Chinese traditional religion
Chinese folk religion, also known as Chinese popular religion comprehends a range of traditional religious practices of Han Chinese, including the Chinese diaspora. Vivienne Wee described it as "an empty bowl, which can variously be filled ...
is
polytheistic
Polytheism is the belief in multiple deities, which are usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, along with their own religious sects and rituals. Polytheism is a type of theism. Within theism, it contrasts with monotheism, the ...
; many deities are worshipped in a
pantheistic
Pantheism is the belief that reality, the universe and the cosmos are identical with divinity and a supreme supernatural being or entity, pointing to the universe as being an immanent creator deity still expanding and creating, which has ...
view where divinity is inherent in the world. The gods are energies or principles revealing, imitating and propagating the way of Heaven (''
Tian
''Tiān'' () is one of the oldest Chinese terms for heaven and a key concept in Chinese mythology, philosophy, and religion. During the Shang dynasty (17th―11th century BCE), the Chinese referred to their supreme god as '' Shàngdì'' (, "Lor ...
'' ), which is the supreme godhead manifesting in the
northern culmen of the starry vault of the skies and its order. Many gods are ancestors or men who became deities for their heavenly achievements; most gods are also identified with stars and constellations. Ancestors are regarded as the equivalent of Heaven within human society, and therefore as the means connecting back to Heaven, which is the "utmost ancestral father" ( ''zēngzǔfù'').
Gods are innumerable, as every phenomenon has or is one or more gods, and they are organised in a complex celestial hierarchy. Besides the traditional worship of these entities,
Confucianism
Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or ...
,
Taoism
Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of Philosophy, philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of China, Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmo ...
and formal thinkers in general give
theological interpretations affirming a
monistic
Monism attributes oneness or singleness (Greek: μόνος) to a concept e.g., existence. Various kinds of monism can be distinguished:
* Priority monism states that all existing things go back to a source that is distinct from them; e.g., i ...
essence of divinity. "Polytheism" and "
monotheism
Monotheism is the belief that there is only one deity, an all-supreme being that is universally referred to as God. Cross, F.L.; Livingstone, E.A., eds. (1974). "Monotheism". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 ed.). Oxford: Oxford ...
" are categories derived from Western religion and do not fit Chinese religion, which has never conceived the two things as opposites. Since all gods are considered manifestations of ''
qì'', the "power" or ''
pneuma
''Pneuma'' () is an ancient Greek word for "breath", and in a religious context for " spirit" or "soul". It has various technical meanings for medical writers and philosophers of classical antiquity, particularly in regard to physiology, and is ...
'' of Heaven, some scholars have employed the term "polypneumatism" or "(poly)pneumatolatry", first coined by Walter Medhurst (1796–1857), to describe the practice of Chinese polytheism. In the theology of the
classic texts and Confucianism, "Heaven is the lord of the hundreds of deities". Modern Confucian theology compares them to intelligence,
substantial forms or entelechies (inner purposes) as explained by
Leibniz
Gottfried Wilhelm (von) Leibniz . ( – 14 November 1716) was a German polymath active as a mathematician, philosopher, scientist and diplomat. He is one of the most prominent figures in both the history of philosophy and the history of ma ...
, generating all types of beings, so that "even mountains and rivers are worshipped as something capable of enjoying sacrificial offerings".
Unlike in Hinduism, the deification of historical persons and ancestors is not traditionally the duty of Confucians or Taoists. Rather depends on the choices of common people; persons are deified when they have made extraordinary deeds and have left an efficacious legacy. Yet, Confucians and Taoists traditionally may demand that state honour be granted to a particular deity. Each deity has a cult centre and ancestral temple where he or she, or the parents, lived their mortal life. There are frequently disputes over which is the original place and source temple of the cult of a deity.
Terminology
In Chinese language there is a terminological distinction between ''shén'', ''dì'' and ''
xiān''. Although the usage of the former two is sometimes blurred, it corresponds to the distinction in Western cultures between "god" and "deity", Latin ''
genius
Genius is a characteristic of original and exceptional insight in the performance of some art or endeavor that surpasses expectations, sets new standards for future works, establishes better methods of operation, or remains outside the capabiliti ...
'' (meaning a generative principle, "spirit") and ''
deus'' or 'Deva' (Sanskrit) and ''divus''; ''dì'', sometimes translated as "
thearch
Theocracy is a form of government in which one or more deities are recognized as supreme ruling authorities, giving divine guidance to human intermediaries who manage the government's daily affairs.
Etymology
The word theocracy originates fr ...
", implies a manifested or incarnate "godly" power. It is etymologically and figuratively analogous to the concept of ''di'' as the base of a fruit, which falls and produces other fruits. This analogy is attested in the ''
Shuowen Jiezi
''Shuowen Jiezi'' () is an ancient Chinese dictionary from the Han dynasty. Although not the first comprehensive Chinese character dictionary (the ''Erya'' predates it), it was the first to analyze the structure of the characters and to give t ...
'' explaining "deity" as "what faces the base of a melon fruit". The latter term ''xiān'' unambiguously means a man who has reached immortality, similarly to the Western idea of "
hero
A hero (feminine: heroine) is a real person or a main fictional character who, in the face of danger, combats adversity through feats of ingenuity, courage, or Physical strength, strength. Like other formerly gender-specific terms (like ...
".
God of Heaven
Chinese traditional theology, which comes in different interpretations according to the
classic texts, and specifically Confucian, Taoist and other philosophical formulations, is fundamentally
monistic
Monism attributes oneness or singleness (Greek: μόνος) to a concept e.g., existence. Various kinds of monism can be distinguished:
* Priority monism states that all existing things go back to a source that is distinct from them; e.g., i ...
, that is to say it sees the world and the gods who produce it as an organic whole, or
cosmos
The cosmos (, ) is another name for the Universe. Using the word ''cosmos'' implies viewing the universe as a complex and orderly system or entity.
The cosmos, and understandings of the reasons for its existence and significance, are studied in ...
