The Chandelas of Jejakabhukti was an Indian dynasty in
Central India
Central India is a loosely defined geographical region of India. There is no clear official definition and various ones may be used. One common definition consists of the states of Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh, which are included in alm ...
. The Chandelas ruled much of the
Bundelkhand
Bundelkhand (, ) is a geographical and cultural region and a proposed state and also a mountain range in central & North India. The hilly region is now divided between the states of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, with the larger portion lyin ...
region (then called ''Jejakabhukti'') between the 9th and the 13th centuries. They belonged to the
Chandel clan of the
Rajput
Rajput (from Sanskrit ''raja-putra'' 'son of a king') is a large multi-component cluster of castes, kin bodies, and local groups, sharing social status and ideology of genealogical descent originating from the Indian subcontinent. The term Ra ...
s.
The Chandelas initially ruled as feudatories of the
Gurjara-Pratihara
The Gurjara-Pratihara was a dynasty that ruled much of Hindustan, Northern India from the mid-8th to the 11th century. They ruled first at Ujjain and later at Kannauj.
The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving ...
s of
Kanyakubja
Kannauj ( Hindustani pronunciation: ənːɔːd͡ʒ is a city, administrative headquarters and a municipal board or Nagar Palika Parishad in Kannauj district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. The city's name is a corrupted form of the class ...
(Kannauj). The 10th century Chandela ruler
Yashovarman
Yashovarman (IAST: Yaśovarman) was a medieval Indian ruler of Kannauj, who founded the Varman dynasty of Kannauj. There are few sources that provide information of his life, although he was indubitably a powerful man.
Life
Yashovarman was k ...
became practically independent, although he continued to acknowledge the Pratihara suzerainty. By the time of his successor
Dhanga
Dhanga (r. c. 950-999 CE), also known as Dhaṇgadeva in inscriptions, was a king of the Chandela dynasty of India. He ruled in the Jejakabhukti region (Bundelkhand in present-day Madhya Pradesh). Dhanga established the sovereignty of the Chande ...
, the Chandelas had become a sovereign power. Their power rose and declined as they fought battles with the neighbouring dynasties, especially the
Paramara
The Paramara dynasty (IAST: Paramāra) was an Indian dynasty that ruled Malwa and surrounding areas in west-central India between 9th and 14th centuries. They belonged to the Parmara clan of the Rajputs.
The dynasty was established in either th ...
s of
Malwa
Malwa is a historical region of west-central India occupying a plateau of volcanic origin. Geologically, the Malwa Plateau generally refers to the volcanic upland north of the Vindhya Range. Politically and administratively, it is also syno ...
and the
Kalachuris of Tripuri
The Kalachuris of Tripuri ( IAST: ), also known the Kalachuris of Chedi, ruled parts of central India during 7th to 13th centuries. They are also known as the Later Kalachuris to distinguish them from their earlier namesakes, especially the Kal ...
. From the 11th century onwards, the Chandelas faced raids by the northern Muslim dynasties, including the
Ghaznavid
The Ghaznavid dynasty ( fa, غزنویان ''Ġaznaviyān'') was a culturally Persianate, Sunni Muslim dynasty of Turkic ''mamluk'' origin, ruling, at its greatest extent, large parts of Persia, Khorasan, much of Transoxiana and the northwest ...
s and the
Ghurid
The Ghurid dynasty (also spelled Ghorids; fa, دودمان غوریان, translit=Dudmân-e Ğurīyân; self-designation: , ''Šansabānī'') was a Persianate dynasty and a clan of presumably eastern Iranian Tajik origin, which ruled from the ...
s. The Chandela power effectively ended around the beginning of the 13th century, following
Chahamana
Chauhan, historically ''Chahamana'', is a clan name historically associated with the various ruling Rajput families during the Medieval India in Rajasthan.
Subclans
Khichi, Hada, Songara, Bhadauria, Devda etc. are the branches or subclan ...
and Ghurid invasions.
The Chandelas are well known for their art and architecture, most notably for the temples at their original capital
Khajuraho
Khajuraho () is a city, near Chhatarpur in Chhatarpur district of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. One of the most popular tourist destinations in India, Khajuraho has the country's largest group of medieval Hindu and Jain temples, famous f ...
. They also commissioned a number of temples, water bodies, palaces and forts at other places, including their strongholds of
Ajaigarh
Ajaigarh or Ajaygarh is a town and a nagar panchayat in the Panna District of Madhya Pradesh state in central India.
Ajaigarh State was one of the princely states of India during the period of the British Raj. The state was founded in 1785, and ...
,
Kalinjar
Kalinjar ( hi, कालिंजर) is a fortress-city in Bundelkhand, in Banda District of Uttar Pradesh, in India. It was ruled by several dynasties including the Guptas, the Vardhana Dynasty, the Chandelas, Solankis of Rewa, Mughal and ...
and their later capital
Mahoba
Mahoba is a city in Mahoba District of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh in the Bundelkhand region, well known for the ninth century granite Sun temple built in Pratihara style. It is also well known for the 24 rock-cut Jain tirthankara image ...
.
Origin
The origin of the Chandelas is obscured by mythical legends. The epigraphic records of the dynasty, as well as contemporary texts such as ''Balabhadra-vilasa'' and ''Prabodha-chandrodaya'', suggest that the Chandelas belonged to the legendary
Lunar dynasty
The Lunar dynasty (IAST: Candravaṃśa) is a legendary principal house of the Kshatriyas varna, or warrior–ruling caste mentioned in the ancient Indian texts. This legendary dynasty was said to be descended from moon-related deities (''Som ...
