![Yarchagumba](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Yarchagumba.JPG)
''Ophiocordyceps sinensis'' (formerly known as ''Cordyceps sinensis''), known colloquially as caterpillar fungus, is an
entomopathogenic fungus (a fungus that grows on insects) in the family
Ophiocordycipitaceae
Ophiocordycipitaceae is a family of parasitic fungi in the Ascomycota, class Sordariomycetes.
Genera
*'' Blistum''
*'' Didymobotryopsis''
*'' Haptocillium''
*'' Harposporium'' (Anamorphic)
*'' Ophiocordyceps''; anamorphic genera:
**''Hirsutella ...
. It is mainly found in the meadows above on the
Tibetan Plateau
The Tibetan Plateau (, also known as the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau or the Qing–Zang Plateau () or as the Himalayan Plateau in India, is a vast elevated plateau located at the intersection of Central, South and East Asia covering most of the Ti ...
in Southwest China and the Himalayan regions of
Bhutan
Bhutan (; dz, འབྲུག་ཡུལ་, Druk Yul ), officially the Kingdom of Bhutan,), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is situated in the Eastern Himalayas, between China in the north and India in the south. A mountainous ...
and
Nepal
Nepal (; ne, नेपाल ), formerly the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal ( ne,
सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल ), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is mai ...
. It
parasitizes larvae of
ghost moths and produces a
fruiting body which used to be valued as a
herbal remedy
Herbal medicine (also herbalism) is the study of pharmacognosy and the use of medicinal plants, which are a basis of traditional medicine. With worldwide research into pharmacology, some herbal medicines have been translated into modern remedies ...
and in traditional
Chinese medicine. Caterpillar fungus contains the compound
cordycepin, an
adenosine
Adenosine ( symbol A) is an organic compound that occurs widely in nature in the form of diverse derivatives. The molecule consists of an adenine attached to a ribose via a β-N9-glycosidic bond. Adenosine is one of the four nucleoside building ...
derivative.
However, the fruiting bodies harvested in nature usually contain high amounts of arsenic and other heavy metals so they are potentially toxic and sales have been strictly regulated by the CFDA (
China Food and Drug Administration) since 2016.
''O. sinensis'' parasitizes the larvae of moths within the family
Hepialidae, specifically genera found on the
Tibetan Plateau
The Tibetan Plateau (, also known as the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau or the Qing–Zang Plateau () or as the Himalayan Plateau in India, is a vast elevated plateau located at the intersection of Central, South and East Asia covering most of the Ti ...
and in the Himalayas, between elevations of . The fungus germinates in the living larva, kills and mummifies it, and then a dark brown stalk-like fruiting body which is a few centimeters long emerges from the corpse and stands upright.
''O. sinensis'' is classified as a
medicinal mushroom
Medicinal fungi are fungi that contain metabolites or can be induced to produce metabolites through biotechnology to develop prescription drugs. Compounds successfully developed into drugs or under research include antibiotics, anti-cancer drugs, ...
, and its use has a long history in
traditional Chinese medicine
Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is an alternative medical practice drawn from traditional medicine in China. It has been described as "fraught with pseudoscience", with the majority of its treatments having no logical mechanism of action ...
as well as
traditional Tibetan medicine
Traditional Tibetan medicine (), also known as Sowa-Rigpa medicine, is a centuries-old traditional medical system that employs a complex approach to diagnosis, incorporating techniques such as pulse analysis and urinalysis, and utilizes behavior ...
.
[
] The hand-collected, intact fungus-caterpillar body is valued by herbalists as medicine, and because of its cost, its use is also a status symbol.
[
]
The fruiting bodies of the fungus are not yet cultivated commercially,
[Hsieh, C., et al., A Systematic Review of the Mysterious Caterpillar Fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis in Dong-ChongXiaCao and Related Bioactive Ingredients. Vol. 3. 2013. 16–32.] but the mycelium form can be cultivated in vitro.
Overharvesting and
overexploitation
Overexploitation, also called overharvesting, refers to harvesting a renewable resource to the point of diminishing returns. Continued overexploitation can lead to the destruction of the resource, as it will be unable to replenish. The term app ...
have led to the classification of ''O. sinensis'' as an endangered species in China.
Additional research needs to be carried out in order to understand its morphology and growth habits for conservation and optimum utilization.