. The universal principle that gives origin to the world is conceived as
transcendent and
immanent to creation, at the same time. The Chinese idea of the universal
God
In monotheism, monotheistic thought, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator deity, creator, and principal object of Faith#Religious views, faith.Richard Swinburne, Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Ted Honderich, Honderich, Ted. (ed)''The Ox ...
is expressed in different ways; there are many
names of God
There are various names of God, many of which enumerate the various qualities of a Supreme Being. The English word '' god'' (and its equivalent in other languages) is used by multiple religions as a noun to refer to different deities, or spec ...
from the different sources of Chinese tradition.
The radical Chinese terms for the universal God are ''
Tiān
''Tiān'' () is one of the oldest Chinese terms for heaven and a key concept in Chinese mythology, philosophy, and religion. During the Shang dynasty (17th―11th century BCE), the Chinese referred to their supreme god as '' Shàngdì'' (, "Lo ...
'' and ''
Shàngdì'' (the "Highest Deity") or simply ''Dì'' ("Deity"). There is also the concept of ''Tàidì'' (the "Great Deity"). ''Dì'' is a title expressing dominance over the
all-under-Heaven, that is all things generated by Heaven and ordered by its cycles and by the stars. ''Tiān'' is usually translated as "Heaven", but by graphical etymology it means "Great One" and a number of scholars relate it to the same ''Dì'' through phonetic etymology and trace their common root, through their archaic forms respectively ''*Teeŋ'' and ''*Tees'', to the symbols of the squared north
celestial pole
The north and south celestial poles are the two points in the sky where Earth's rotation around a fixed axis, axis of rotation, indefinitely extended, intersects the celestial sphere. The north and south celestial poles appear permanently dire ...
godhead (''Dīng'' ). These names are combined in different ways in Chinese theological literature, often interchanged in the same paragraph if not in the same sentence.
Names of the God of Heaven
Besides ''Shangdi'' and ''Taidi'', other names include ''
Yudi'' ("Jade Deity") and ''Taiyi'' ("Great Oneness") who, in mythical imagery, holds the ladle of the
Big Dipper
The Big Dipper ( US, Canada) or the Plough ( UK, Ireland) is a large asterism consisting of seven bright stars of the constellation Ursa Major; six of them are of second magnitude and one, Megrez (δ), of third magnitude. Four define a "bowl" ...
(Great Chariot) providing the movement of life to the world. As the hub of the skies, the north celestial pole constellations are known, among various names, as ''Tiānmén'' ("Gate of Heaven")
[ p. 190.] and ''Tiānshū'' ("Pivot of Heaven").
[ p. 343, note 17.]
Other names of the God of Heaven are attested in the vast Chinese religio-philosophical literary tradition:
* ''Tiāndì'' —the "Deity of Heaven" or "Emperor of Heaven": "On Rectification" (''Zheng lun'') of the ''
Xunzi'' uses this term to refer to the active God of Heaven setting in motion creation;
*
''Tiānzhǔ'' —the "Lord of Heaven": In "The Document of Offering Sacrifices to Heaven and Earth on the Mountain Tai" (''Fengshan shu'') of the ''
Records of the Grand Historian
''Records of the Grand Historian'', also known by its Chinese name ''Shiji'', is a monumental history of China that is the first of China's 24 dynastic histories. The ''Records'' was written in the early 1st century by the ancient Chinese hist ...
'' it is used as the title of the first God from whom all the other gods derive.
* ''Tiānhuáng'' —the "August Personage of Heaven": In the "Poem of Fathoming Profundity" (''Si'xuan fu''), transcribed in "The History of the Later Han Dynasty" (''Hou Han shu''), Zhang Heng ornately writes: «I ask the superintendent of the Heavenly Gate to open the door and let me visit the King of Heaven at the Jade Palace»;
*
''Tiānwáng'' —the "King of Heaven" or "Monarch of Heaven".
* ''Tiāngōng'' —the "Duke of Heaven" or "General of Heaven";
* ''Tiānjūn'' —the "Prince of Heaven" or "Lord of Heaven";
* ''Tiānzūn'' —the "Heavenly Venerable", also a title for high gods in Taoist theologies;
* ''Tiānshén'' —the "God of Heaven", interpreted in the ''
Shuowen Jiezi
''Shuowen Jiezi'' () is an ancient Chinese dictionary from the Han dynasty. Although not the first comprehensive Chinese character dictionary (the ''Erya'' predates it), it was the first to analyze the structure of the characters and to give t ...
'' as "the being that gives birth to all things";
* ''Shénhuáng'' —"God the August", attested in ''Taihong'' ("The Origin of Vital Breath");
* ''Lǎotiānyé'' ()—the "Olden Heavenly Father".
''Tian'' is both
transcendent and
immanent, manifesting in the three forms of dominance, destiny and nature of things. In the ''Wujing yiyi'' (, "Different Meanings in the
Five Classics
The Four Books and Five Classics () are the authoritative books of Confucianism, written in China before 300 BCE. The Four Books and the Five Classics are the most important classics of Chinese Confucianism.
Four Books
The Four Books () are ...
"),
Xu Shen
Xu Shen ( CE) was a Chinese calligrapher, philologist, politician, and writer of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-189). He was born in the Zhaoling district of Run'an prefecture (today known as Luohe in Henan Province). During his own lifetime, ...
explains that the designation of Heaven is quintuple:
* ''Huáng Tiān'' —"August Heaven" or "Imperial Heaven", when it is venerated as the lord of creation;
* ''Hào Tiān'' —"Vast Heaven", with regard to the vastness of its vital breath (''qi'');
* ''Mín Tiān'' —"Compassionate Heaven", for it hears and corresponds with justice to the all-under-Heaven;
* ''Shàng Tiān'' —"Highest Heaven" or "First Heaven", for it is the primordial being supervising all-under-Heaven;
* ''Cāng Tiān'' —"Deep-Green Heaven", for it being unfathomably deep.
All these designations reflect a hierarchical,
multiperspective experience of divinity.
Lists of gods, deities and immortals
![竹南五穀王](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/%E7%AB%B9%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%94%E7%A9%80%E7%8E%8B.JPG)
Many classical books have lists and hierarchies of gods and immortals, among which the "Completed Record of Deities and Immortals" (, ''Shénxiān Tōngjiàn'') of the
Ming dynasty
The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
, and the ''
Biographies of the Deities and Immortals'' or ''Shenxian Zhuan'' by
Ge Hong
Ge Hong (; b. 283 – d. 343 or 364), courtesy name Zhichuan (稚川), was a Chinese linguist, Taoist practitioner, philosopher, physician, politician, and writer during the Eastern Jin dynasty. He was the author of '' Essays on Chinese Characte ...
