16, ''Handbook of Computational Economics'', v. 2, sect. 5, p. 865 p. 831-880 .

Machine learning in computational economics

Machine learning models present a method to resolve vast, complex, unstructured data sets. Various machine learning methods such as the kernel method and random forest have been developed and utilized in data-mining and statistical analysis. These models provide superior classification, predictive capabilities, flexibility compared to traditional statistical models, such as that of the

STAR A star is a luminous spheroid of plasma (physics), plasma held together by Self-gravitation, self-gravity. The List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs, nearest star to Earth is the Sun. Many other stars are visible to the naked eye at night sk ...

method. Other methods, such as causal machine learning and causal tree, provide distinct advantages, including inference testing. There are notable advantages and disadvantages of utilizing machine learning tools in economic research. In economics, a model is selected and analyzed at once. The economic research would select a model based on principle, then test/analyze the model with data, followed by cross-validation with other models. On the other hand, machine learning models have built in "tuning" effects. As the model conducts empirical analysis, it cross-validates, estimates, and compares various models concurrently. This process may yield more robust estimates than those of the traditional ones. Traditional economics partially normalize the data based on existing principles, while machine learning presents a more positive/empirical approach to model fitting. Although Machine Learning excels at classification, predication and evaluating goodness of fit, many models lack the capacity for statistical inference, which are of greater interest to economic researchers. Machine learning models' limitations means that economists utilizing machine learning would need to develop strategies for robust, statistical causal inference, a core focus of modern empirical research. For example, economics researchers might hope to identify confounders, confidence intervals, and other parameters that are not well-specified in Machine Learning algorithms. Machine learning may effectively enable the development of more complicated heterogeneous economic models. Traditionally, heterogeneous models required extensive computational work. Since heterogeneity could be differences in tastes, beliefs, abilities, skills or constraints, optimizing a heterogeneous model is a lot more tedious than the homogeneous approach (representative agent). The development of reinforced learning and deep learning may significantly reduce the complexity of heterogeneous analysis, creating models that better reflect agents' behaviors in the economy. The adoption and implementation of

neural network A neural network is a group of interconnected units called neurons that send signals to one another. Neurons can be either biological cells or signal pathways. While individual neurons are simple, many of them together in a network can perfor ...

s, deep learning in the field of computational economics may reduce the redundant work of data cleaning and data analytics, significantly lowering the time and cost of large scale data analytics and enabling researchers to collect, analyze data on a great scale. This would encourage economic researchers to explore new modeling methods. In addition, reduced emphasis on data analysis would enable researchers to focus more on subject matters such as causal inference, confounding variables, and realism of the model. Under the proper guidance, machine learning models may accelerate the process of developing accurate, applicable economics through large scale empirical data analysis and computation.

Dynamic stochastic general equilibrium (DSGE) model

Dynamic modeling methods are frequently adopted in macroeconomic research to simulate economic fluctuations and test for the effects of policy changes. The DSGE one class of dynamic models relying heavily on computational techniques and solutions. DSGE models utilize micro-founded economic principles to capture characteristics of the real world economy in an environment with intertemporal uncertainty. Given their inherent complexity, DSGE models are in general analytically intractable, and are usually implemented numerically using computer software. One major advantage of DSGE models is that they facilitate the estimation of agents' dynamic choices with flexibility. However, many scholars have criticized DSGE models for their reliance on reduced-form assumptions that are largely unrealistic.

Computational tools and programming languages

Utilizing computational tools in economic research has been the norm and foundation for a long time. Computational tools for economics include a variety of computer software that facilitate the execution of various matrix operations (e.g. matrix inversion) and the solution of systems of linear and nonlinear equations. Various programming languages are utilized in economic research for the purpose of data analytics and modeling. Typical programming languages used in computational economics research include C++, MATLAB, Julia, Python, R and Stata. Among these programming languages, C++ as a compiled language performs the fastest, while Python as an interpreted language is the slowest. MATLAB, Julia, and R achieve a balance between performance and interpretability. As an early statistical analytics software, Stata was the most conventional programming language option. Economists embraced Stata as one of the most popular statistical analytics programs due to its breadth, accuracy, flexibility, and repeatability.

Journals

The following journals specialise in computational economics: ''ACM Transactions on Economics and Computation'', ''Computational Economics'', ''Journal of Applied Econometrics'', '' Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control''
Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control
', including Aims & scope link. For a much-cited overview and issue, see: • Leigh Tesfatsion, 2001. "Introduction to the Special Issue on Agent-based Computational Economics," ''Journal of Economic Dynamics & Control'', pp.

• pecial issue 2001. ''Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control'', Agent-based Computational Economics (ACE). 25(3-4), pp. 281-654. Abstract/outlin
links
and the ''Journal of Economic Interaction and Coordination''.

References

External links

Society for Computational Economics

Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control
- publishes articles on computational economics

- maintained by Leigh Tesfatsion
The Use of Agent-Based Models in Regional Science
- a study on agent-based models to simulate urban agglomeration

- a series of lectures
Computational Finance and Economic Agents

Journal of Economic Interaction and Coordination
- official journal of the Association of Economic Science with Heterogeneous Interacting Agents
Chair of Economic Policy, University of Bamberg (Germany)Repository of public-domain computational solutions
{{Economics Mathematical economics Computational fields of study Mathematical and quantitative methods (economics)