(''Chandravansha''). A 954 CE
Khajuraho
Khajuraho () is a city, near Chhatarpur in Chhatarpur district of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. One of the most popular tourist destinations in India, Khajuraho has the country's largest group of medieval Hindu and Jain temples, famous f ...
inscription states that the dynasty's first king
Nannuka
Nannuka (r. c. 831-845 CE) was the founder of the Chandela dynasty of India. He ruled in the Jejakabhukti region (Bundelkhand in present-day Madhya Pradesh).
The poetic ballads about the Chandelas do not mention Nannuka at all, and instead name ...
was a descendant of sage Chandratreya, who was a son of
Atri
Atri ( sa, अत्रि) or Attri is a Vedic sage, who is credited with composing numerous hymns to Agni, Indra, and other Vedic deities of Hinduism. Atri is one of the Saptarishi (seven great Vedic sages) in the Hindu tradition, and the on ...
. A 1002 CE Khajuraho inscription gives a slightly different account, in which Chandratreya is mentioned as a son of Indu (the Moon) and a grandson of Atri. The 1195 CE Baghari inscription and the 1260 CE Ajaygadh inscription contain similar accounts. The ''Balabhadra-vilasa'' also names
Atri
Atri ( sa, अत्रि) or Attri is a Vedic sage, who is credited with composing numerous hymns to Agni, Indra, and other Vedic deities of Hinduism. Atri is one of the Saptarishi (seven great Vedic sages) in the Hindu tradition, and the on ...
among the ancestors of the Chandelas. Another Khajuraho inscription describes the Chandela king
Dhanga
Dhanga (r. c. 950-999 CE), also known as Dhaṇgadeva in inscriptions, was a king of the Chandela dynasty of India. He ruled in the Jejakabhukti region (Bundelkhand in present-day Madhya Pradesh). Dhanga established the sovereignty of the Chande ...
as a member of the
Vrishni
The Vrishnis (Brahmi: ''vri-shņi'') were an ancient Vedic Indian clan who were believed to be the descendants of Vrishni. It is believed that Vrishni was the son of Satvata, a descendant of Yadu, the son of Yayati. He had two wives, Gandhari an ...
clan of the
Yadavas
The Yadava (literally, descended from Yadu) were an ancient Indian people who believed to be descended from Yadu, a legendary king of Chandravamsha lineage. The community was formed of various clans, being the Abhira, Andhaka, Vrishni, and Satv ...
(who also claimed to be part of the Lunar dynasty).
![Le temple de Parshvanath (Khajuraho) (8638391942)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Le_temple_de_Parshvanath_%28Khajuraho%29_%288638391942%29.jpg)
The ''Mahoba-Khanda'' legend of the dynasty's origin goes like this: Hemaraja, a priest of the
Gaharwar
''Gaharwar'' or Gahadavala dynasty have their own legacy and are basically known as Rathore (a Rajput clan) of Suryavanshi kshatriya (claim to be descendants of lord Rama) found in the areas of Kanyakubja( today's Kannauj district of Uttar pra ...
king of
Benares
Varanasi (; ; also Banaras or Benares (; ), and Kashi.) is a city on the Ganges river in northern India that has a central place in the traditions of pilgrimage, death, and mourning in the Hindu world.
*
*
*
* The city has a syncretic tr ...
, had a beautiful daughter named Hemavati. Once, while Hemavati was bathing in a pond, the moon god
Chandra
Chandra ( sa, चन्द्र, Candra, shining' or 'moon), also known as Soma ( sa, सोम), is the Hindu god of the Moon, and is associated with the night, plants and vegetation. He is one of the Navagraha (nine planets of Hinduism) and ...
saw her and made love to her. Hemavati was worried about the dishonour of being an unwed mother, but Chandra assured her that their son would become a great king. This child was the dynasty's progenitor Chandravarma. Chandra presented him with a
philosopher's stone
The philosopher's stone or more properly philosophers' stone (Arabic: حجر الفلاسفة, , la, lapis philosophorum), is a mythic alchemical substance capable of turning base metals such as mercury into gold (, from the Greek , "gold", a ...
and taught him politics.
The dynasty's own records do not mention Hemavati, Hemaraja or Indrajit. Such legends appear to be later bardic inventions. In general, the ''Mahoba-Khanda'' is a historically unreliable text. ''Prithviraj Raso'' is also considered an historically unreliable text.
British indologist
V. A. Smith theorized that the Chandelas were of either
Bhar
The Bhar are a caste in India.
History
Influenced by the Arya Samaj movement, as were members of other castes, Baijnath Prasad Adhyapak published ''Rajbhar Jati ka Itihas'' in 1940. This book attempted to prove that the Rajbhar were former ...
or
Gond origin. Some other scholars including
R. C. Majumdar also supported this theory. The Chandelas worshipped Maniya, a tribal goddess, whose temples are located at Mahoba and Maniyagadh.
Besides, they have been associated with places that are also associated with Bhars and Gonds. Also,
Rani Durgavati
Rani Durgavati (5 October 1524 – 24 June 1564) was the ruling Queen of Gondwana from 1550 until 1564. She was born in the family of Chandel Rajput king Salibahan at the fort of Mahoba. She was married to Dalpat Shah the son of the king Sangr ...
, whose family claimed Chandela descent married a Gond chief of
Garha-Mandla
The Garha Kingdom, also called Garha Mandla or Garha Katanga was northern part of Gondwana.
History
The first Gond king of Garha-Mandla was Jadurai. He became king after disposing the Kalchuri Rajputs of Garha-Mandla, where earlier he worked in ...
. Historian R. K. Dikshit does not find these arguments convincing: he argues that Maniya was not a tribal deity. Also, the dynasty's association with Gond territory is not necessarily indicative of a common descent: the dynasty's progenitor may have been posted as a governor in these territories. Finally, Durgavati's marriage to a Gond chief can be dismissed as a one-off case.