(284–343). There's also the older ''
Collected Biographies of the Immortals'' or ''Liexian Zhuan''. Couplets or polarities, such as Fuxi and Nuwa, Xiwangmu and Dongwanggong, and the highest couple of Heaven and
Earth
Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to harbor life. While large volumes of water can be found throughout the Solar System, only Earth sustains liquid surface water. About 71% of Earth's surfa ...
, all embody
yin and yang
Yin and yang ( and ) is a Chinese philosophy, Chinese philosophical concept that describes opposite but interconnected forces. In Chinese cosmology, the universe creates itself out of a primary chaos of material energy, organized into the c ...
and are at once the originators and maintainers of the ordering process of space and time.
Cosmic gods
*
Yudi ( "Jade Deity") or Yuhuang ( "Jade Emperor" or "Jade King"), is the popular human-like representation of the God of Heaven.
Jade
Jade is a mineral used as jewellery or for ornaments. It is typically green, although may be yellow or white. Jade can refer to either of two different silicate minerals: nephrite (a silicate of calcium and magnesium in the amphibole group of ...
traditionally represents purity, so it is a
metaphor
A metaphor is a figure of speech that, for rhetorical effect, directly refers to one thing by mentioning another. It may provide (or obscure) clarity or identify hidden similarities between two different ideas. Metaphors are often compared wit ...
for the unfathomable source of creation.
*
Doumu
Dǒumǔ (), also known as Dǒumǔ Yuánjūn ( "Lady Mother of the Chariot"), Dòulǎo Yuánjūn ( "Lady Ancestress of the Chariot") and Tàiyī Yuánjūn ( "Lady of the Great One"), is a goddess in Chinese religion and Taoism. She is also named ...
( "Mother of the Great Chariot"), often entitled with the honorific Tianhou ( "Queen of Heaven") is the heavenly goddess portrayed as the mother of the
Big Dipper
The Big Dipper ( US, Canada) or the Plough ( UK, Ireland) is a large asterism consisting of seven bright stars of the constellation Ursa Major; six of them are of second magnitude and one, Megrez (δ), of third magnitude. Four define a "bowl" ...
(Great Chariot), whose seven stars in addition to two invisible ones are conceived as her sons, the Jiuhuangshen ( "Nine God-Kings"), themselves regarded as the ninefold manifestation of Jiuhuangdadi (, "Great Deity of the Nine Kings") or Doufu "Father of the Great Chariot"), another name of the God of Heaven. She is therefore both wife and mother of the God of Heaven.
*
Pangu
Pangu (, ) is a primordial being and creation figure in Chinese mythology who separated heaven and earth and became geographic features such as mountains and rivers.
Legends
The first writer to record the myth of Pangu was Xu Zheng during t ...
(), a
macranthropic metaphor of the cosmos. He separated yin and yang, creating the earth (murky ''yin'') and the sky (clear ''yang''). All things were made from his body after he died.
*
Xiwangmu
The Queen Mother of the West, known by various local names, is a mother goddess in Chinese religion and mythology, also worshipped in neighbouring Asian countries, and attested from ancient times. From her name alone some of her most importan ...
( "Queen Mother of the West"), identified with the
Kunlun Mountain, shamanic inspiration, death and immortality. She is the dark,
chthonic
The word chthonic (), or chthonian, is derived from the Ancient Greek word ''χθών, "khthon"'', meaning earth or soil. It translates more directly from χθόνιος or "in, under, or beneath the earth" which can be differentiated from Γῆ ...
goddess, pure ''yin'', at the same time terrifying and benign, both creation and destruction, associated with the tiger and weaving. Her male counterpart is
Dongwanggong
King Father of the East, also known as Dongwanggong (東王公), is the tutelary deity of the Taoist immortals. Legends say that the King Father of the East is the consort of Queen Mother of the West. He is the manifestation of yang energy.
Lege ...
( "King Duke of the East"; also called Mugong, 木公 "Duke of the Woods"), who represents the ''yang'' principle.
**
Yi the Archer
Hou Yi () is a mythological Chinese archer. He was also known as Shen Yi and simply as Yi (). He is also typically given the title of "Lord Archer". He is sometimes portrayed as a god of archery descended from heaven to aid mankind. Other times, ...
(''Hòuyì'' ) was a man who sought for immortality reaching Xiwangmu on her mountain Kunlun.
*
Yanwang ( "Purgatory King") the ruler of the
underworld
The underworld, also known as the netherworld or hell, is the supernatural world of the dead in various religious traditions and myths, located below the world of the living. Chthonic is the technical adjective for things of the underwor ...
, assisted by the
Heibai Wuchang
The Heibai Wuchang, or Hak Bak Mo Seong, literally "Black and White Impermanence", are two Deities in Chinese folk religion in charge of escorting the spirits of the dead to the underworld. As their names suggest, they are dressed in black an ...
( "Black and White Impermanence") representing the alternation of yin and yang principles, alongside
Ox-Head and Horse-Face
Ox-Head () and Horse-Face () are two guardians or types of guardians of the underworld in Chinese mythology. As indicated by their names, both have the bodies of men, but Ox-Head has the head of an ox while Horse-Face has the face of a horse. Th ...
, who escort spirits to his realm.
*
Yinyanggong ( "Yinyang Duke") or Yinyangsi ( "Yinyang Controller"), the personification of the union of yin and yang.
Three Patrons and Five Deities
![Tai'an Dai Miao 2015](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Tai%27an_Dai_Miao_2015.08.13_10-17-53.jpg)
* ''Sānhuáng'' — Three Patrons (or Augusts) or ''Sāncái'' — Three Potencies; they are the "vertical" manifestation of Heaven spatially corresponding to the Three Realms ( ''Sānjiè''), representing the yin and yang and the medium between them, that is the human being:
** ''
Fúxī'' the patron of heaven ( ''Tiānhuáng''), also called Bāguàzǔshī ( "Venerable Inventor of the
Bagua
The bagua or pakua (八卦) are a set of eight symbols that originated in China, used in Taoist cosmology to represent the fundamental principles of reality, seen as a range of eight interrelated concepts. Each consists of three lines, each li ...
