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Bolesław III Wrymouth ( pl, Bolesław III Krzywousty; 20 August 1086 – 28 October 1138), also known as Boleslaus the Wry-mouthed, was the duke of
Lesser Poland Lesser Poland, often known by its Polish name Małopolska ( la, Polonia Minor), is a historical region situated in southern and south-eastern Poland. Its capital and largest city is Kraków. Throughout centuries, Lesser Poland developed a ...
,
Silesia Silesia (, also , ) is a historical region of Central Europe that lies mostly within Poland, with small parts in the Czech Silesia, Czech Republic and Germany. Its area is approximately , and the population is estimated at around 8,000,000. S ...
and
Sandomierz Sandomierz (pronounced: ; la, Sandomiria) is a historic town in south-eastern Poland with 23,863 inhabitants (as of 2017), situated on the Vistula River in the Sandomierz Basin. It has been part of Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship (Holy Cross Prov ...
between 1102 and 1107 and over the whole of
Poland Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It is divided into 16 administrative provinces called voivodeships, covering an area of . Poland has a population of over 38 million and is the fifth-most populou ...
between 1107 and 1138. He was the only child of Duke
Władysław I Herman Władysław I Herman ( 1044 – 4 June 1102) was the duke of Poland from 1079 until his death. Accession Władysław was the second son of the Polish duke Casimir the Restorer and Maria Dobroniega of Kiev. As the second son, Władysław was not ...
and his first wife, Judith of Bohemia. Bolesław began to rule in the last decade of the 11th century, when the central government in Poland was significantly weakened. Władysław I Herman fell under the political dependence of the
Count palatine A count palatine (Latin ''comes palatinus''), also count of the palace or palsgrave (from German ''Pfalzgraf''), was originally an official attached to a royal or imperial palace or household and later a nobleman of a rank above that of an ord ...
Sieciech Sieciech (mid 11th century AD – early 12th century AD) was a medieval Polish magnate and statesman. Biography All information about Sieciech has come down from the chronicler Gallus Anonymus. He was a count palatine at the court of duke Wła ...
, who became the ''de facto'' ruler of the country. Backed by their father, Boleslaw and his half-brother
Zbigniew Zbigniew () is a Polish masculine given name, originally Zbygniew . This West Slavic name is derived from the Polish elements ''Zby-'' (from ''zbyć, zbyć się, or pozbyć się'', meaning "to dispel", "to get rid of") and ''gniew'', meaning "ang ...
finally expelled Sieciech from the country in 1101, after several years of fighting. After the death of Władysław I Herman in 1102, two independent states were created, ruled by Bolesław and Zbigniew. Bolesław sought to gain
Pomerania Pomerania ( pl, Pomorze; german: Pommern; Kashubian: ''Pòmòrskô''; sv, Pommern) is a historical region on the southern shore of the Baltic Sea in Central Europe, split between Poland and Germany. The western part of Pomerania belongs to ...
which caused an armed conflict between the brothers, and forced Zbigniew to flee the country and seek military help from King
Henry V of Germany Henry V (german: Heinrich V.; probably 11 August 1081 or 1086 – 23 May 1125, in Utrecht) was King of Germany (from 1099 to 1125) and Holy Roman Emperor (from 1111 to 1125), as the fourth and last ruler of the Salian dynasty. He was made co-ru ...
. Bolesław punished Zbigniew by blinding him. This action caused outrage among supporters of Zbigniew, resulting in a political crisis in Poland. Bolesław once again gained the favor of his subjects with public penance, and made a pilgrimage to the monastery of his patron,
Saint Giles Saint Giles (, la, Aegidius, french: Gilles), also known as Giles the Hermit, was a hermit or monk active in the lower Rhône most likely in the 6th century. Revered as a saint, his cult became widely diffused but his hagiography is mostly lege ...
, in
Hungary Hungary ( hu, Magyarország ) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning of the Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Cr ...
. Bolesław, like Bolesław II the Generous, based his foreign policy on maintaining good relations with neighboring
Hungary Hungary ( hu, Magyarország ) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning of the Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Cr ...
and Kievan Rus, with whom he forged strong links through marriage and military cooperation in order to break Poland's political dependence on Germany and Henry's vassal, the King of Bohemia, who in moments of weakness of Polish policy was forced to pay tribute in Silesia. These alliances had allowed Bolesław to effectively defend the country from invasion in 1109. Several years later, Bolesław skillfully took advantage of the dynastic disputes in Bohemia to ensure peace on the south-west border. Bolesław devoted the second half of his rule to the conquest of
Pomerania Pomerania ( pl, Pomorze; german: Pommern; Kashubian: ''Pòmòrskô''; sv, Pommern) is a historical region on the southern shore of the Baltic Sea in Central Europe, split between Poland and Germany. The western part of Pomerania belongs to ...
. In 1113 he conquered the northern cities along Noteć, which strengthened the border with the Pomeranians. In subsequent years, he took further steps toward the conquest of Pomerania. The resolution of the conflict with the Holy Roman Empire allowed Bolesław to subordinate
Western Pomerania Historical Western Pomerania, also called Cispomerania, Fore Pomerania, Front Pomerania or Hither Pomerania (german: Vorpommern), is the western extremity of the historic region of Pomerania forming the southern coast of the Baltic Sea, West ...
and incorporate
Gdańsk Pomerania Gdańsk Pomerania ( pl, Pomorze Gdańskie), csb, Gduńsczim Pòmòrzã, german: Danziger Pommern) is a geographical region within Pomerelia in northern and northwestern Poland, covering the bulk of Pomeranian Voivodeship. It forms a part and ...
. The expeditions, carried out in three stages, ended in the 1120s with military and political successes. Integration of the newly annexed lands enabled Bolesław to build churches and begin the process of converting Pomerania. Bishop
Otto of Bamberg Otto of Bamberg (1060 or 1061 – 30 June 1139) was a German missionary and papal legate who converted much of medieval Pomerania to Christianity. He was the bishop of Bamberg from 1102 until his death. He was canonized in 1189. Early life T ...
confirmed the Christianization of Pomerania from 1123 onward. In the 1130s Bolesław participated in the dynastic dispute in Hungary. After an unexpected defeat, he was forced to make an agreement with Germany. The Congress of Merseburg of 1135 addressed the issues of Pomerania, Silesian (probably also Polish) sovereignty and the supremacy of the Archbishopric of Magdeburg over the Polish Church. Bolesław was married twice. His first marriage, to the Kievan princess Zbyslava, gave him an excuse to intervene militarily in the internal affairs of Rus'. After her death, Bolesław married a German noblewoman, Salomea of Berg, which in some way was the cause of changes in Polish foreign policy: in the second half of his rule, the Prince sought to restore diplomatic relations with his western neighbor. His last, and perhaps most momentous act, was his will and testament known as "The Succession Statute" in which he divided the country among his sons, leading to almost 200 years of feudal fragmentation of the Polish Kingdom. Bolesław III Wrymouth has been recognized by historiography as a symbol of Polish political aspirations until well into the 19th century. He also upheld the independence of the Polish archbishopric of Gniezno, despite a temporary failure in the 1130s. Although he achieved undoubted successes, he committed serious political errors, most notably against Zbigniew of Poland, his half-brother. The crime against Zbigniew and his penance for it show Bolesław's great ambition as well as his ability to find political compromise.