History
Early rulers
The Chandelas were originally vassals of the
Gurjara-Pratiharas
The Gurjara-Pratihara was a dynasty that ruled much of Northern India from the mid-8th to the 11th century. They ruled first at Ujjain and later at Kannauj.
The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the ...
.
Nannuka
Nannuka (r. c. 831-845 CE) was the founder of the Chandela dynasty of India. He ruled in the Jejakabhukti region (Bundelkhand in present-day Madhya Pradesh).
The poetic ballads about the Chandelas do not mention Nannuka at all, and instead name ...
(r. c. 831–845 CE), the founder of the dynasty, was the ruler of a small kingdom centered around
Khajuraho
Khajuraho () is a city, near Chhatarpur in Chhatarpur district of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. One of the most popular tourist destinations in India, Khajuraho has the country's largest group of medieval Hindu and Jain temples, famous f ...
.
According to the Chandela inscriptions, Nannuka's successor
Vakpati defeated several enemies. Vakpati's sons
Jayashakti
Jayashakti ( IAST: Jayaśakti) was a 9th-century ruler from the Chandela dynasty of Central India. In the Chandela records, he is generally mentioned with his younger brother and successor, Vijayashakti. The two are believed to have ruled the Ch ...
(Jeja) and
Vijayashakti
Vijayashakti (IAST: Vijayaśakti) was a 9th-century ruler from the Chandela dynasty of Bundelkhand region in central India. In the Chandela records, he is generally mentioned with his elder brother and predecessor Jayashakti. The two are believe ...
(Vija) consolidated the Chandela power. According to a
Mahoba
Mahoba is a city in Mahoba District of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh in the Bundelkhand region, well known for the ninth century granite Sun temple built in Pratihara style. It is also well known for the 24 rock-cut Jain tirthankara image ...
inscription, the Chandela territory was named "Jejakabhukti" after the Jayashakti. Vijayashakti's successor
Rahila
Rahila (IAST: Rāhila, reigned c. 885-905 CE) was a king of the Chandela dynasty of India. He ruled in the Jejakabhukti region (Bundelkhand in present-day Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh).
Rahila was the son of his predecessor Vijayashakti. R. ...
is credited with several military victories in eulogistic inscriptions. Rahila's son
Harsha
Harshavardhana ( IAST Harṣa-vardhana; c. 590–647 CE) was a Pushyabhuti emperor who ruled northern India from 606 to 647 CE. He was the son of Prabhakaravardhana who had defeated the Alchon Huna invaders, and the younger brother of Rajyav ...
played an important role in restoring the rule of the Pratihara king
Mahipala
Mahipala (or Mahipala I; ) was a notable king of the Pala dynasty, which ruled over much of the eastern regions of the Indian subcontinent between the 8th and 12th centuries. He was the son and successor of Vigrahapala II. Mahipala's reign marke ...
, possibly after a
Rashtrakuta
Rashtrakuta (IAST: ') (r. 753-982 CE) was a royal Indian dynasty ruling large parts of the Indian subcontinent between the sixth and 10th centuries. The earliest known Rashtrakuta inscription is a 7th-century copper plate grant detailing their ...
invasion or after Mahiapala's conflict with his step-brother
Bhoja II.
Rise as a sovereign power
![Kirtivarman Chandela visits the temple of Khajurahu](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Kirtivarman_Chandela_visits_the_temple_of_Khajurahu.jpg)
Harsha's son
Yashovarman
Yashovarman (IAST: Yaśovarman) was a medieval Indian ruler of Kannauj, who founded the Varman dynasty of Kannauj. There are few sources that provide information of his life, although he was indubitably a powerful man.
Life
Yashovarman was k ...
(r. c. 925–950 CE) continued to acknowledge the Pratihara suzerainty, but became practically independent. He conquered the important fortress of
Kalanjara
Kalinjar ( hi, कालिंजर) is a fortress-city in Bundelkhand, in Banda District of Uttar Pradesh, in India. It was ruled by several dynasties including the Guptas, the Vardhana Dynasty, the Chandelas, Solankis of Rewa, Mughal and ...
. A 953–954 CE
Khajuraho
Khajuraho () is a city, near Chhatarpur in Chhatarpur district of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. One of the most popular tourist destinations in India, Khajuraho has the country's largest group of medieval Hindu and Jain temples, famous f ...
inscription credits him with several other military successes, including against
Gaudas (identified with the
Palas
A ''palas'' () is a German term for the imposing or prestigious building of a medieval ''Pfalz'' or castle that contained the great hall. Such buildings appeared during the Romanesque period (11th to 13th century) and, according to Thompson, ...
), the
Khasas
Khasas (Devanāgarī: खश; ') were an ancient Indo-Aryan tribe and a late Janapada kingdom from Himalayan regions of northern Indian subcontinent mentioned in the various historical Indian inscriptions and ancient Indian Hindu and Tibetan lite ...
, the
Chedis (the
Kalachuris of Tripuri
The Kalachuris of Tripuri ( IAST: ), also known the Kalachuris of Chedi, ruled parts of central India during 7th to 13th centuries. They are also known as the Later Kalachuris to distinguish them from their earlier namesakes, especially the Kal ...
), the
Kosalas (possibly the
Somavamshis), the
Mithila Mithila may refer to:
Places
* Mithilā, a synonym for the ancient Videha state
** Mithilā (ancient city), the ancient capital city of Videha
* Mithila (region), a cultural region (historical and contemporary), now divided between India and Nepal
...
(possibly a small tributary ruler),
Malavas
The Malavas (Brahmi script: 𑀫𑁆𑀫𑀸𑀭𑀯 ''Mmālava'') or Malwas were an ancient Indian tribe. Modern scholars identify them with the Mallian people (Malloi) who were settled in the Punjab region at the time of Alexander the Great, A ...