") by the Taoists, is a divine man reputed to have taught to humanity writing, fishing, and hunting.
** ''
Nǚwā'' the patron of earth ( ''Dehuáng''), is a goddess attributed for the creation of mankind and mending the order of the world when it was broken.
** ''
Shénnóng'' — Peasant God, the patron of humanity ( ''Rénhuáng''), identified as ''
Yándì'' ( "Flame Deity" or "Fiery Deity"), a divine man said to have taught the techniques of farming, herbal medicine and marketing. He is often represented as a human with horns and other features of an ox.
* ''
Wǔdì'' — Five Deities, also ''Wǔfāng Shàngdì'' ( "Five Manifestations of the Highest Deity"), Wǔfāng Tiānshén ( "Five Manifestations of the Heavenly God"), ''Wǔfāngdì'' ( "Five Forms Deity"), ''Wǔtiāndì'' ( "Five Heavenly Deities"), ''Wǔlǎojūn'' ( "Five Ancient Lords"), ''Wǔdàoshén'' ( "Five Ways God(s)"); they are the five main "horizontal" manifestations of Heaven and according with the Three Potencies they have a celestial, a terrestrial and a chthonic form. They correspond to the
five phases of creation, the
five constellations rotating around the celestial pole and five planets, the
five sacred mountains
The Sacred Mountains of China are divided into several groups. The ''Five Great Mountains'' () refers to five of the most renowned mountains in Chinese history, and they were the subjects of imperial pilgrimage by emperors throughout ages. They ...
and five directions of space (their terrestrial form), and the five Dragon Gods which represent their mounts, that is to say the material forces they preside over (their chthonic form).
** ''
Huángdì'' — Yellow Emperor or Yellow Deity; or ''Huángshén'' — Yellow God, also known as ''Xuānyuán Huángdì'' ( "Yellow Deity of the
Chariot
A chariot is a type of cart driven by a charioteer, usually using horses to provide rapid motive power. The oldest known chariots have been found in burials of the Sintashta culture in modern-day Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia, dated to c. 2000&nbs ...
Shaft"), is the ''Zhōngyuèdàdì'' ( "Great Deity of the Central Peak"): he represents the essence of earth and the Yellow Dragon, and is associated with
Saturn
Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second-largest in the Solar System, after Jupiter. It is a gas giant with an average radius of about nine and a half times that of Earth. It has only one-eighth the average density of Earth; h ...
. The character ''huáng'', for "yellow", also means, by
homophony
In music, homophony (;, Greek: ὁμόφωνος, ''homóphōnos'', from ὁμός, ''homós'', "same" and φωνή, ''phōnē'', "sound, tone") is a texture in which a primary part is supported by one or more additional strands that flesh ou ...
and shared
etymology
Etymology ()The New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998) – p. 633 "Etymology /ˌɛtɪˈmɒlədʒi/ the study of the class in words and the way their meanings have changed throughout time". is the study of the history of the Phonological chan ...
with ''huáng'', "august", "creator" and "radiant", identifying the Yellow Emperor with
Shangdi
Shangdi (), also written simply, "Emperor" (), is the Chinese term for "Supreme Deity" or "Highest Deity" in the theology of the classical texts, especially deriving from Shang theology and finding an equivalent in the later '' Tian'' ("Heave ...
(the "Highest Deity"). Huangdi represents the heart of creation, the ''
axis mundi
In astronomy, axis mundi is the Latin term for the axis of Earth between the celestial poles.
In a geocentric coordinate system, this is the axis of rotation of the celestial sphere.
Consequently, in ancient Greco-Roman astronomy, the '' ...
'' (Kunlun) that is the manifestation of the divine order in physical reality, opening the way to immortality. As the deity of the centre, intersecting the Three Patrons and the Five Deities, in the ''
Shizi'' he is described as "Yellow Emperor with Four Faces" ( ''Huángdì Sìmiàn''). As a human, he is said to have been the fruit of a virginal birth, as his mother Fubao conceived him as she was aroused, while walking in the country, by a lightning from the Big Dipper (Great Chariot). She delivered her son after twenty-four months on the mount of Shou (Longevity) or mount Xuanyuan (Chariot Shaft), after which he was named. He is reputed to be the founder of the ''
Huaxia
''Huaxia'' (華夏, ) is a historical concept representing the Chinese nation, and came from the self-awareness of a common cultural ancestry by the various confederations of pre-Qin ethnic ancestors of Han people.
Etymology
The earliest ext ...
'' civilisation, and the
Han Chinese
The Han Chinese () or Han people (), are an East Asian ethnic group native to China. They constitute the world's largest ethnic group, making up about 18% of the global population and consisting of various subgroups speaking distinctive va ...
identify themselves as the
descendants of Yandi and Huangdi.
** ''Cāngdì'' — Green Deity; or ''Qīngdì'' — Blue Deity or Bluegreen Deity, the ''Dōngdì'' ( "East Deity") or ''Dōngyuèdàdì'' ( "Great Deity of the Eastern Peak"): he is ''Tàihào'' , associated with the essence of wood and with
Jupiter
Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the List of Solar System objects by size, largest in the Solar System. It is a gas giant with a mass more than two and a half times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined, but ...
, and is the god of fertility and spring. The Bluegreen Dragon is both his animal form and constellation. His female consort is the goddess of fertility Bixia.
** ''
Hēidì'' — Black Deity, the ''Běidì'' ( "North Deity") or ''Běiyuèdàdì'' ( "Great Deity of the Northern Peak"): he is ''
Zhuānxū'' (), today frequently worshipped as ''
Xuánwǔ'' ( "Dark Warrior") or ''Zhēnwǔ'' (), and is associated with the essence of water and winter, and with
Mercury
Mercury commonly refers to:
* Mercury (planet), the nearest planet to the Sun
* Mercury (element), a metallic chemical element with the symbol Hg
* Mercury (mythology), a Roman god
Mercury or The Mercury may also refer to:
Companies
* Merc ...