Childhood


Situation of Poland during the 1080s

In 1086 the coronation of
Vratislav II Vratislaus II (or Wratislaus II) ( cs, Vratislav II.) (c. 1032 – 14 January 1092), the son of Bretislaus I and Judith of Schweinfurt, was the first King of Bohemia as of 15 June 1085, his royal title granted as a lifetime honorific from Holy ...
as King of
Bohemia Bohemia ( ; cs, Čechy ; ; hsb, Čěska; szl, Czechy) is the westernmost and largest historical region of the Czech Republic. Bohemia can also refer to a wider area consisting of the historical Lands of the Bohemian Crown ruled by the Bohem ...
, and his alignment with László I, King of
Hungary Hungary ( hu, Magyarország ) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning of the Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Cr ...
, threatened the position of the Polish ruler, Prince
Władysław I Herman Władysław I Herman ( 1044 – 4 June 1102) was the duke of Poland from 1079 until his death. Accession Władysław was the second son of the Polish duke Casimir the Restorer and Maria Dobroniega of Kiev. As the second son, Władysław was not ...
.O. Balzer's genealogy doesn't mention the coronation of Vratislav II, but he places the traditional date given by the chronicles of Cosmas of Prague (15 June 1086) to the coronation of the first King of Bohemia; O. Balzer: ''Genealogia Piastów'', p. 108. V. Novotny indicates that the Synod of Mainz took place in late April or May 1085; V. Novotny: ''Ceske dejiny. Diiu I cast 2. Od Bretislava I do Premysla I'', Prague 1912, p. 245. He believes that Vratislav II's coronation as King of Bohemia and Poland took place on 15 June 1085, after the synod, and not in 1086, as reported by O. Balzer and Cosmas of Prague. Compare to W. Mischke
Poland Czech kings crown
(in Polish) vailable 24 August 2009 pp. 11–12, 27–29.
Cosmas of Prague affirmation about the coronation of Prince Vratislav II as King of Poland is disputed by many historians. Medievalists consider it a mistake of the chronicler; G. Labuda: ''Korona i infuła. Od monarchii do poliarchii'', Kraków: 1996, p. 13. . A detailed argument over the supposed coronation of Vratislav II was presented by W. Mischke
Poland Czech kings crown
(in Polish) vailable 24 August 2009 pp. 11–29. M. Spórna and P. Wierzbicki believe that message of Cosmas is authentic. As King of Poland, Vratislav II stemmed from the emperor's claim to sovereignty over the Polish homage (fief indirect, second-degree); M. Spórna, P. Wierzbicki: ''Słownik władców Polski i pretendentów do tronu polskiego'', p.496.
Therefore, that same year Władysław I was forced to recall from Hungarian banishment the only son of
Bolesław II the Bold Boleslav or Bolesław may refer to: In people: * Boleslaw (given name) In geography: *Bolesław, Dąbrowa County, Lesser Poland Voivodeship, Poland *Bolesław, Olkusz County, Lesser Poland Voivodeship, Poland *Bolesław, Silesian Voivodeship, Pol ...
and a rightful heir to the Polish throne, Mieszko Bolesławowic. Upon his return young Bolesławowic accepted the over-lordship of his uncle and gave up his hereditary claim to the crown of Poland in exchange for becoming first in line to succeed him. In return, Władysław I Herman granted his nephew the district of
Kraków Kraków (), or Cracow, is the second-largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula, Vistula River in Lesser Poland Voivodeship, the city dates back to the seventh century. Kraków was the official capital of Poland un ...
. The situation was further complicated for Władysław I Herman by a lack of a legitimate male heir, as his first-born son
Zbigniew Zbigniew () is a Polish masculine given name, originally Zbygniew . This West Slavic name is derived from the Polish elements ''Zby-'' (from ''zbyć, zbyć się, or pozbyć się'', meaning "to dispel", "to get rid of") and ''gniew'', meaning "ang ...
came from a union not recognized by the church. With the return of Mieszko Bolesławowic to Poland, Władysław I normalized his relations with the kingdom of Hungary as well as Kievan Rus (the marriage of Mieszko Bolesławowic to a Kievan princess was arranged in 1088). These actions allowed Herman to strengthen his authority and alleviate further tensions in international affairs.