(identified with the
Paramaras), the
Kurus, the
Kashmiris
Kashmiris are an Indo-Aryan peoples, Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group speaking the Kashmiri language, living mostly, but not exclusively, in the Kashmir Valley of Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), Jammu and Kashmir, India.(a) (subscriptio ...
and the
Gurjara
Gurjaradesa ("Gurjara country") or Gurjaratra is a historical region in India comprising the eastern Rajasthan and northern Gujarat during the period of 6th -12th century CE. The predominant power of the region, the Gurjara-Pratiharas eventual ...
s. These claims appear to be exaggerated, as similar claims of extensive conquests in northern India are also found in the records of the other contemporary kings such as the Kalachuri king Yuva-Raja and the Rashtrakuta king
Krishna III
Krishna III whose Kannada name was Kannara (r. 939 – 967 C.E.) was the last great warrior and able monarch of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manyakheta. He was a shrewd administrator and skillful military campaigner. He waged many wars to bring b ...
. Yashovarman's reign marked the beginning of the famous Chandela-era art and architecture. He commissioned the
Lakshmana Temple
Lakshmana ( sa, लक्ष्मण, lit=the fortunate one, translit=Lakṣmaṇa), also spelled as Laxmana, is the younger brother of Rama and his loyalist in the Hindu epic ''Ramayana''. He bears the epithets of Saumitra () and Ramanuja (). ...
at Khajuraho.
Unlike the earlier Chandela inscriptions, the records of Yashovarman's successor
Dhanga
Dhanga (r. c. 950-999 CE), also known as Dhaṇgadeva in inscriptions, was a king of the Chandela dynasty of India. He ruled in the Jejakabhukti region (Bundelkhand in present-day Madhya Pradesh). Dhanga established the sovereignty of the Chande ...
(r. c. 950–999 CE) do not mention any Pratihara overlord. This indicates that Dhanga formally established the Chandela sovereignty. A Khajuraho inscription claims that the rulers of
Kosala
The Kingdom of Kosala (Sanskrit: ) was an ancient Indian kingdom with a rich culture, corresponding to the area within the region of Awadh in present-day Uttar Pradesh to Western Odisha. It emerged as a janapada, small state during the late Ve ...
, Kratha (part of
Vidarbha
Vidarbha (Pronunciation: Help:IPA/Marathi, id̪əɾbʱə is a geographical region in the east of the Indian state of Maharashtra and a Proposed states and union territories of India#Maharashtra, proposed state of central India, comprising th ...
region),
Kuntala, and
Simhala
Sinhalese people ( si, සිංහල ජනතාව, Sinhala Janathāva) are an Indo-Aryan peoples, Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group native to the island of Sri Lanka. They were historically known as Hela language, Hela people ( si, හෙ ...
listened humbly to the commands of Dhanga's officers. It also claims that the wives of the kings of
Andhra
Andhra Pradesh (, abbr. AP) is a state in the south-eastern coastal region of India. It is the seventh-largest state by area covering an area of and tenth-most populous state with 49,386,799 inhabitants. It is bordered by Telangana to the ...
,
Anga
Anga (Sanskrit: ) was an ancient Indo-Aryan tribe of eastern South Asia whose existence is attested during the Iron Age. The members of the Aṅga tribe were called the Āṅgeyas.
Counted among the "sixteen great nations" in Buddhist texts ...
,
Kanchi
Kanchipuram ('; ) also known as ''Conjeevaram,'' is a city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu in the Tondaimandalam region, from Chennaithe capital of Tamil Nadu. Known as the ''City of Thousand Temples'', Kanchipuram is known for its temple ...
and
Raḍha
Rarh region () is a toponym for an area in the Indian subcontinent that lies between the Chota Nagpur Plateau on the West and the Ganges Delta on the East. Although the boundaries of the region have been defined differently according to various ...
resided in his prisons as a result of his success in wars. These appear to be eulogistic exaggerations by a court poet, but suggest that Dhanga did undertake extensive military campaigns. Like his predecessor, Dhanga also commissioned a magnificent temple at Khajuraho, which is identified as the
Vishvanatha Temple.
Dhanga's successor
Ganda
Ganda may refer to:
Places
* Ganda, Angola
* Ganda, Tibet, China
* Ganda, the ancient Latin name of Ghent, a city in Belgium
Other uses
* Baganda or Ganda, a people of Uganda
** Luganda or Ganda language, a language of Uganda
* ''Ganda'' and "Ga ...
appears to have retained the territory he inherited. His son
Vidyadhara
Vidyadhara(s) (Sanskrit , literally "wisdom-holders") are a group of supernatural beings in Indian religions who possess magical powers. In Hinduism, they also attend Shiva, who lives in the Himalayas. They are considered ''Upadeva''s, or demi ...
killed the
Pratihara
The Gurjara-Pratihara was a dynasty that ruled much of Northern India from the mid-8th to the 11th century. They ruled first at Ujjain and later at Kannauj.
The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the ...
king of
Kannauj
Kannauj ( Hindustani pronunciation: ənːɔːd͡ʒ is a city, administrative headquarters and a municipal board or Nagar Palika Parishad in Kannauj district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. The city's name is a corrupted form of the class ...
(possibly Rajyapala) for fleeing his capital instead of fighting the
Ghaznavid
The Ghaznavid dynasty ( fa, غزنویان ''Ġaznaviyān'') was a culturally Persianate, Sunni Muslim dynasty of Turkic ''mamluk'' origin, ruling, at its greatest extent, large parts of Persia, Khorasan, much of Transoxiana and the northwest ...
invader
Mahmud of Ghazni
Yamīn-ud-Dawla Abul-Qāṣim Maḥmūd ibn Sebüktegīn ( fa, ; 2 November 971 – 30 April 1030), usually known as Mahmud of Ghazni or Mahmud Ghaznavi ( fa, ), was the founder of the Turkic Ghaznavid dynasty, ruling from 998 to 1030. At th ...