. His animal form is the Black Dragon and his stellar animal is the tortoise-snake.
** ''Chìdì'' — Red Deity, the ''Nándì'' ( "South Deity") or ''Nányuèdàdì'' ( "Great Deity of the Southern Peak"): he is Shennong (the "Divine Farmer"), the Yandi ("Fiery Deity"), associated with the essence of fire and summer, and with
Mars
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System, only being larger than Mercury (planet), Mercury. In the English language, Mars is named for the Mars (mythology), Roman god of war. Mars is a terr ...
. His animal form is the Red Dragon and his stellar animal is the phoenix. He is the god of agriculture, animal husbandry, medicinal plants and market.
** ''Báidì'' — White Deity, the ''Xīdì'' ( "West Deity") or ''Xīyuèdàdì'' ( "Great Deity of the Western Peak"): he is
Shǎohào (), and is the god of the essence of metal and autumn, associated with
Venus
Venus is the second planet from the Sun. It is sometimes called Earth's "sister" or "twin" planet as it is almost as large and has a similar composition. As an interior planet to Earth, Venus (like Mercury) appears in Earth's sky never fa ...
. His animal form is the White Dragon and his stellar animal the tiger.
* ''Sānguān'' or ''Sānguāndàdì'' — Three Officials
f Heavenor Three Officer Great Deities:
Yao the Official of Heaven (''Tiānguān'' ),
Shun
Shun may refer to one of the following:
*To shun, which means avoiding association with an individual or group
* Shun (given name), a masculine Japanese given name
*Seasonality in Japanese cuisine (''shun'', 旬)
Emperor Shun
* Emperor Shun ( ...
the Official of Earth (''Deguān'' ), and
Yu the Official of Water (''Shuǐguān'' ).
In mythology, Huangdi and Yandi fought a
battle
A battle is an occurrence of combat in warfare between opposing military units of any number or size. A war usually consists of multiple battles. In general, a battle is a military engagement that is well defined in duration, area, and force ...
against each other; and Huang finally defeated Yan with the help of the Dragon (the controller of water, who is Huangdi himself).
[ pp. 156-157] This myth symbolises the equipoise of yin and yang, here the fire of knowledge (reason and craft) and earthly stability.
''Yan'' is flame, scorching fire, or an excess of it (it is important to note that graphically it is a double ''huo'', "fire").
As an excess of fire brings destruction to the earth, it has to be controlled by a ruling principle. Nothing is good in itself, without limits; good outcomes depend on the proportion in the composition of things and their interactions, never on extremes in absolute terms.
Huangdi and Yandi are complementary opposites, necessary for the existence of one another, and they are powers that exist together within the human being.
Gods of celestial and terrestrial phenomena
![台南市風神廟](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/%E5%8F%B0%E5%8D%97%E5%B8%82%E9%A2%A8%E7%A5%9E%E5%BB%9F.jpg)
* ''
Lóngshén'' — Dragon Gods, or ''Lóngwáng'' — Dragon Kings: also ''Sìhǎi Lóngwáng'' ( "Dragon Kings of the Four Seas"), are gods of watery sources, usually reduced to four, patrons of the
Four Seas
The Four Seas () were four bodies of water that metaphorically made up the boundaries of ancient China. There is a sea for each for the four cardinal directions. The West Sea is Qinghai Lake, the East Sea is the East China Sea, the North Sea is ...
(''sihai'' ) and the four
cardinal direction
The four cardinal directions, or cardinal points, are the four main compass directions: north, east, south, and west, commonly denoted by their initials N, E, S, and W respectively. Relative to north, the directions east, south, and west are at ...
s. They are the White Dragon ( ''Báilóng''), the Black Dragon ( ''Xuánlóng''), the Red Dragon ( ''Zhūlóng''), and the Bluegreen Dragon ( ''Qīnglóng''). Corresponding with the Five Deities as the chthonic forces that they sublimate (the Dragon Gods are often represented as the "mount" of the Five Deities), they inscribe the land of China into an ideal sacred squared boundary. The fifth dragon, the Yellow Dragon ( ''Huánglóng''), is the dragon of the centre representing the Yellow God.
* ''Báoshén'' — Hail God
* ''Bālà'', ''Chóngshén'' — Insect God, or ''Chóngwáng'' — Insect King: the gods of insects
* ''Dòushén'' — Smallpox God
* ''Fēngshén'' — Wind God, or ''
Fēi Lián
* ''Hǎishén'' — Sea God, or ''Hǎiyé'' — Sea Lord
* ''Héshén'' — River God: any
watercourse
A stream is a continuous body of surface water flowing within the bed and banks of a channel. Depending on its location or certain characteristics, a stream may be referred to by a variety of local or regional names. Long large streams are ...
god among which one of the most revered is the god of the
Yellow River
The Yellow River or Huang He (Chinese: , Standard Beijing Mandarin, Mandarin: ''Huáng hé'' ) is the second-longest river in China, after the Yangtze River, and the List of rivers by length, sixth-longest river system in the world at th ...
, ''
Hébó'' — River Lord
* ''Gǔshén'' — Valley God, in the ''
Daodejing
The ''Tao Te Ching'' (, ; ) is a Chinese classic text written around 400 BC and traditionally credited to the sage Laozi, though the text's authorship, date of composition and date of compilation are debated. The oldest excavated portion d ...
'' a name used to refer to the
Way
Way may refer to:
Paths
* a road, route, path or pathway, including long-distance paths.
* a straight rail or track on a machine tool, (such as that on the bed of a lathe) on which part of the machine slides
* Ways, large slipway in shipbuildin ...