Taxonomic history and systematics
Morphological features
''Ophiocordyceps sinensis'' consists of two parts, a fungal endo
sclerotium
A sclerotium (; (), is a compact mass of hardened fungal mycelium containing food reserves. One role of sclerotia is to survive environmental extremes. In some higher fungi such as ergot, sclerotia become detached and remain dormant until favo ...
(within the caterpillar) and
stroma.
The stroma is the upper fungal part and is dark brown or black, but can be a yellow color when fresh, and longer than the caterpillar itself, usually 4–10 cm. It grows singly from the larval head, and is clavate, sublanceolate or fusiform, and distinct from the
stipe (stalk).
The stipe is slender, glabrous, and longitudinally furrowed or ridged.
The fertile part of the stroma is the head. The head is granular because of the
ostiole
An ''ostiole'' is a small hole or opening through which algae or fungi release their mature spores.
The word is a diminutive of "ostium", "opening".
The term is also used in higher plants, for example to denote the opening of the involuted ...
s of the embedded
perithecia.
[ The perithecia are ordinally arranged and ovoid.][ The asci are cylindrical or slightly tapering at both ends, and may be straight or curved, with a capitate and hemispheroid apex, and may be two to four spored.][ Similarly, ascospores are hyaline, filiform, multiseptate at a length of 5–12 μm and subattenuated on both sides.][ Perithecial, ascus and ascospore characters in the fruiting bodies are the key identification characteristics of ''O. sinensis''.
''Ophiocordyceps'' ( Petch) Kobayasi species produce whole ascospores and do not separate into part spores. This is different from other ''Cordyceps'' species, which produce either immersed or superficial perithecia perpendicular to stromal surface, and the ascospores at maturity are disarticulated into part spores.][ Generally ''Cordyceps'' species possess brightly colored and fleshy stromata, but ''O. sinensis'' has dark pigments and tough to pliant stromata, a typical characteristic feature of most of the ''Ophiocordyceps'' species.][
]
Developments in classification
The species was first described scientifically by Miles Berkeley
Miles Joseph Berkeley (1 April 1803 – 30 July 1889) was an English cryptogamist and clergyman, and one of the founders of the science of plant pathology.
Life
Berkeley was born at Biggin Hall, Benefield, Northamptonshire, and educated at R ...
in 1843 as ''Sphaeria sinensis'';[ Pier Andrea Saccardo transferred the species to the genus '']Cordyceps
''Cordyceps'' is a genus of ascomycete fungi (sac fungi) that includes about 600 species. Most ''Cordyceps'' species are endoparasitoids, parasitic mainly on insects and other arthropods (they are thus entomopathogenic fungi); a few are parasiti ...
'' in 1878.[ The fungus was known as ''Cordyceps sinensis'' until 2007, when ]molecular
A molecule is a group of two or more atoms held together by attractive forces known as chemical bonds; depending on context, the term may or may not include ions which satisfy this criterion. In quantum physics, organic chemistry, and bioche ...
analysis was used to amend the classification Classification is a process related to categorization, the process in which ideas and objects are recognized, differentiated and understood.
Classification is the grouping of related facts into classes.
It may also refer to:
Business, organizat ...
of the Cordycipitaceae
The Cordycipitaceae are a family of parasitic fungi in the Ascomycota, class Sordariomycetes and order Hypocreales. The family was first published in 1969 by mycologist Hanns Kreisel, but the naming was invalid according to the code of Internati ...
and the Clavicipitaceae, resulting in the naming of a new family Ophiocordycipitaceae
Ophiocordycipitaceae is a family of parasitic fungi in the Ascomycota, class Sordariomycetes.
Genera
*'' Blistum''
*'' Didymobotryopsis''
*'' Haptocillium''
*'' Harposporium'' (Anamorphic)
*'' Ophiocordyceps''; anamorphic genera:
**''Hirsutella ...
and the transfer of several ''Cordyceps'' species including ''C. sinensis'' to the genus ''Ophiocordyceps
''Ophiocordyceps'' is a genus of fungi within the family Ophiocordycipitaceae. The widespread genus, first described scientifically by British mycologist Tom Petch in 1931, contains about 140 species that grow on insects. Anamorphic genera that c ...