. Mahmud later invaded Vidyadhara's kingdom; according to the Muslim invaders, this conflict ended with Vidyadhara paying tribute to Mahmud. Vidyadhara is noted for having commissioned the
Kandariya Mahadeva Temple
The Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (Devanagari: कंदारिया महादेव मंदिर, Mandir), meaning "the Great God of the Cave", is the largest and most ornate Hindu temple in the medieval temple group found at Khajuraho in ...
.
The Chandela art and architecture reached its zenith during this period. The
Lakshmana Temple
Lakshmana ( sa, लक्ष्मण, lit=the fortunate one, translit=Lakṣmaṇa), also spelled as Laxmana, is the younger brother of Rama and his loyalist in the Hindu epic ''Ramayana''. He bears the epithets of Saumitra () and Ramanuja (). ...
(c. 930–950 CE), the
Vishvanatha Temple (c. 999–1002 CE) and the
Kandariya Mahadeva Temple
The Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (Devanagari: कंदारिया महादेव मंदिर, Mandir), meaning "the Great God of the Cave", is the largest and most ornate Hindu temple in the medieval temple group found at Khajuraho in ...
(c. 1030 CE) were constructed during the reigns of Yashovarman, Dhanga and Vidyadhara respectively. These
Nagara-style temples are representative of the most fully developed style at Khajuraho.
India-5679 - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg , Lakshmana Temple
Lakshmana ( sa, लक्ष्मण, lit=the fortunate one, translit=Lakṣmaṇa), also spelled as Laxmana, is the younger brother of Rama and his loyalist in the Hindu epic ''Ramayana''. He bears the epithets of Saumitra () and Ramanuja (). ...
File:Le temple de Parshvanath (Khajuraho) (8638423582).jpg, Parshvanatha Temple
Vishwanath N-MP-23.jpg , Vishvanatha Temple
A view of Kandariya Mahadev Temple Khajuraho India.jpg , Kandariya Mahadeva Temple
The Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (Devanagari: कंदारिया महादेव मंदिर, Mandir), meaning "the Great God of the Cave", is the largest and most ornate Hindu temple in the medieval temple group found at Khajuraho in ...
Decline
![Le Temple Kandariya Mahadeva (Khajurâho) (8503001895)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Le_Temple_Kandariya_Mahadeva_%28Khajur%C3%A2ho%29_%288503001895%29.jpg)
By the end of Vidyadhara's reign, the
Ghaznavid
The Ghaznavid dynasty ( fa, غزنویان ''Ġaznaviyān'') was a culturally Persianate, Sunni Muslim dynasty of Turkic ''mamluk'' origin, ruling, at its greatest extent, large parts of Persia, Khorasan, much of Transoxiana and the northwest ...
invasions had weakened the Chandela kingdom. Taking advantage of this, the
Kalachuri
The Kalachuris (IAST: Kalacuri), also known as Kalachuris of Mahishmati, were an Indian dynasty that ruled in west-central India between 6th and 7th centuries. They are also known as the Heheya Kingdom, Haihayas or as the Early Kalachuris to d ...
king
Gangeya-deva conquered eastern parts of the kingdom. Chandela inscriptions suggest that Vidyadhara's successor
Vijayapala
Vijayapala ( IAST: Vijayapāla; reigned c. 1035-1050 CE) was a king of the Chandela dynasty of India. He ruled in the Jejakabhukti region ( Bundelkhand in present-day Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh).
Vijayapala was born to the Chandela ruler ...
(r. c. 1035–1050 CE) defeated Gangeya in a battle. However, the Chandela power started declining during the Vijayapala's reign. The
Kachchhapaghatas of
Gwalior
Gwalior() is a major city in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh; it lies in northern part of Madhya Pradesh and is one of the Counter-magnet cities. Located south of Delhi, the capital city of India, from Agra and from Bhopal, the s ...
probably gave up their allegiance to the Chandelas during this period.
Vijayapala's elder son
Devavavarman was subjugated by Gangeya's son
Lakshmi-Karna. His younger brother
Kirttivarman resurrected the Chandela power by defeating Lakshmi-Karna. Kirtivarman's son
Sallakshanavarman
Sallakshana-Varman (reigned c. 1100–1110 CE; IAST: Sallakṣaṇavarman) was a king of the Chandela dynasty of India. He succeeded his father Kirttivarman as the ruler of the Jejakabhukti region (Bundelkhand in present-day Madhya Pradesh and U ...
achieved military successes against the Paramaras and the Kalachuris, possibly by raiding their territories. A
Mau inscription suggests that he also conducted successful campaigns in the Antarvedi region (the Ganga-Yamuna
doab
''Doab'' () is a term used in South Asia Quote: "Originally and chiefly in South Asia: (the name of) a strip or narrow tract of land between two rivers; spec. (with) the area between the rivers Ganges and Jumna in northern India." for the tract ...
). His son
Jayavarman was of religious temperament and abdicated the throne after being tired of governance.
Jayavarman appears to have died heirless, as he was succeeded by his uncle
Prithvivarman
Prithvi-Varman ( IAST: Pṛthvīvarman; reigned c. 1120–1128 CE) was a king of the Chandela dynasty of India. He succeeded his nephew Jayavarman as the ruler of the Jejakabhukti region ( Bundelkhand in present-day Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pra ...
, the younger son of Kirttivarman. The Chandela inscriptions do not ascribe any military achievements to him; it appears that he was focused on maintaining the existing Chandela territories without adopting an aggressive expansionist policy.