* ''Huǒshén'' — Fire God, often personified as ''
Zhùróng'' ()
* ''Húshén'' — Lake God
* ''Jīnshén'' — Gold God, often identified as the ''Qiūshén'' — Autumn God, and personified as ''Rùshōu'' ()
* ''Jǐngshén'' — Waterspring God
* ''
Léishén'' — Thunder God, or ''Léigōng'' — Thunder Duke; his consort is ''Diànmǔ'' — Lightning Mother
* ''Mùshén'' — Woodland God, usually the same as the ''Chūnshén'' — Spring God, and as ''Jùmáng'' ()
* ''Shānshén'' — Mountain God
* ''Shuǐshén'' — Water God
* ''
Tǔdìshén'' — God of the Local Land, or ''Tǔshén'' — Earth God, or ''Tǔdìgōng'' — Duke of the Local Land: the
tutelary deity
A tutelary () (also tutelar) is a deity or a spirit who is a guardian, patron, or protector of a particular place, geographic feature, person, lineage, nation, culture, or occupation. The etymology of "tutelary" expresses the concept of safety and ...
of any locality and their Overlord is ''
Hòutǔ'' — Queen of the Earth
* ''
Wēnshén'' — Plague God
* ''
Xiāngshuǐshén'' — Xiang Waters' Goddesses, are the patrons of the
Xiang River
The Xiang River is the chief river of the Lake Dongting drainage system of the middle Yangtze, the largest river in Hunan Province, China. It is the 2nd largest tributary (after Min River) in terms of surface runoff, the 5th largest tributar ...
* ''Xuěshén'' — Snow God
* ''Yǔshén'' — Rain God
* ''
Xīhé'' the ''Tàiyángshén'' — Great Sun Goddess, or ''Shírìzhīmǔ'' — Mother of the Ten Suns
* ''Yuèshén'' — Moon Goddesses: ''Chángxī'' or ''Shí'èryuèzhīmǔ'' — Mother of the Twelve Moons, and
Cháng'é
Gods of human virtues and crafts
![Altar at the Temple of Guandi (a Chinese temple) in Osaka](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Altar_at_the_Temple_of_Guandi_%28a_Chinese_temple%29_in_Osaka.jpg)
*
Civil (''wen'') and military (''wu'') deities:
** ''
Wéndi'' — Culture Deity, or ''Wénchāngdì'' — Deity who Makes Culture Thrive, or ''Wénchāngwáng'' — King who Makes Culture Thrive: in southern provinces this deity takes the identity of different historical persons while in the north he is more frequently the same as
Confucius
Confucius ( ; zh, s=, p=Kǒng Fūzǐ, "Master Kǒng"; or commonly zh, s=, p=Kǒngzǐ, labels=no; – ) was a Chinese philosopher and politician of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. C ...
(''Kǒngfūzǐ'' )
*** ''
Kuíxīng'' — Chief Star, another god of culture and literature, but specifically examination, is a personification of the man who awakens to the order of the Great Chariot
** ''Wǔdì'' — Military Deity: ''
Guāndì'' — ''Divus'' Guan, also called ''Guāngōng'' — Duke Guan, and popularly ''Guānyǔ''
*** Another class is the ''Zhànshén'' — Fight God, who may be personified by ''
Chīyóu'' () or ''
Xíngtiān'' (, who was decapitated for fighting against Tian)
* ''
Bǎoshēngdàdì'' — Great Deity who Protects Life
* ''
Bāxiān'' — Eight Immortals
* ''
Cánshén'' — Silkworm God, who may be:
** ''Cánmǔ'' — Silkworm Mother, also called ''Cángū'' — Silkworm Maiden, who is identified as ''
Léizǔ'' (), the wife of the Yellow Emperor: the invention of
sericulture
Sericulture, or silk farming, is the cultivation of silkworms to produce silk. Although there are several commercial species of silkworms, ''Bombyx mori'' (the caterpillar of the domestic silkmoth) is the most widely used and intensively studie ...
is attributed primarily to her
** ''Qīngyīshén'' — Bluegreen-Clad God: his name as a human was ''Cáncóng'' — Silkworm Twig, and he is the first ruler and ancestor of the
Shu state, and promoter of sericulture among his people
* ''
Cáishén'' — Wealth God
* ''
Cāngjié'', the four-eyed inventor of the
Chinese characters
Chinese characters () are logograms developed for the writing of Chinese. In addition, they have been adapted to write other East Asian languages, and remain a key component of the Japanese writing system where they are known as ''kanji' ...
* ''
Chénghuángshén'' — Moat and Walls God, Boundary God: the god of the sacred boundaries of a human agglomeration, he is often personified by founding fathers or noble personalities from each city or town
* ''
Chénjìnggū'' — Old Quiet Lady, also called ''Línshuǐ Fūrén'' — Waterside Dame
* ''Chēshén'' — Vehicle God
* ''
Èrlángshén'' — Twice Young God, the god of engineering
* ''Guǎngzé Zūnwáng'' — Honorific King of Great Compassion
* ''
Guānyīn'' — She who Hears the Cries of the World, the goddess of
mercy
Mercy (Middle English, from Anglo-French ''merci'', from Medieval Latin ''merced-'', ''merces'', from Latin, "price paid, wages", from ''merc-'', ''merxi'' "merchandise") is benevolence, forgiveness, and kindness in a variety of ethical, relig ...
* ''
Huáng Dàxiān'' — Great Immortal Huang
* ''
Jìgōng'' — Help Lord
* ''Jiǔshén'' — Wine God, personified as ''
Yidi''
* ''
Jiǔtiān Xuánnǚ'' — Mysterious Lady of the Nine Heavens, a disciple of
Xiwangmu
The Queen Mother of the West, known by various local names, is a mother goddess in Chinese religion and mythology, also worshipped in neighbouring Asian countries, and attested from ancient times. From her name alone some of her most importan ...
and initiator of
Huangdi
* ''
Lóngmǔ'' — Dragon Mother
* ''
Lǔbān'', the god of carpentry
* ''Lùshén'' — Road God
* ''
Māzǔ'' — Ancestral Mother, often entitled the Queen of Heaven
* ''Píng'ānshén'' — Peace God, an embodiment of whom is considered to have been
Mao Zedong
Mao Zedong pronounced ; also romanised traditionally as Mao Tse-tung. (26 December 1893 – 9 September 1976), also known as Chairman Mao, was a Chinese communist revolutionary who was the founder of the People's Republic of China (PRC) ...