Birth and naming

The lack of a legitimate heir, however, remained a concern for Władysław I and in 1085 he and his wife Judith of Bohemia sent rich gifts, among which was a life size statue of a child made of gold, to the
Benedictine , image = Medalla San Benito.PNG , caption = Design on the obverse side of the Saint Benedict Medal , abbreviation = OSB , formation = , motto = (English: 'Pray and Work') , foun ...
Sanctuary of
Saint Giles Saint Giles (, la, Aegidius, french: Gilles), also known as Giles the Hermit, was a hermit or monk active in the lower Rhône most likely in the 6th century. Revered as a saint, his cult became widely diffused but his hagiography is mostly lege ...
in Saint-Gilles,
Provence Provence (, , , , ; oc, Provença or ''Prouvènço'' , ) is a geographical region and historical province of southeastern France, which extends from the left bank of the lower Rhône to the west to the Italian border to the east; it is bo ...
begging for offspring. The Polish envoys were led by the personal chaplain of Duchess Judith, Piotr. The date of birth of Bolesław is closely linked with the death of his mother Judith. This fact is evidenced by contemporary sources: *
Gallus Anonymus ''Gallus Anonymus'' ( Polonized variant: ''Gall '') is the name traditionally given to the anonymous author of ''Gesta principum Polonorum'' (Deeds of the Princes of the Poles), composed in Latin between 1112 and 1118. ''Gallus'' is generally rega ...
in the ''Cronicae et gesta ducum sive principum Polonorum'' reported that Duchess Judith gave birth to Bolesław on the day of Saint Stephen, King of HungaryGallus Anonymus: ''Cronicae et gesta ducum sive principum Polonorum'', vol. II. cap. I. p. 62. (whose feast since the 11th century was celebrated on 20 August). However, the Duchess's health never recovered from childbirth and she died on "the night of Nativity" (''i.e.'', 24–25 December). Gallus did not note the year in his chronicle. * Cosmas of Prague wrote in Latin in his ''Chronica Boëmorum'' ("Chronicle of Bohemians") that Bolesław was born three days before the death of Judith, who died in VIII
Calends The calends or kalends ( la, kalendae) is the first day of every month in the Roman calendar. The English word "calendar" is derived from this word. Use The Romans called the first day of every month the ''calends'', signifying the start of a ...
of January (25 December) of 1085.''Kosmasa Kronika Czechów.'', vol. II, cap. XXXVI, pp. 77–78. * The ''Kalendarz krakowski'' said that Duchess Judith died on 24 December 1086, and only indicated that the birth of Bolesław was in the same year.O. Balzer: ''Genealogia Piastów.'', p. 119. * The Obituary of the Abbey of Saint-Gilles reported the death of Judith on 24 December 1086. * The ''Rocznik kapituły krakowskiej'' (closely related to the ''Kalendarz krakowski'') placed the death of Judith on 24 December 1086. Historian August Bielowski established Bolesław's birth on 26 December 1085 and the death of his mother two days later, on 28 December. According to him Gallus Anonymus committed two errors. First, instead of "the Sunday after the Nativity of the Lord", he wrote incorrectly "in the Sunday of the Nativity". Secondly, he mistook the day of
Saint Stephen Stephen ( grc-gre, Στέφανος ''Stéphanos'', meaning "wreath, crown" and by extension "reward, honor, renown, fame", often given as a title rather than as a name; c. 5 – c. 34 AD) is traditionally venerated as the protomartyr or first ...
(26 December) for the festivities of King Stephen of Hungary (20 August). Both corrections lead to the birth date of Bolesław on 26 December. This theory was supported by the fact that, in 1085, 28 December fell on a Sunday.K. Jasiński: ''Rodowód pierwszych Piastów.'', p. 166. Oswald Balzer refuted Bielowski's theory, arguing that Judith's death was on the night of 24/25 December 1086, and the birth of Bolesław was four months before, on 20 August. According to him, this timing of Judith's death gives rise to possible discrepancies in determining the exact date of Bolesław's birth, but corroborates all known sources who placed the death of Judith. Gallus wrote that Judith died shortly after giving birth to a son. Later sources interpret this as a death in childbirth and Cosmas of Prague followed this fact, though he didn't receive the information firsthand. Hence, his mistake would result in this point. In contrast, the correct date of birth of Bolesław would be 20 August, as indicated by Gallus. In the medieval tradition the year began on 25 December. In that case, the reports of Cosmas allow us to conclude that Bolesław was born in 1085. This information, however, was contradicted by the ''Kalendarz krakowski'', which gave the year as 1086. Judith was styled by the authors of the ''Kalendarz'' as "regina Polonia" (''Queen of Poland'' in Latin), and this title could be associated with her father's coronation as King of Bohemia and Poland on 15 June 1086 (according to Cosmas). Karol Maleczyński refuted Balzer's date for the coronation of Vratislav II, the one given by Cosmas. However, most researchers indicate that the coronation took place on 15 June 1085, so Judith could have been called Queen a year earlier. Karol Maleczyński determined that the death of Judith took place on the night between 24 and 25 December 1085, and Bolesław was born four months before, on 20 August. Researchers found that the date given by the ''Rocznik kapituły krakowskiej'' (24 December 1086) was the same established by Cosmas (25 December 1085). The difference in the year could be explained in the different style of dating followed by Cosmas, who began the year according to the
Julian calendar The Julian calendar, proposed by Roman consul Julius Caesar in 46 BC, was a reform of the Roman calendar. It took effect on , by edict. It was designed with the aid of Greek mathematicians and astronomers such as Sosigenes of Alexandri ...