Revival
By the time Prithvivarman's son
Madanavarman
Madana-Varman (reigned c. 1128–1165 CE) was a king of the Chandela dynasty of India. He succeeded his father Prithvi-Varman as the ruler of the Jejakabhukti region (Bundelkhand in present-day Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh). He revived the ...
(r. c. 1128–1165 CE) ascended the throne, the neighbouring
Kalachuri
The Kalachuris (IAST: Kalacuri), also known as Kalachuris of Mahishmati, were an Indian dynasty that ruled in west-central India between 6th and 7th centuries. They are also known as the Heheya Kingdom, Haihayas or as the Early Kalachuris to d ...
and
Paramara
The Paramara dynasty (IAST: Paramāra) was an Indian dynasty that ruled Malwa and surrounding areas in west-central India between 9th and 14th centuries. They belonged to the Parmara clan of the Rajputs.
The dynasty was established in either th ...
kingdoms had been weakened by enemy invasions. Taking advantage of this situation, Madanavarman defeated the Kalachuri king
Gaya-Karna, and possibly annexed the northern part of the
Baghelkhand
Bagelkhand or Baghelkhand is a proposed state and a mountain range in central India that covers the northeastern regions of Madhya Pradesh and a small area of southeastern Uttar Pradesh.
History
Dahala
Baghelkhand was known as Dahala 6th–1 ...
region. However, the Chandelas lost this territory to Gaya-Karna's successor
Narasimha
Narasimha ( sa, नरसिंह, lit=man-lion, ), sometimes rendered Narasingha, is the fourth avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu. He is regarded to have incarnated in the form of a part-lion, part-man being to slay Hiranyakashipu, to end rel ...
. Madanavarman also captured the territory on the western periphery of the Paramara kingdom, around
Bhilsa
Vidisha (विदिशा, formerly known as Bhelsa and known as Besnagar in ancient times) is a city in central Madhya Pradesh, India. It is located 62.5 km northeast of the state capital, Bhopal. The name "Vidisha" is derived from th ...
(Vidisha). This probably happened during the reign of the Paramara king
Yashovarman
Yashovarman (IAST: Yaśovarman) was a medieval Indian ruler of Kannauj, who founded the Varman dynasty of Kannauj. There are few sources that provide information of his life, although he was indubitably a powerful man.
Life
Yashovarman was k ...
or his son
Jayavarman. Once again, the Chandelas could not retain the newly annexed territory for long, and the region was recaptured by Yashovarman's son Lakshmivarman.
Jayasimha Siddharaja
Jayasiṃha ( ), who assumed the title Siddharāja (), was an Indian king who ruled western parts of India. He was a member of the Chaulukya (also called Solanki) dynasty.
Jayasimha's capital was located at Anahilapataka (modern Patan) in pres ...
, the
Chaulukya
The Chaulukya dynasty (), also Solanki dynasty, was a dynasty that ruled parts of what are now Gujarat and Rajasthan in north-western India, between and . Their capital was located at Anahilavada (modern Patan). At times, their rule extended ...
king of Gujarat, also invaded the Paramara territory, which was located between the Chandela and the Chaulukya kingdoms. This brought him in conflict with Madanavarman. The result of this conflict appears to have been inconclusive, as records of both the kingdoms claim victory. A
Kalanjara
Kalinjar ( hi, कालिंजर) is a fortress-city in Bundelkhand, in Banda District of Uttar Pradesh, in India. It was ruled by several dynasties including the Guptas, the Vardhana Dynasty, the Chandelas, Solankis of Rewa, Mughal and ...
inscription suggests that Madanavarman defeated Jayasimha. On the other hand, the various chronicles of Gujarat claim that Jayasimha either defeated Madanavarman or extracted a tribute from him. Madanavarman maintained friendly relations with his northern neighbours, the
Gahadavala
The Gahadavala dynasty (IAST: Gāhaḍavālas), also Gahadavalas of Kanauj, was a Rajput dynasty that ruled parts of the present-day Indian states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, during 11th and 12th centuries. Their capital was located at Varanas ...
s.
Madanavarman's son
Yashovarman II either did not rule, or ruled for a very short time. Madanavarman's grandson
Paramardi-deva was the last powerful Chandela king.
Final decline
Paramardi
Paramardi (reigned c. 1165–1203 CE) was a king of the Chandela dynasty of central India. He was the last powerful Chandela king, and ruled the Jejakabhukti region ( Bundelkhand in present-day Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh). Around 1182–1 ...
(reigned c. 1165-1203 CE) ascended the Chandela throne at a young age. While the early years of his reign were peaceful, around 1182–1183 CE, the
Chahamana
Chauhan, historically ''Chahamana'', is a clan name historically associated with the various ruling Rajput families during the Medieval India in Rajasthan.
Subclans
Khichi, Hada, Songara, Bhadauria, Devda etc. are the branches or subclan ...
ruler
Prithviraj Chauhan
Prithviraja III (IAST: Pṛthvī-rāja; reign. – 1192 CE), popularly known as Prithviraj Chauhan or Rai Pithora, was a king from the Chauhan (Chahamana) dynasty who ruled the territory of Sapadalaksha, with his capital at Ajmer in present- ...
invaded the Chandela kingdom. According to the medieval legendary ballads, Prithviraj's army lost its way after a surprise attack by (
Ghurid
The Ghurid dynasty (also spelled Ghorids; fa, دودمان غوریان, translit=Dudmân-e Ğurīyân; self-designation: , ''Šansabānī'') was a Persianate dynasty and a clan of presumably eastern Iranian Tajik origin, which ruled from the ...
)
Turkic forces, and unknowingly camped at the Chandela capital
Mahoba
Mahoba is a city in Mahoba District of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh in the Bundelkhand region, well known for the ninth century granite Sun temple built in Pratihara style. It is also well known for the 24 rock-cut Jain tirthankara image ...