* ''
Qīngshuǐ Zǔshī'' — Venerable Patriarch of the Clear Stream
* ''Táoshén'' — Pottery God
* ''
Tùershén'' — Leveret God, the god of love among males
* ''Tuōtǎlǐ Tiānwáng'' — Tower-Wielding Heavenly King, in person
Li Jing, who has three sons, the warlike protector deities ''
Jīnzhā'' (), ''
Mùzhā'' (木吒) and ''
Nǎzhā'' ()
* ''Wǔxiǎn'' — Five Shining Ones, possibly a popular form of the cosmological Five Deities
* ''Xǐshén'' — Joy God
* ''Yàoshén'' — Medicine God, or frequently ''Yàowáng'' — Medicine King"
* ''
Yuèxià Lǎorén'' — Old Man Under the Moon, the matchmaker who pairs lovers together
* ''Yùshén'' — Jail-Purgatory God
* ''
Zàoshén'' — Hearth God, the master of the household deities including: the
Bed God ( ''Chuángshén''), the
Gate Gods ( ''Ménshén'') and the
Toilet god
A toilet god is a deity associated with latrines and toilets. Belief in toilet gods – a type of household deity – has been known from both modern and ancient cultures, ranging from Japan to ancient Rome. Such deities have been associated with h ...
( ''Cèshén''), often personified as
Zigu
Zigu (), also known as Maogu, is a goddess representing toilets in Chinese folk religion. She was believed to be the spirit of a concubine who had been physically abused by a vengeful wife and died in the latrine. It is believed that her cult orig ...
* ''
Sānxīng'' — Three Stars, a cluster of three astral gods of well-being:
** ''
Fúxīng'' — Prosperity Star, god of happiness
** ''
Lùxīng'' — Firmness Star, god of firmness and success in life and examinations
** ''
Shòuxing'' — Longevity Star, who stands for a healthy and long life
Gods of animal and vegetal life
* ''Huāshén'' — Flower Goddess
* ''
Húshén'' — Fox God(dess), or ''Húxiān'' — Fox Immortal, also called ''Húxiān Niángniáng'' — Fox Immortal Lady
** Two other great fox deities, peculiar to northeast China, are the Great Lord of the Three Foxes ( ''Húsān Tàiyé'') and the Great Lady of the Three Foxes ( ''Húsān Tàinǎi'') representing the yin and yang
* ''Mǎshén'' — Horse God, or ''Mǎwáng'' — Horse King
* ''Niúshén'' — Cattle God or Ox God, also called ''Niúwáng'' — Cattle King
* ''Lángshén'' — Wolf God
* ''Shùshén'' — Tree God(s)
* ''
Wǔgǔshén'' — Five Cereals God, another name of
Shennong
Shennong (), variously translated as "Divine Farmer" or "Divine Husbandman", born Jiang Shinian (), was a mythological Chinese ruler known as the first Yan Emperor who has become a deity in Chinese and Vietnamese folk religion. He is venerat ...
* ''Yuánshén'' — Monkey God, or ''Yuánwáng'' — Monkey King, who is identified as ''
Sūn Wùkōng'' ()
* ''Zhīmáshén'' — Sesame God
''Bixia'' mother goddess worship
![Demu Niangniang (Lady Mother Earth)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Demu_Niangniang_%28Lady_Mother_Earth%29.jpg)
The worship of
mother goddess
A mother goddess is a goddess who represents a personified deification of motherhood, fertility goddess, fertility, creation, destruction, or the earth goddess who embodies the bounty of the earth or nature. When equated with the earth or th ...
es for the
cultivation of offspring is present all over China, but predominantly in northern provinces. There are nine main goddesses, and all of them tend to be considered as manifestations or attendant forces of a singular goddess identified variously as
Bixia Yuanjun (the Lady of the Blue Dawn, , also known as the ''Tiānxiān Niángniáng'' , "Heavenly Immortal Lady", or ''Tàishān Niángniáng'' , "Lady of Mount Tai", or also ''Jiǔtiān Shèngmǔ'' , "Holy Mother of the Nine Skies")
or
Houtu
Hòutǔ () or Hòutǔshén (), also Hòutǔ Niángniáng (in Chinese either or ), otherwise called Dimǔ () or Dimǔ Niángniáng (), is the deity of deep earth and soil in Chinese religion and mythology. Houtu is the overlord of all the Tu Di ...
, the goddess of the earth. Bixia herself is identified by Taoists as the more ancient goddess
Xiwangmu
The Queen Mother of the West, known by various local names, is a mother goddess in Chinese religion and mythology, also worshipped in neighbouring Asian countries, and attested from ancient times. From her name alone some of her most importan ...
, The general Chinese term for "goddess" is ''nǚshén'', and goddesses may receive many qualifying titles including ''mǔ'' ( "mother"), ''lǎomǔ'' ( "old mother"), ''shèngmǔ'' ( "holy mother"), ''niángniáng'' ( "lady"), ''nǎinai'' ( "granny").
The additional eight main goddesses of fertility, reproduction and growth are:
[
* ''Bānzhěn Niángniáng'', the goddess who protects children from illness;
* ''Cuīshēng Niángniáng'', the goddess who gives swift childbirth and protects midwives;
* ''Nǎimǔ Niángniáng'', the goddess who presides over maternal milk and protects nursing;
* ''Péigū Niángniáng'', the goddess who cultivate children;
* ''Péiyǎng Niángniáng'', the goddess who protects the upbringing of children;
* '' Sòngzi Niángniáng'' or ''Zǐsūn Niángniáng'', the goddess who presides over offspring;
* ''Yǎnguāng Niángniáng'', the goddess who protects eyesight;
* ''Yǐnméng Niángniáng'', the goddess who guides young children.
Altars of goddess worship are usually arranged with Bixia at the center and two goddesses at her sides, most frequently the Lady of Eyesight and the Lady of Offspring.][ A different figure but with the same astral connections as Bixia is the Goddess of the Seven Stars ( ''Qīxīng Niángniáng''). There is also the cluster of the Holy Mothers of the Three Skies ( ''Sānxiāo Shèngmǔ''; or ''Sānxiāo Niángniáng'', "Ladies of the Three Stars"), composed of '' Yunxiao Guniang'', '' Qiongxiao Guniang'' and '' Bixiao Guniang''. The cult of Chenjinggu present in southeast China is identified by some scholars as an emanation of the northern cult of Bixia.