on 1 January and Christmas (''Nativitate'' in Latin) on 25 December. According to Maleczyński, Kazimierz Jasiński failed to consider this calendar difference, which occurs only during the period of 25–31 December. Archaeologist Wojciech Szafrański reassumed the theory of Bielowski: Judith of Bohemia died on 28 December 1085, and Bolesław was born two days before, on 26 December. According to Szafrański Cosmas used the term ''VIII Calends of January'', with no specific date. However, in the Chronicle of Gallus should read that Judith died ''on Christmas Day'', but ''on Sunday in the Octave of Christmas''. Using such a broadened range of days, the investigator determined the birth of Boleslaw in the feast of Saint Stephen (26 December). For this reasons, the date of 1085 given by Bielowski is correct according to him. However, Jasiński pointed the weaknesses of the argument of Szafrański because Gallus has written about the Octave, but specifically about Christmas night, but the investigator didn't consider all other sources, as well as the achievements of research in genealogy.
Marian Plezia Marian Plezia (b. 1917 in Kraków, d. 1996) was a Polish historian. He was an expert in medieval Polish history and author of a Latin-Polish dictionary A dictionary is a listing of lexemes from the lexicon of one or more specific language ...
argued that Bolesław was born on 2 September 1085 or 1086.K. Jasiński: ''Rodowód pierwszych Piastów.'', p. 186. According to Gallus, the day of King Stephen of Hungary was also celebrated on 2 September. Jasiński considered this theory unfounded. In Poland the feast of King Stephen of Hungary is pointed by the ''Kalendarz krakowski'' and the ''kalendarz Kodeksu Gertrudy'' on 20 August. Besides, if Bolesław was born on 2 September, Gallus probably would be noted that this was the day after the celebration of
Saint Giles Saint Giles (, la, Aegidius, french: Gilles), also known as Giles the Hermit, was a hermit or monk active in the lower Rhône most likely in the 6th century. Revered as a saint, his cult became widely diffused but his hagiography is mostly lege ...
(1 September), which was attributed to be the intercessor of his birth. Kazimierz Jasiński placed the death of Judith in the night between 24 and 25 December 1086 and the birth of Bolesław four months before, on 20 August. In this point he agrees with the findings of Balzer. He supported his views with additional arguments: All sources are based in the missing ''Rocznika kapituły krakowskiej'', and the next known text of this source refers to events in 1086. Cosmas, writing his chronicle a few decades later, probably benefited from oral tradition and could make a mistake when he placed the year. His reports who placed the birth of Bolesław three days before the death of his mother denoted a quite short time. Today is widely recognized the view of both Jasiński and Balzer, that Bolesław most likely was born in the day of King Stephen of Hungary, 20 August 1086. According to Cosmas of Prague, Bolesław was named after his uncle, Bolesław II the Generous. Władysław I Herman had no reason to named his first-born legitimate son after his brother, but probably in this way tried to placate the former allies of his predecessor.K. Jasiński: ''Rodowód pierwszych Piastów'', p. 184. Bolesław's nickname "Wrymouth" (pl: ''Krzywousty'') appeared in Polish and Latin sources of the 13th century: ''Genealogii płockiej (Criwousti)'' and the ''Roczniku świętokrzyskim młodszym (Crzyvousti)''. Probably the origin of this nickname dates back on the 12th century and is relationed with some physical characteristics of the Polish ruler, who were noticed at the time of his reign. Probably he began to be named in this way after 1114, because Gallus Anonymus in his ''Chronicle'' never mentioned it. In the ''Kronice książąt polskich'' and ''Kronice polsko-śląskiej'' Bolesław was qualified by the Latin adjective ''curvus'', whose significance remains unclear. According to the 14th-century ''Kroniki o Piotrze Włostowicu'' the Prince was hunchbacked (Latin: ''gibbosus'') or had a crooked mouth. The 15th-century chronicler
Jan Długosz Jan Długosz (; 1 December 1415 – 19 May 1480), also known in Latin as Johannes Longinus, was a Polish priest, chronicler, diplomat, soldier, and secretary to Bishop Zbigniew Oleśnicki of Kraków. He is considered Poland's first histo ...
wrote: :: He had a mouth on one side slightly bent, and for this he was called Wrymouth; however, this is not marred his face, and even added to him some charm.Jan Długosz
''Jana Długosza kanonika krakowskiego Dziejów polskich ksiąg dwanaście'', vol I, p. 422. (in Polish)
etrieved 23 July 2014
In 1974, in the Masovian Blessed Virgin Mary Cathedral of Płock, where according to tradition Bolesław was buried, an archaeological research project was conducted. A coffin was discovered containing the bones of 16 men and women. One of the skulls, of a man who died aged 50, had a deformed mandible. There is a hypothesis that these remains belonged to Bolesław. Opponents of this theory suggest that the Prince was named in this way many years after his death, and his contemporary Gallus did not mention any physical defect in the hero of his Chronicles. The defenders of the hypothesis argue that the work of Gallus has the characteristics of a
panegyric A panegyric ( or ) is a formal public speech or written verse, delivered in high praise of a person or thing. The original panegyrics were speeches delivered at public events in ancient Athens. Etymology The word originated as a compound of gr ...
in honor of Bolesław, because the chronicler did not mention his physical infirmities. It is also speculated that the bone damage occurred as a result of childbirth complications, which led to the death of his mother a few months later. The nickname of Boleslaw was also explained in other ways. According to a legend, Boleslaw slammed his face against a wall after watching his father's subservience towards the Germans and Czechs. According to Jan Długosz, the Prince in his youth suffered from an ulcer, which caused the deformity of his face. According to older historiography, he received the nickname Wrymouth for his perjury.