. This led to a brief conflict between the Chandelas and the Chauhans, before Prithviraj left for Delhi. Sometime later, Prithviraj invaded the Chandela kingdom and sacked Mahoba. Paramardi cowardly took shelter in the
Kalanjara
Kalinjar ( hi, कालिंजर) is a fortress-city in Bundelkhand, in Banda District of Uttar Pradesh, in India. It was ruled by several dynasties including the Guptas, the Vardhana Dynasty, the Chandelas, Solankis of Rewa, Mughal and ...
fort. The Chandela force, led by
Alha
Alha (देवनागरी: आल्हा ; ISO: Ālhā ) was a legendary general of the Chandel king Paramardideva (also known as Parmal), who fought Prithviraj Chauhan in 1182 CE. He is one of the main characters of the '' Alha-Khand'' ...
,
Udal and other generals, was defeated in this battle. According to the various ballads, Paramardi either committed suicide out of shame or retired to
Gaya.
Prithviraj Chauhan's raid of Mahoba is corroborated by his
Madanpur stone inscriptions. However, there are several instances of historical inaccuracies in the bardic legends. For example, it is known that Paramardi did not retire or die immediately after the Chauhan victory. He restored the Chandela power, and ruled as a sovereign until around 1202–1203 CE, when
Qutb al-Din Aibak
Qutb ud-Din Aibak ( fa, قطبالدین ایبک), (1150 – 14 November 1210) was a Turkic general of the Ghurid king Muhammad Ghori. He was in charge of the Ghurid territories in northern India, and after Muhammad Ghori's assassination in ...
, the
Ghurid Empire
The Ghurid dynasty (also spelled Ghorids; fa, دودمان غوریان, translit=Dudmân-e Ğurīyân; self-designation: , ''Šansabānī'') was a Persianate dynasty and a clan of presumably eastern Iranian Tajik origin, which ruled from the ...
governor of
Delhi
Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, is a city and a union territory of India containing New Delhi, the capital of India. Straddling the Yamuna river, primarily its western or right bank, Delhi shares borders w ...
, invaded the Chandela kingdom. According to ''Taj-ul-Maasir'', a chronicle of the
Delhi Sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic empire based in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for 320 years (1206–1526). , Paramardi surrendered to the Delhi forces. He promised to pay tribute to the Sultan, but died before he could keep this promise. His
dewan
''Dewan'' (also known as ''diwan'', sometimes spelled ''devan'' or ''divan'') designated a powerful government official, minister, or ruler. A ''dewan'' was the head of a state institution of the same name (see Divan). Diwans belonged to the el ...
offered some resistance to the invading forces, but was ultimately subdued. The 16th century historian
Firishta
Firishta or Ferešte ( fa, ), full name Muhammad Qasim Hindu Shah Astarabadi ( fa, مُحَمَّد قاسِم هِندو شاہ), was a Persian historian, who later settled in India and served the Deccan Sultans as their court historian. He was ...
states that Paramardi was assassinated by his own minister, who disagreed with the king's decision to surrender to the Delhi forces.
The Chandela power did not fully recover from their defeat against the Delhi forces. Paramardi was succeeded by
Trailokyavarman
Trailokya-Varman (reigned c. 1203–1245 CE) was a king of the Chandela dynasty of central India. He ruled the Jejakabhukti, Kanyakubja, Tripuri and Chedi regions in present-day Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh).
Chandela inscriptions suggest ...
,
Viravarman
Vira-Varman ( IAST: Vīravarman, reigned c. 1245-1285 CE) was a king of the Chandela dynasty of central India. He ruled the Jejakabhukti region ( Bundelkhand in present-day Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh).
Viravarman succeeded Trailokyavarman ...
and
Bhojavarman
Bhojavarman (reigned c. 1285-1288 CE) was a king of the Chandela dynasty of central India. He ruled in the Jejakabhukti region (Bundelkhand in present-day Madhya Pradesh).
Bhojavarman succeeded Viravarman, whose last inscription is dated 1342 V ...
. The next ruler
Hammiravarman (r. c. 1288–1311 CE) did not use the imperial title
Maharajadhiraja
Mahārāja (; also spelled Maharajah, Maharaj) is a Sanskrit title for a "great ruler", "great king" or " high king".
A few ruled states informally called empires, including ruler raja Sri Gupta, founder of the ancient Indian Gupta Empire, an ...
, which indicates that the Chandela king had a lower status by his time. The Chandela power continued to decline because of the rising Muslim influence, as well as the rise of other local dynasties, such as the
Bundela
The Bundela is a Rajput clan. Over several generations, the cadet lineages of Bundela Rajputs founded several states in area what came to be known as Bundelkhand anciently known as Chedi Kingdom from the 16th century.
Etymology
As per Jaswant ...
s, the Baghelas and the
Khangars.
Hammiravarman was succeeded by Viravarman II, whose titles do not indicate a high political status.
One minor branch of the family continued ruling Kalanjara: its ruler was killed by
Sher Shah Suri
Sher Shah Suri ( ps, شیرشاه سوری)
(1472, or 1486 – 22 May 1545), born Farīd Khān ( ps, فرید خان)
, was the founder of the Sur Empire in India, with its capital in Sasaram in modern-day Bihar. He standardized the silver coin ...
's army in 1545 CE. Another minor branch ruled at
Mahoba
Mahoba is a city in Mahoba District of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh in the Bundelkhand region, well known for the ninth century granite Sun temple built in Pratihara style. It is also well known for the 24 rock-cut Jain tirthankara image ...