Other goddesses worshipped in China include ''Cánmǔ'' ( Silkworm Mother) or ''Cángū'' ( Silkworm Maiden), identified with '' Léizǔ'' (, the wife of the Yellow Emperor), '' Mágū'' ( "Hemp Maiden"), ''Sǎoqīng Niángniáng'' ( Goddess who Sweeps Clean), ''Sānzhōu Niángniáng'' ( Goddess of the Three Isles), and ]Wusheng Laomu
The Queen Mother of the West, known by various local names, is a mother goddess in Chinese religion and mythology, also worshipped in neighbouring Asian countries, and attested from ancient times. From her name alone some of her most importan ...
. Mother goddess is central in the theology of many folk religious sects.
Gods of northeast China
Northeast China has clusters of deities which are peculiar to the area, deriving from the Manchu
The Manchus (; ) are a Tungusic East Asian ethnic group native to Manchuria in Northeast Asia. They are an officially recognized ethnic minority in China and the people from whom Manchuria derives its name. The Later Jin (1616–1636) and ...
and broader Tungusic substratum of the local population. Animal deities
The term Animal worship (or zoolatry) is an umbrella term designating religious or ritual practices involving animals. This includes the worship of animal deities or animal sacrifice. An animal 'cult' is formed when a species is taken to represe ...
related to shamanic
Shamanism is a religious practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with what they believe to be a spirit world through altered states of consciousness, such as trance. The goal of this is usually to direct spirits or spiri ...
practices are characteristic of the area and reflect wider Chinese cosmology. Besides the aforementioned Fox Gods ( ''Húxiān''), they include:
* ''Huángxiān'' — Yellow Immortal, the Weasel God
* ''Shéxiān'' — Snake Immortal, also variously called ''Liǔxiān'' — Immortal Liu, or ''Chángxiān'' — Viper Immortal, or also ''Mǎngxiān'' — Python or Boa Immortal
* ''Báixiān'' — White Immortal, the Hedgehog God
* ''Hēixiān'' — Black Immortal, who may be the ''Wūyāxiān'' — Crow Immortal, or the ''Huīxiān'' — Rat Immortal, with the latter considered a misinterpretation of the former
Gods of Indian origin
Gods who have been adopted into Chinese religion but who have their origins in the Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent is a list of the physiographic regions of the world, physiographical region in United Nations geoscheme for Asia#Southern Asia, Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian O ...
or Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
:
* '' Guānyīn'' — "She who Hears the Cries of the World", a Chinese goddess of mercy modeled after the bodhisattva
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood.
In the Early Buddhist schools ...
''Avalokiteśvara
In Buddhism, Avalokiteśvara (Sanskrit: अवलोकितेश्वर, IPA: ) is a bodhisattva who embodies the compassion of all Buddhas. He has 108 avatars, one notable avatar being Padmapāṇi (lotus bearer). He is variably depicted, ...
''
* ''Sìmiànshén'' — "Four-Faced God", but also a metaphor for "Ubiquitous God": The recent cult has its origin in the Thai transmission of the Hindu god Brahma
Brahma ( sa, ब्रह्मा, Brahmā) is a Hindu god, referred to as "the Creator" within the Trimurti, the trinity of supreme divinity that includes Vishnu, and Shiva.Jan Gonda (1969)The Hindu Trinity Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp. 21 ...
, but it is important to note that it is also an epithet of the indigenous Chinese god Huangdi who, as the deity of the centre of the cosmos, is described in the '' Shizi'' as "Yellow Emperor with Four Faces" ( ''Huángdì Sìmiàn'').
* ''Xiàngtóushén'' — "Elephant-Head God", is the Indian god Ganesha
Ganesha ( sa, गणेश, ), also known as Ganapati, Vinayaka, and Pillaiyar, is one of the best-known and most worshipped deities in the Hindu pantheon and is the Supreme God in Ganapatya sect. His image is found throughout India. Hindu d ...
[ p. 311.]
Gods of northern people
* Genghis Khan
''Chinggis Khaan'' ͡ʃʰiŋɡɪs xaːŋbr />Mongol script: ''Chinggis Qa(gh)an/ Chinggis Khagan''
, birth_name = Temüjin
, successor = Tolui (as regent)Ögedei Khan
, spouse =
, issue =
, house = Borjigin
, ...
( ''Chéngjísīhán''), worshipped by Mongols and Chinese under a variety of divinity titles including ''Shèngwǔ Huángdì'' — "Holy Military Sovereign Deity", ''Fǎtiān Qǐyùn'' "Starter of the Transmission of the Law of Heaven", and ''Tàizǔ'' — "Great Ancestor" (of the Yuan and the Mongols).
See also
* Chinese folk religion
Chinese folk religion, also known as Chinese popular religion comprehends a range of traditional religious practices of Han Chinese, including the Chinese diaspora. Vivienne Wee described it as "an empty bowl, which can variously be filled ...
* Chinese temple
Chinese temple architecture refer to a type of structures used as place of worship of Chinese Buddhism, Taoism or Chinese folk religion, where people revere ethnic Chinese gods and ancestors. They can be classified as:
* '' miào'' () or ''di ...
* Shen
* Xian
Xi'an ( , ; ; Chinese: ), frequently spelled as Xian and also known by other names, is the capital of Shaanxi Province. A sub-provincial city on the Guanzhong Plain, the city is the third most populous city in Western China, after Chongqin ...
* Zhenren
Zhenren () is a Chinese term that first appeared in the '' Zhuangzi'' meaning "Taoist spiritual master", roughly translatable as "Perfected Person". Religious Taoism mythologized ''zhenren'' to rank above '' xian'' "transcendent; immortal" in the ...
Notes
;Notes about the deities and their names
References
Citations
Sources
*
*
*
*
*
Volume I: The Ancient Eurasian World and the Celestial Pivot
',
Volume II: Representations and Identities of High Powers in Neolithic and Bronze China
',
Volume III: Terrestrial and Celestial Transformations in Zhou and Early-Imperial China
'.
*
*
*
*
*
*
* Original preserved at The British Library. Digitalised in 2014.
*
* Two volumes: 1) A-L; 2) L-Z.
*
*
*
*
*
{{DEFAULTSORT:Chinese gods and immortals
Lists of deities
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