Early Years

Following Bolesław's birth the political climate in the country changed. The position of Bolesław as an heir to the throne was threatened by the presence of Mieszko Bolesławowic, who was already seventeen at the time and was furthermore, by agreement with Władysław I Herman himself, the first in line to succeed. In all likelihood it was this situation that precipitated the young prince Mieszko's demise in 1089. In that same year Wladyslaw I Herman's first-born son Zbigniew was sent to a monastery in Quedlinburg,
Saxony Saxony (german: Sachsen ; Upper Saxon German, Upper Saxon: ''Saggsn''; hsb, Sakska), officially the Free State of Saxony (german: Freistaat Sachsen, links=no ; Upper Saxon: ''Freischdaad Saggsn''; hsb, Swobodny stat Sakska, links=no), is a ...
. This suggests that Wladyslaw I Herman intended to be rid of
Zbigniew Zbigniew () is a Polish masculine given name, originally Zbygniew . This West Slavic name is derived from the Polish elements ''Zby-'' (from ''zbyć, zbyć się, or pozbyć się'', meaning "to dispel", "to get rid of") and ''gniew'', meaning "ang ...
by making him a monk, and therefore depriving him of any chance of succession. This eliminated two pretenders to the Polish throne, secured young Bolesław's inheritance as well as diminished the growing opposition to Wladyslaw I Herman among the nobility. Shortly after his ascension, however,
Władysław I Herman Władysław I Herman ( 1044 – 4 June 1102) was the duke of Poland from 1079 until his death. Accession Władysław was the second son of the Polish duke Casimir the Restorer and Maria Dobroniega of Kiev. As the second son, Władysław was not ...
was forced by the barons to give up the ''de facto'' reins of government to Count Palatine
Sieciech Sieciech (mid 11th century AD – early 12th century AD) was a medieval Polish magnate and statesman. Biography All information about Sieciech has come down from the chronicler Gallus Anonymus. He was a count palatine at the court of duke Wła ...
. This turn of events was likely due to the fact that Herman owed the throne to the barons, the most powerful of whom was
Sieciech Sieciech (mid 11th century AD – early 12th century AD) was a medieval Polish magnate and statesman. Biography All information about Sieciech has come down from the chronicler Gallus Anonymus. He was a count palatine at the court of duke Wła ...
.Ł. Piernikarczyk
''Palatyn Sieciech (1080–1100)'' (in Polish)
etrieved 13 July 2014
Around this time Władysław I Herman married again. The chosen bride was Judith-Maria, daughter of Emperor Henry III and widow of King
Solomon of Hungary Solomon, also Salomon ( hu, Salamon; 1053–1087) was King of Hungary from 1063. Being the elder son of Andrew I, he was crowned king in his father's lifetime in 1057 or 1058. However, he was forced to flee from Hungary after his uncle, Béla I, ...
, who after her wedding took the name ''Sophia'' in order to distinguish herself from Władysław I Herman's first wife. Through this marriage Bolesław gained three or four half-sisters, and as a consequence he remained the only legitimate son and heir. It's believed that the new Duchess was actively aiding
Sieciech Sieciech (mid 11th century AD – early 12th century AD) was a medieval Polish magnate and statesman. Biography All information about Sieciech has come down from the chronicler Gallus Anonymus. He was a count palatine at the court of duke Wła ...
in his schemes to take over the country and that she became his mistress.


Position of Sieciech in Poland

In 1090 Polish forces under Sieciech's command managed to gain control of
Gdańsk Pomerania Gdańsk Pomerania ( pl, Pomorze Gdańskie), csb, Gduńsczim Pòmòrzã, german: Danziger Pommern) is a geographical region within Pomerelia in northern and northwestern Poland, covering the bulk of Pomeranian Voivodeship. It forms a part and ...
, albeit for a short time. Major towns were garrisoned by Polish troops, and the rest were burned in order to thwart future resistance. Several months later, however, a rebellion of native elites led to the restoration of the region's independence from Poland. The following year a punitive expedition was organized, in order to recover Gdańsk Pomerania. The campaign was decided at the battle of the Wda River, where the Polish knights suffered a defeat despite the assistance of Bohemian troops. Prince Bolesław's childhood happened at a time when a massive emigration from Poland was taking place due to Sieciech's political repression. Most of the elites who became political refugees found safe haven in Bohemia. Another consequence of Sieciech's political persecution was the kidnapping of Zbigniew by Sieciech's enemies and his return from abroad in 1093. Zbigniew took refuge in
Silesia Silesia (, also , ) is a historical region of Central Europe that lies mostly within Poland, with small parts in the Czech Silesia, Czech Republic and Germany. Its area is approximately , and the population is estimated at around 8,000,000. S ...
, a stronghold of negative sentiment for both Sieciech and his nominal patron Władysław I Herman. In the absence of Sieciech and Bolesław, who were captured by Hungarians, Prince Władysław I then undertook a penal expedition to Silesia, which was unsuccessful and subsequently obliged him to recognize Zbigniew as a legitimate heir. In 1093 Władysław I signed an Act of Legitimization which granted Zbigniew the rights of descent from his line. Zbigniew was also granted the right to succeed to the throne. Following
Sieciech Sieciech (mid 11th century AD – early 12th century AD) was a medieval Polish magnate and statesman. Biography All information about Sieciech has come down from the chronicler Gallus Anonymus. He was a count palatine at the court of duke Wła ...
and Bolesław's escape from
Hungary Hungary ( hu, Magyarország ) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning of the Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Cr ...
, an expedition against Zbigniew was mounted by the Count Palatine. Its aim was to nullify the Act of Legitimization. The contestants met at the battle of Goplo in 1096, where Sieciech's forces annihilated the supporters of Zbigniew. Zbigniew himself was taken prisoner, but regained his freedom a year later, in May 1097, due to the intervention of the bishops. At the same time his rights, guaranteed by the Act of Legitimization, were reinstated. Simultaneously a great migration of
Jews Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...
from Western Europe to Poland began circa 1096, around the time of the
First Crusade The First Crusade (1096–1099) was the first of a series of religious wars, or Crusades, initiated, supported and at times directed by the Latin Church in the medieval period. The objective was the recovery of the Holy Land from Islamic ...
. The tolerant rule of
Władysław I Herman Władysław I Herman ( 1044 – 4 June 1102) was the duke of Poland from 1079 until his death. Accession Władysław was the second son of the Polish duke Casimir the Restorer and Maria Dobroniega of Kiev. As the second son, Władysław was not ...
attracted the Jews who were permitted to settle throughout the entire kingdom without restrictions. The Polish prince took great care of the Hebrew Diaspora, as he understood its positive influence on the growth of the country's economy. The new Jewish citizens soon gained the trust of the gentiles during the rule of Bolesław III.