''.[
]
Common names
In Tibet it is known as yartsa gunbu, (, "summer grass winter worm"). The name was first recorded in the 15th century by the Tibetan doctor Zurkhar Namnyi Dorje. In colloquial Tibetan yartsa gunbu is often shortened to simply "bu" or "yartsa". The Tibetan name is transliterated in Nepali as यार्चागुन्बू, ''yarshagumba'', ''yarchagumba'' or ''yarsagumba''. The transliteration in Bhutan is .
In India, it is known as ''keera jhar'', ''keeda jadi'', ''keeda ghas'' or in Nepali, Hindi and Garhwali Garhwali may refer to:
* Garhwali people, an ethno-linguistic group who live in northern India
* Garhwali language, the Indo-Aryan language spoken by Garhwali people
* anything from or related to:
**Garhwal division, a region in state of Uttarakhan ...
.
It is known in Chinese as (冬蟲夏草), meaning "winter worm, summer grass", which is a literal translation of the original Tibetan name. In traditional Chinese medicine, its name is often abbreviated as ''chong cao'' (蟲草 "insect plant"), a name that also applies to other ''Cordyceps'' species, such as ''C. militaris''. In Japanese, it is known by the Japanese reading of the characters for the Chinese name, . Strangely, sometimes in Chinese English-language texts ''Cordyceps sinensis'' is referred to as ''aweto'', which is the Māori
Māori or Maori can refer to:
Relating to the Māori people
* Māori people of New Zealand, or members of that group
* Māori language, the language of the Māori people of New Zealand
* Māori culture
* Cook Islanders, the Māori people of the C ...
name for ''Ophiocordyceps robertsii
''Ophiocordyceps robertsii'', known in New Zealand as vegetable caterpillar (Māori: āwhato or āwheto) is an entomopathogenic fungus belonging to the order Hypocreales (Ascomycota) in the family Ophiocordycipitaceae. It invades the caterpillar ...
'', a species from New Zealand
New Zealand ( mi, Aotearoa ) is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and over 700 smaller islands. It is the sixth-largest island count ...
.
The English term "vegetable caterpillar" is a misnomer, as no plant is involved. "Caterpillar fungus" is a preferred term.
Nomenclature of the anamorph
Since the 1980s, 22 species in 13 genera have been attributed to the anamorph
In mycology, the terms teleomorph, anamorph, and holomorph apply to portions of the life cycles of fungi in the phyla Ascomycota and Basidiomycota:
*Teleomorph: the sexual reproductive stage (morph), typically a fruiting body.
*Anamorph: an ase ...
(asexually reproducing mold-like form) of ''O. sinensis''. Of the 22 species, ''Cephalosporium
''Acremonium'' is a genus of fungi in the family Hypocreaceae. It used to be known as ''Cephalosporium''.
Description
''Acremonium'' species are usually slow-growing and are initially compact and moist. Their hyphae are fine and hyaline, and p ...
acreomonium'' is the zygomycetous species of '' Umbelopsis'', ''Chrysosporium
''Chrysosporium'' is a genus of hyaline hyphomycetes fungi in the family Onygenaceae.
''Chrysosporium'' colonies are moderately fast-growing, flat, white to tan to beige in color; they often have a powdery or granular surface texture. Hyaline, ...
sinense'' has very low similarity in RAPD polymorphism, hence it is not the anamorph. Likewise, ''Cephalosporium dongchongxiacae'', ''C. sp.'' ''sensu'', '' Hirsutella sinensis'' and ''H. hepiali'' and '' Synnematium sinnense'' are synonymous and only ''H. sinensis'' is only validly published in articles. ''Cephalosporium sinensis'' possibly might be synonymous to ''H. sinensis'' but there is lack of valid information. ''Isaria
''Isaria'' is a genus of fungi mostly in the order Hypocreales and family Clavicipitaceae, or by some authorities the Cordycipitaceae. It includes a large number of entomopathogenic fungi, entomopathogenic species, some of them exploited as biop ...
farinosa'' is combined to ''Paecilomyces farinosus'' and is not the anamorph. Several isolates of ''Isaria
''Isaria'' is a genus of fungi mostly in the order Hypocreales and family Clavicipitaceae, or by some authorities the Cordycipitaceae. It includes a large number of entomopathogenic fungi, entomopathogenic species, some of them exploited as biop ...
sp., Verticella sp., Scydalium sp.'' and ''Stachybotrys
''Stachybotrys'' () is a genus of molds, hyphomycetes or asexually reproducing, filamentous fungi, now placed in the family Stachybotryaceae. The genus was erected by August Carl Joseph Corda in 1837. Historically, it was considered closely re ...
sp.'' were identified only up to generic level, and it is dubious that they are anamorph. ''Mortierella hepiali'' is discarded as anamorph as it belongs to Zygomycota
Zygomycota, or zygote fungi, is a former division or phylum of the kingdom Fungi. The members are now part of two phyla: the Mucoromycota and Zoopagomycota. Approximately 1060 species are known. They are mostly terrestrial in habitat, living i ...