:
Durgavati
Rani Durgavati (5 October 1524 – 24 June 1564) was the ruling Queen of Gondwana from 1550 until 1564. She was born in the family of Chandel Rajput king Salibahan at the fort of Mahoba. She was married to Dalpat Shah the son of the king Sangr ...
, one of its princesses married into the
Gond royal family of
Mandla
Mandla is a city with municipality in Mandla district in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. It is the administrative headquarters of Mandla District. The city is situated in a loop of the Narmada River, which surrounds it on three sides, and ...
. Some other ruling families also claimed Chandela descent (see
Chandel).
Art and architecture
The Chandelas are well known for their art and architecture. They commissioned a number of temples, water bodies, palaces and forts at various places. The most famous example of their cultural achievements are the Hindu and Jain temples at
Khajuraho
Khajuraho () is a city, near Chhatarpur in Chhatarpur district of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. One of the most popular tourist destinations in India, Khajuraho has the country's largest group of medieval Hindu and Jain temples, famous f ...
. Three other important Chandela strongholds were Jayapura-Durga (modern
Ajaigarh
Ajaigarh or Ajaygarh is a town and a nagar panchayat in the Panna District of Madhya Pradesh state in central India.
Ajaigarh State was one of the princely states of India during the period of the British Raj. The state was founded in 1785, and ...
), Kalanjara (modern
Kalinjar
Kalinjar ( hi, कालिंजर) is a fortress-city in Bundelkhand, in Banda District of Uttar Pradesh, in India. It was ruled by several dynasties including the Guptas, the Vardhana Dynasty, the Chandelas, Solankis of Rewa, Mughal and ...
) and Mahotsava-Nagara (modern
Mahoba
Mahoba is a city in Mahoba District of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh in the Bundelkhand region, well known for the ninth century granite Sun temple built in Pratihara style. It is also well known for the 24 rock-cut Jain tirthankara image ...
).
Khajuraho Dulhadeo 2010.jpg , Dulhadeo temple, Khajuraho
0B Ajaigarh 4 sides temple.jpg , Ajaigarh temple
Yajna mandap in kulpahar.jpg , A yajna
Yajna ( sa, यज्ञ, yajña, translit-std=IAST, sacrifice, devotion, worship, offering) refers in Hinduism to any ritual done in front of a sacred fire, often with mantras.SG Nigal (1986), Axiological Approach to the Vedas, Northern Book ...
mandapa
A mandapa or mantapa () is a pillared hall or pavilion for public rituals in Indian architecture, especially featured in Hindu temple architecture.
Mandapas are described as "open" or "closed" depending on whether they have walls. In temples, ...
at Kulpahar
Kulpahar is a city in Mahoba district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is a historical town in the Bundelkhand region. Before 11 Feb 1995 Kulpahar was a Tehsil of Hamirpur District. On 11 Feb 1995 Mahoba District was carved out of Hami ...
Other smaller Chandela sites include Chandpur,
Deogarh, Dudahi,
Kakadeo
Kakadeo is a locality in Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Kakadeo has a very deep history. It was ruled by the Chandela dynasty for hundreds of years and is known for temples built by the Chandel Thakurs, some which are centuries old. Kakadeo w ...
and Madanpur.
Brahma and his consort.jpg , Brahma and his consort, Khajuraho
Ajaygarh Alians ship.jpg , Stone carving, Ajaigarh
Ajaygarh Neel Swarshwati.jpg , Jain tirthankara
In Jainism, a ''Tirthankara'' (Sanskrit: '; English: literally a 'ford-maker') is a saviour and spiritual teacher of the ''dharma'' (righteous path). The word ''tirthankara'' signifies the founder of a '' tirtha'', which is a fordable passag ...
s and Sarasvati
Saraswati ( sa, सरस्वती, ) is the Hindu goddess of knowledge, music, art, speech, wisdom, and learning. She is one of the Tridevi, along with the goddesses Lakshmi and Parvati.
The earliest known mention of Saraswati as a god ...
, Ajaigarh
Ajaygarh seven heavens of Jain.jpg , Jain heavens, Ajaigarh
Ajaygarh Shramanas Egyptian style rock cut.jpg , Jain shramanas, Ajaigarh
Ajaygarh treasure sign.jpg , Cattle with treasure sign, Ajaigarh
35. Khajuraho Visvanath apsara.jpg , Surasundari
In Indian art, a surasundari (literally "celestial beauty") is a young maiden characterizing feminine beauty and graceful sensuality.
Buddhist and Jain shrines have featured sensual figures in form of yakshis and other spirits since 2nd century ...
Apsara
An apsaras or apsara ( sa, अप्सरा ' lso ' pi, अक्चरा, translit=accharā) is a type of female spirit of the clouds and waters in Hinduism and Buddhist culture. They figure prominently in the sculpture, dance, literat ...
, Khajuraho
Khajuraho 126.jpg , Dancing Ganesha, Khajuraho
Le temple de Parshvanath (Khajuraho) (8638393390).jpg , Parshvanatha temple carvings
Le Temple de Lakshmana (Khajurâho) (8498182643).jpg , Lakshmana temple
Lakshmana ( sa, लक्ष्मण, lit=the fortunate one, translit=Lakṣmaṇa), also spelled as Laxmana, is the younger brother of Rama and his loyalist in the Hindu epic ''Ramayana''. He bears the epithets of Saumitra () and Ramanuja (). ...
carvings
List of rulers
find spot
Provenance (from the French ''provenir'', 'to come from/forth') is the chronology of the ownership, custody or location of a historical object. The term was originally mostly used in relation to works of art but is now used in similar senses i ...
s of inscriptions issued during the Chandela reign" width="300" height="300" zoom="5" longitude="80.5" latitude="25.5">
Based on epigraphic records, the historians have come up with the following list of Chandela rulers of Jejākabhukti (