Youth


Division of the country

In view of his father's disapproval, and after discovering the plans of
Sieciech Sieciech (mid 11th century AD – early 12th century AD) was a medieval Polish magnate and statesman. Biography All information about Sieciech has come down from the chronicler Gallus Anonymus. He was a count palatine at the court of duke Wła ...
and Duchess Judith-Sophia to take over the country
Zbigniew Zbigniew () is a Polish masculine given name, originally Zbygniew . This West Slavic name is derived from the Polish elements ''Zby-'' (from ''zbyć, zbyć się, or pozbyć się'', meaning "to dispel", "to get rid of") and ''gniew'', meaning "ang ...
gained an ally in the young prince Bolesław. Both brothers demanded that the reins of government be handed over to them. It is difficult to believe, however, that Bolesław was making independent decisions at this point as he was only 12 years of age. It is postulated that at this stage he was merely a pawn in service of the Baron's power struggle.
Władysław I Herman Władysław I Herman ( 1044 – 4 June 1102) was the duke of Poland from 1079 until his death. Accession Władysław was the second son of the Polish duke Casimir the Restorer and Maria Dobroniega of Kiev. As the second son, Władysław was not ...
, however, agreed to divide the realm between the brothers, each to be granted his own province while the Prince – Władysław I himself – kept control of Mazovia and its capital at Płock. Władysław also retained control of the most important cities, ''i.e.'',
Wrocław Wrocław (; german: Breslau, or . ; Silesian German: ''Brassel'') is a city in southwestern Poland and the largest city in the historical region of Silesia. It lies on the banks of the River Oder in the Silesian Lowlands of Central Europe, r ...
,
Kraków Kraków (), or Cracow, is the second-largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula, Vistula River in Lesser Poland Voivodeship, the city dates back to the seventh century. Kraków was the official capital of Poland un ...
and
Sandomierz Sandomierz (pronounced: ; la, Sandomiria) is a historic town in south-eastern Poland with 23,863 inhabitants (as of 2017), situated on the Vistula River in the Sandomierz Basin. It has been part of Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship (Holy Cross Prov ...
. Zbigniew's province encompassed
Greater Poland Greater Poland, often known by its Polish name Wielkopolska (; german: Großpolen, sv, Storpolen, la, Polonia Maior), is a historical region of west-central Poland. Its chief and largest city is Poznań followed by Kalisz, the oldest cit ...
including
Gniezno Gniezno (; german: Gnesen; la, Gnesna) is a city in central-western Poland, about east of Poznań. Its population in 2021 was 66,769, making it the sixth-largest city in the Greater Poland Voivodeship. One of the Piast dynasty's chief cities, ...
,
Kuyavia Kuyavia ( pl, Kujawy; german: Kujawien; la, Cuiavia), also referred to as Cuyavia, is a historical region in north-central Poland, situated on the left bank of Vistula, as well as east from Noteć River and Lake Gopło. It is divided into three ...
, Łęczyca Land and Sieradz Land. Bolesław's territory included
Lesser Poland Lesser Poland, often known by its Polish name Małopolska ( la, Polonia Minor), is a historical region situated in southern and south-eastern Poland. Its capital and largest city is Kraków. Throughout centuries, Lesser Poland developed a ...
,
Silesia Silesia (, also , ) is a historical region of Central Europe that lies mostly within Poland, with small parts in the Czech Silesia, Czech Republic and Germany. Its area is approximately , and the population is estimated at around 8,000,000. S ...
and Lubusz Land. The division of the country under Bolesław and Zbigniew's co-rule greatly alarmed
Sieciech Sieciech (mid 11th century AD – early 12th century AD) was a medieval Polish magnate and statesman. Biography All information about Sieciech has come down from the chronicler Gallus Anonymus. He was a count palatine at the court of duke Wła ...
, who then began preparing to dispose of the brothers altogether. Sieciech understood that the division of the country would undermine his position.S. Szczur: ''Historia Polski – średniowiecze'', p. 120. He initiated a military settlement of the issue and he gained the Prince's support for it. The position of Władysław I is seen as ambiguous as he chose to support Sieciech's cause instead of his sons'.


Fight against Sieciech

In response to Sieciech's preparations Bolesław and Zbigniew entered into an alliance at a popular assembly or Wiec organized in
Wrocław Wrocław (; german: Breslau, or . ; Silesian German: ''Brassel'') is a city in southwestern Poland and the largest city in the historical region of Silesia. It lies on the banks of the River Oder in the Silesian Lowlands of Central Europe, r ...
by a magnate named
Skarbimir Skarbimir of the Clan Awdaniec (died before 1132) was a Medieval Polish magnate, tutor, advisor and count palatine of Polish monarch Bolesław III Wrymouth. Biography Early life Skarbimir was a son of Michal the Old of the Clan Abdank, one time ...
of the Awdaniec family. There it was decided to remove the current guardian of Bolesław, a noble named Wojslaw who was a relative of
Sieciech Sieciech (mid 11th century AD – early 12th century AD) was a medieval Polish magnate and statesman. Biography All information about Sieciech has come down from the chronicler Gallus Anonymus. He was a count palatine at the court of duke Wła ...
, and arrange for an expedition against the Palatine. Subsequently, in 1099, the armies of Sieciech and Prince Herman encountered the forces of Zbigniew and Bolesław near
Żarnowiec Żarnowiec ( csb, Żarnówc, German ''Zarnowitz'') is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Krokowa, within Puck County, Pomeranian Voivodeship, in northern Poland. It lies close to Żarnowieckie Lake, approximately west of Krokowa, ...
by the river Pilica. There the forces of Bolesław and Zbigniew defeated Sieciech's army, and
Władysław I Herman Władysław I Herman ( 1044 – 4 June 1102) was the duke of Poland from 1079 until his death. Accession Władysław was the second son of the Polish duke Casimir the Restorer and Maria Dobroniega of Kiev. As the second son, Władysław was not ...
was obliged to permanently remove Sieciech from the position of
Count Palatine A count palatine (Latin ''comes palatinus''), also count of the palace or palsgrave (from German ''Pfalzgraf''), was originally an official attached to a royal or imperial palace or household and later a nobleman of a rank above that of an ord ...
. In the same year, at Christmas, Bolesław concluded a short-lived peace with Bohemia in
Žatec Žatec (; german: Saaz) is a town in Louny District in the Ústí nad Labem Region of the Czech Republic. It has about 19,000 inhabitants. It lies on the Ohře river. The town centre is well preserved and is protected by law as an urban monumen ...
. According to Cosmas, Bolesław was appointed
Miecznik Swordbearer (Polish: ''miecznik'') was a court office in Poland. Responsible for the arsenal of the King and for carrying his sword. Since the 14th Century an honorable title of the district office, in Kingdom of Poland and after Union of Lublin i ...
(en: ''Sword-bearer'') of his uncle
Bretislaus II, Duke of Bohemia Bretislaus II (; c. 1060 – 22 December 1100) was the duke of Bohemia from 14 September 1092 until his death. He was the eldest son of King Vratislaus II and Adelaide, daughter of Andrew I of Hungary. He was a major enemy of paganism. Life H ...
. In addition, the young prince would be paid the amount of 100 pieces of fine silver and 10 talents of gold annually as a tribute to Bohemia (it was about the land of Silesia, for which he paid tribute to Władysław I). The rebel forces then headed to Sieciechów, where the Palatine took refuge. Unexpectedly, Prince Władysław came to the aid of his besieged favorite with a small force. At this point, the Princes decided to depose their father. The opposition sent Zbigniew with an armed contingent to Masovia, where he was to take control of Płock, while Bolesław was directed to the South to encircle Władysław's forces. Władysław, however, predicted this maneuver and sent his forces back to Masovia. In the environs of Płock the battle was finally joined and the forces of Władysław I were defeated. The Prince was thereafter forced to send Sieciech into exile. The Palatine left Poland around 1100/1101 and spent time in
German German(s) may refer to: * Germany (of or related to) **Germania (historical use) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law **Ge ...
territory. He eventually returned to Poland but never played a political role again. He may have been blinded.