. ''Paecilomyces sinensis'' and ''Sporothrix insectorum'' are discarded based on the molecular evidence. ''P. lingi'' appeared only in one article and thus is discarded because of incomplete information. '' Tolypocladium sinense, P. hepiali'', and ''Scydalium hepiali'', have no valid information and thus are not considered as anamorph to ''Ophiocordyceps sinensis. V. sinensis'' is not considered anamorph as there is no valid published information. Similarly, '' Metarhizium anisopliae'' is not considered anamorph as it has widely distributed host range, and is not restricted only in high altitude.
Thus '' Hirsutella sinensis'' is considered the validly published anamorph of ''O. sinensis, Cordyceps
''Cordyceps'' is a genus of ascomycete fungi (sac fungi) that includes about 600 species. Most ''Cordyceps'' species are endoparasitoids, parasitic mainly on insects and other arthropods (they are thus entomopathogenic fungi); a few are parasiti ...
nepalensis'' and ''C. multiaxialis'' which had similar morphological characteristics to ''O. sinensis'', also had almost identical or identical ITS sequences and its presumed anamorph, ''H. sinensis''. This also confirms ''H. sinensis'' to be anamorph of ''O. sinensis'' and suggests ''C. nepalensis'' and ''C. multiaxialis'' are synonyms. Evidence based on microcyclic conidiation from ascospores and molecular studies support ''H. sinensis'' as the anamorph of the caterpillar fungus, ''O. sinensis''.
Ecology and life cycle
The caterpillar
Caterpillars ( ) are the larval stage of members of the order Lepidoptera (the insect order comprising butterflies and moths).
As with most common names, the application of the word is arbitrary, since the larvae of sawflies (suborder Sym ...
s prone to infection by ''O. sinensis'' generally live underground in alpine grass and shrub-lands on the Tibetan Plateau
The Tibetan Plateau (, also known as the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau or the Qing–Zang Plateau () or as the Himalayan Plateau in India, is a vast elevated plateau located at the intersection of Central, South and East Asia covering most of the Ti ...
and the Himalayas
The Himalayas, or Himalaya (; ; ), is a mountain range in Asia, separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The range has some of the planet's highest peaks, including the very highest, Mount Everest. Over 100 ...
at an altitude between . The fungus is reported from the northern range of Nepal, Bhutan, and also from the northern states of India, apart from northern Yunnan, eastern Qinghai, eastern Tibet, western Sichuan, southwestern Gansu provinces. Fifty-seven taxa from several genera (37 ''Thitarodes
''Thitarodes'' is a genus of moths of the family Hepialidae. In English ''Thitarodes'' is known as "ghost moth". They are found in eastern Asia. The majority are restricted to the Tibetan Plateau. Often in Chinese entomological nomenclature ''Thi ...
'', 1 '' Bipectilus'', 1 '' Endoclita'', 1 ''Gazoryctra
''Gazoryctra'' is a genus of moths of the family Hepialidae. There are 14 described species found in Eurasia, Canada and the United States.
Species
*''Gazoryctra chishimana'' – Kuril Islands
*''Gazoryctra confusus'' – United States
*''Gazo ...
'', 3 ''Pharmacis
''Pharmacis'' is a genus of moths of the family Hepialidae. There are eight described species found in Eurasia.
Species
*'' Pharmacis aemilianus'' - Italy
*'' Pharmacis anselminae'' - Italy
*'' Pharmacis bertrandi'' - France
*'' Pharmacis carna' ...
'', and 14 others not correctly identified to genus) are recognized as potential hosts of ''O. sinensis''.
The stalk-like dark brown to black fruiting body (or mushroom) grows out of the head of the dead caterpillar and emerges from the soil in alpine meadows by early spring. During late summer, the fruiting body disperses spores. The caterpillars, which live underground feeding on roots, are most vulnerable to the fungus after shedding their skin, during late summer. In late autumn, chemicals on the skin of the caterpillar interact with the fungal spores and release the fungal mycelia
Mycelium (plural mycelia) is a root-like structure of a fungus consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. Fungal colonies composed of mycelium are found in and on soil and many other substrates. A typical single spore germinates in ...
, which then infects the caterpillar.
The infected larvae tend to remain underground vertical to the soil surface with their heads up. After invading a host larva, the fungus ramifies throughout the host and eventually kills it. Gradually the host larvae become rigid because of the production of fungal sclerotia. Fungal sclerotia are multihyphal structures that can remain dormant and then germinate to produce spores. After overwintering, the fungus ruptures the host body, forming the fruiting body, a sexual sporulating structure (a perithecial stroma) from the larval head that is connected to the sclerotia (dead larva) below ground and grows upward to emerge from the soil to complete the cycle.
The slow growing ''O. sinensis'' grows at a comparatively low temperature, i.e., below 21 °C. Temperature requirements and growth rates are crucial factors that distinguish ''O. sinensis'' from other similar fungi. Climate change
In common usage, climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to E ...
is suspected to be negatively affecting the mountain organism.[
]
Use in traditional Asian medicines
The use of caterpillar fungus as folk medicine apparently originated in Tibet and Nepal. So far the oldest known text documenting its use was written in the late 15th century by the Tibetan doctor Zurkhar Nyamnyi Dorje (Wylie: ) 439–1475 in his text: ("Instructions on a Myriad of Medicines"), where he describes its use as an aphrodisiac.[
The first mention of ''Ophiocordyceps sinensis'' in traditional Chinese medicine was in Wang Ang’s 1694 compendium of materia medica, ''Ben Cao Bei Yao''.][ In the 18th century it was listed in Wu Yiluo's ''Ben cao cong xin'' ("New compilation of materia medica").][ The ethno-mycological knowledge on caterpillar fungus among the Nepalese people is documented. The entire fungus-caterpillar combination is hand-collected for medicinal use.
]
In traditional Chinese medicine, it is regarded as having an excellent balance of yin and yang
Yin and yang ( and ) is a Chinese philosophy, Chinese philosophical concept that describes opposite but interconnected forces. In Chinese cosmology, the universe creates itself out of a primary chaos of material energy, organized into the c ...
as it is considered to be composed of both an animal and a vegetable. They are now cultivated on an industrial scale for their use in traditional Chinese medicine. However, no one has succeeded so far in rearing the fungus by infecting cultivated caterpillars;[ all products derived from cultured ''Ophiocordyceps'' are derived from mycelia grown on grains or in liquids.
The compound cordycepin, a derivative of the nucleoside ]adenosine
Adenosine ( symbol A) is an organic compound that occurs widely in nature in the form of diverse derivatives. The molecule consists of an adenine attached to a ribose via a β-N9-glycosidic bond. Adenosine is one of the four nucleoside building ...
, is found in caterpillar fungus as well as other ''Cordyceps
''Cordyceps'' is a genus of ascomycete fungi (sac fungi) that includes about 600 species. Most ''Cordyceps'' species are endoparasitoids, parasitic mainly on insects and other arthropods (they are thus entomopathogenic fungi); a few are parasiti ...
'' species. Cordycepin has several potential medicinal and therapeutic applications, it has also displayed cytotoxicity
Cytotoxicity is the quality of being toxic to cells. Examples of toxic agents are an immune cell or some types of venom, e.g. from the puff adder (''Bitis arietans'') or brown recluse spider (''Loxosceles reclusa'').
Cell physiology
Treating cells ...
against some leukemic
Leukemia ( also spelled leukaemia and pronounced ) is a group of blood cancers that usually begin in the bone marrow and result in high numbers of abnormal blood cells. These blood cells are not fully developed and are called ''blasts'' or ' ...
cells ''in vitro''. At least one clinical trial of cordycepin as a leukemia treatment is in progress.
Economics and impact
In rural Tibet
Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa people, ...
, ''yartsa gunbu'' has become the most important source of cash income. The fungi contributed 40% of the annual cash income to local households and 8.5% to the GDP in 2004. Prices have increased continuously, especially since the late 1990s. In 2008, one kilogram traded for US$3,000 (lowest quality) to over US$18,000 (best quality, largest larvae). The annual production on the Tibetan Plateau was estimated in 2009 at 80–175 tons. The Himalayan ''Ophiocordyceps'' production might not exceed a few tons.