First years of government


Struggle for supremacy (1102–06)

Władysław I Herman died on 4 June 1102.P. Jasienica: ''Polska Piastów'', Warsaw 2007, p. 117. The country was divided into two provinces, each administered by one of the late prince's sons. The extent of each province closely resembled the provinces that the princes were granted by their father three years earlier, the only difference being that
Zbigniew Zbigniew () is a Polish masculine given name, originally Zbygniew . This West Slavic name is derived from the Polish elements ''Zby-'' (from ''zbyć, zbyć się, or pozbyć się'', meaning "to dispel", "to get rid of") and ''gniew'', meaning "ang ...
also controlled Mazovia with its capital at Płock, effectively ruling the northern part of the kingdom, while his younger half-brother Bolesław ruled its southern portion. In this way two virtually separate states were created. According to some historians, Zbigniew tried to play the role of ''princeps'' or overlord, because at that time Bolesław was only 16 years old. Because he was still too inexperienced to independently direct his domains, the local nobility had great influence over political affairs, including his teacher,
Skarbimir Skarbimir of the Clan Awdaniec (died before 1132) was a Medieval Polish magnate, tutor, advisor and count palatine of Polish monarch Bolesław III Wrymouth. Biography Early life Skarbimir was a son of Michal the Old of the Clan Abdank, one time ...
, from the Awdaniec family.M. K. Barański: ''Dynastia Piastów w Polsce'', Warsaw 2008, p. 193. They conducted separate policies internally as well as externally. They each sought alliances, and sometimes they were enemies of one another. Such was the case with
Pomerania Pomerania ( pl, Pomorze; german: Pommern; Kashubian: ''Pòmòrskô''; sv, Pommern) is a historical region on the southern shore of the Baltic Sea in Central Europe, split between Poland and Germany. The western part of Pomerania belongs to ...
, towards which Bolesław aimed his ambitions. Zbigniew, whose country bordered
Pomerania Pomerania ( pl, Pomorze; german: Pommern; Kashubian: ''Pòmòrskô''; sv, Pommern) is a historical region on the southern shore of the Baltic Sea in Central Europe, split between Poland and Germany. The western part of Pomerania belongs to ...
, wished to maintain good relations with his northern neighbor. Bolesław, eager to expand his dominion, organized several raids into Pomerania and
Prussia Prussia, , Old Prussian: ''Prūsa'' or ''Prūsija'' was a German state on the southeast coast of the Baltic Sea. It formed the German Empire under Prussian rule when it united the German states in 1871. It was ''de facto'' dissolved by an e ...
. In Autumn of 1102 Bolesław organized a war party into Pomerania during which his forces sacked
Białogard Białogard (pronounced , german: Belgard, ; Pomeranian: ''Biôłogard'') is a historic town in Middle Pomerania, northwestern Poland, with 23,614 inhabitants as of December 2021. The capital of Białogard County in the West Pomeranian Voivod ...
. The Pomeranians sent retaliatory war parties into Polish territory, but as Pomerania bordered Zbigniew's territory these raids ravaged the lands of the prince who was not at fault. Therefore, in order to put pressure on Bolesław, Zbigniew allied himself with Bořivoj II of Bohemia, to whom he promised to pay tribute in return for his help. By aligning himself with Bolesław's southern neighbor Zbigniew wished to compel Bolesław to cease his raids into Pomerania. Bolesław, on the other hand, allied himself with Kievan Rus and
Hungary Hungary ( hu, Magyarország ) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning of the Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Cr ...
. His marriage to Zbyslava, the daughter of Sviatopolk II Iziaslavich in 1103, was to seal the alliance between himself and the prince of
Kiev Kyiv, also spelled Kiev, is the capital and most populous city of Ukraine. It is in north-central Ukraine along the Dnieper River. As of 1 January 2021, its population was 2,962,180, making Kyiv the seventh-most populous city in Europe. Ky ...
. However, Bolesław's first diplomatic move was to recognize Pope Paschal II, which put him in strong opposition to the
Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire was a political entity in Western, Central, and Southern Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars. From the accession of Otto I in 962 unt ...
. A later visit of papal legate Gwalo, Bishop of Beauvais, put church matters into order and increased Bolesław's influence. Zbigniew declined to attend the marriage of Bolesław and Zbyslava. He saw this union and the alliance with Kiev as a serious threat. He bribedM. K. Barański: ''Dynastia Piastów w Polsce'', Warsaw, 2008, p. 195. his ally, Bořivoj II of Bohemia, to invade Bolesław's province, ostensibly to claim the Polish crown. Bolesław retaliated with expeditions into Pomerania in 1103 (including the battle of
Kołobrzeg Kołobrzeg ( ; csb, Kòlbrzég; german: Kolberg, ), ; csb, Kòlbrzég , is a port city in the West Pomeranian Voivodeship in north-western Poland with about 47,000 inhabitants (). Kołobrzeg is located on the Parsęta River on the south coast ...
, where he was defeated) Moravia in 1104–05, which brought the young prince not only loot, but also effectively ended the Pomeranian alliance.M. Spórna, P. Wierzbicki: ''Słownik władców Polski i pretendentów do tronu polskiego'', p. 62. During the return of the army, one part, commanded by Żelisław, was defeated by the Bohemians. Bolesław, who commanded the other part, couldn't defeat them. Skarbimir bribed Bořivoj II, who returned to his homeland and concluded a short-lived peace with Bolesław. Then Bořivoj II ended his alliance with Zbigniew. The intervention of Bolesław in a dynastic dispute in Hungary put him in a difficult political situation. At first, he supported the pretender Álmos, and marched to Hungary to help him. However, during the siege of Abaújvár in 1104, Álmos changed his mind and made peace overtures to his brother and rival King
Coloman Coloman, es, Colomán (german: Koloman (also Slovak, Czech, Croatian), it, Colomanno, ca, Colomà; hu, Kálmán) The Germanic origin name Coloman used by Germans since the 9th century. * Coloman, King of Hungary * Coloman of Galicia-Lodomeri ...
, at that point Zbigniew's ally. Bolesław then retired his troops from Hungary and in 1105 made a treaty with Coloman. In addition, the Hungarian King broke his agreements with Bohemia. The dynastic dispute in
Prague Prague ( ; cs, Praha ; german: Prag, ; la, Praga) is the capital and largest city in the Czech Republic, and the historical capital of Bohemia. On the Vltava river, Prague is home to about 1.3 million people. The city has a temperate ...
between Bořivoj II and his cousin Svatopluk prompted Bolesław and his new ally King Coloman to intervene in support of Svatopluk. However, a new rebellion by Álmos forced Coloman and his army to return to Hungary. Bolesław also decided to retreat. Svatopluk tried to capture the city alone, but suffered a complete defeat and so his attempt to seize power in Bohemia was unsuccessful. Also in 1105, Bolesław entered into an agreement with his half-brother, similar to that entered just a few years before with their stepmother Judith-Sophia, which, in exchange for abundant dower lands, secured her neutrality in Bolesław's political contest with Zbigniew. The treaty, signed in
Tyniec Tyniec is a historic village in Poland on the Vistula river, since 1973 a part of the city of Kraków (currently in the district of Dębniki). Tyniec is notable for its Benedictine abbey founded by King Casimir the Restorer in 1044. Etymology ...
, dealt with foreign policy, albeit with no agreement about Pomerania. One year later, the treaty ended when Zbigniew refused to help his half-brother in his fight against Pomerania. While hunting, Bolesław was unexpectedly attacked by them. In the battle, the young prince almost lost his life. Bohemia, using the involvement of Bolesław in Pomeranian affairs as an excuse, attacked Silesia. The prince tried to re-establish the alliance with his half-brother, but without success, and so reached a rapprochement with Bohemia in 1106. Bolesław managed to bribe Bořivoj II to join his side in the contest against Zbigniew and shortly after formally allied himself with Coloman of Hungary. With the help of his Kievan and Hungarian allies Bolesław attacked Zbigniew's territory, beginning a civil war. The allied forces of Bolesław easily took control of most important cities, including
Kalisz (The oldest city of Poland) , image_skyline = , image_caption = ''Top:'' Town Hall, Former "Calisia" Piano Factory''Middle:'' Courthouse, "Gołębnik" tenement''Bottom:'' Aerial view of the Kalisz Old Town , image_flag = POL Kalisz flag.svg ...
,
Gniezno Gniezno (; german: Gnesen; la, Gnesna) is a city in central-western Poland, about east of Poznań. Its population in 2021 was 66,769, making it the sixth-largest city in the Greater Poland Voivodeship. One of the Piast dynasty's chief cities, ...
, Spycimierz and Łęczyca,R. Grodecki, S. Zachorowski, J. Dąbrowski: ''Dzieje Polski średniowiecznej'', vol. I, p. 137. in effect taking half of Zbigniew's lands. Through the mediation of Baldwin,
Bishop of Kraków A bishop is an ordained clergy member who is entrusted with a position of authority and oversight in a religious institution. In Christianity, bishops are normally responsible for the governance of dioceses. The role or office of bishop is ...
, a peace treaty was signed at Łęczyca,S. Szczur: ''Historia Polski – średniowiecze'', p. 122. in which Zbigniew officially recognized Bolesław as the Supreme Prince of all Poland. However, he was allowed to retain Masovia as a fief.