In 2004 the value of a kilogram of caterpillars was estimated at 30,000 to 60,000 Nepali rupees in Nepal, and about Rs 100,000 in India.[ In 2011 the value of a kilogram of caterpillars was estimated at 350,000 to 450,000 Nepali rupees in Nepal. A 2012 BBC article indicated that in north Indian villages a single fungus was worth Rs 150 (about £2 or $3), which is more than the daily wage of a manual labourer.] In 2012, a pound of top-quality yartsa had reached retail prices of $50,000.
The price of ''Ophiocordyceps sinensis'' is reported to have increased dramatically on the Tibetan Plateau
The Tibetan Plateau (, also known as the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau or the Qing–Zang Plateau () or as the Himalayan Plateau in India, is a vast elevated plateau located at the intersection of Central, South and East Asia covering most of the Ti ...
, about 900% between 1998 and 2008, an annual average of over 20% (after inflation). However, the value of large caterpillar fungus has increased more dramatically than small ''Cordyceps'', regarded as lower quality.[
Because of its high value, inter-village conflicts over access to its grassland habitats has become a headache for the local governing bodies and in several cases people were killed. In November 2011, a court in Nepal convicted 19 villagers over the murder of a group of farmers during a fight over the prized aphrodisiac fungus. Seven farmers were killed in the remote northern district of Manang in June 2009 after going to forage for Yarchagumba.
Its value gave it a role in the Nepalese Civil War, as the Nepalese Maoists and government forces fought for control of the lucrative export trade during the June–July harvest season.][ Collecting ''yarchagumba'' in Nepal had only been legalised in 2001, and now demand is highest in countries such as China, Thailand, Vietnam, Korea and Japan. By 2002, the 'herb' was valued at R 105,000 ($1,435) per kilogram, allowing the government to charge a royalty of R 20,000 ($280) per kilogram.
The search for ''Ophiocordyceps sinensis'' is often perceived to threaten the environment of the ]Tibetan Plateau
The Tibetan Plateau (, also known as the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau or the Qing–Zang Plateau () or as the Himalayan Plateau in India, is a vast elevated plateau located at the intersection of Central, South and East Asia covering most of the Ti ...
where it grows. While it has been collected for centuries and is still common in such areas, current collection rates are much higher than in historical times.
In the Kingdom of Bhutan
Bhutan (; dz, འབྲུག་ཡུལ་, Druk Yul ), officially the Kingdom of Bhutan,), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is situated in the Eastern Himalayas, between China in the north and India in the south. A mountainous ...
''Ophiocordyceps sinensis'' is recently also being harvested. The quality of the Bhutanese variety has been shown to be equal to the Tibetan one.
Cultivated ''O. sinensis'' mycelium is an alternative to wild-harvested ''O. sinensis'', and producers claim it may offer improved consistency. Artificial culture of ''O. sinensis'' is typically by growth of pure mycelia in liquid culture (in China) or on grains (in the West).
See also
* List of fungi by conservation status
References
Further reading
*Winkler, D. 2005. Yartsa Gunbu – Cordyceps sinensis. Economy, Ecology & Ethno-mycology of a Fungus Endemic to the Tibetan Plateau. In: A. BOESI & F. CARDI (eds.). Wildlife and plants in traditional and modern Tibet: Conceptions, Exploitation and Conservation. Memorie della Società Italiana di Scienze Naturali e del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Milano, Vol. 33.1:69–85.
*
External links
*
*
Yartsa Gunbu (Cordyceps sinensis) in Tibet
An Electronic Monograph of Cordyceps and Related Fungi
information from Drugs.com
Cordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc.
Medicinal Plant Images Database (School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University)
Tibet’s Golden "Worm"
August 2012 National Geographic (magazine)
''National Geographic'' (formerly the ''National Geographic Magazine'', sometimes branded as NAT GEO) is a popular American monthly magazine published by National Geographic Partners. Known for its photojournalism, it is one of the most widely ...
Friday Fellow: Ophiocordyceps sinensis
at Earthling Nature
{{Authority control
Fungi described in 1843
Fungi of Asia
Ophiocordycipitaceae
Medicinal fungi
Fungi used in traditional Chinese medicine
Taxa named by Miles Joseph Berkeley
Parasitic fungi