Sole Ruler of Poland


First Expedition to Bohemia and exile of Zbigniew

In 1107 Bolesław III along with his ally King Coloman of Hungary invaded Bohemia in order to aid Svatopluk in gaining the Czech throne and to secure Polish interests to the south. The expedition was a complete success: on 14 May 1107 Svatopluk was made Duke of Bohemia in
Prague Prague ( ; cs, Praha ; german: Prag, ; la, Praga) is the capital and largest city in the Czech Republic, and the historical capital of Bohemia. On the Vltava river, Prague is home to about 1.3 million people. The city has a temperate ...
. In the winter of 1107–08, with the help of Kievan and Hungarian allies, Bolesław undertook a punitive expedition against his brother Zbigniew. One reason for this was that Zbigniew had not followed his orders and had refused to burn down one of the fortresses of
Kurów Kurów () is a village in south-eastern Poland, located in the historic province of Lesser Poland, between Puławy and Lublin, on the Kurówka River. It is capital of a separate gmina (municipality) called Gmina Kurów, within Lublin Voivodeship ...
near
Puławy Puławy (, also written Pulawy) is a city in eastern Poland, in Lesser Poland's Lublin Voivodeship, at the confluence of the Vistula and Kurówka Rivers. Puławy is the capital of Puławy County. The city's 2019 population was estimated at 47,4 ...
. Another reason was that Zbigniew had not performed his duties as a vassal by failing to provide military aid to Bolesław for a campaign against the Pomeranians. Bolesław's forces attacked Mazovia and quickly forced Zbigniew to surrender. Following this, Zbigniew was banished from the country and, with his followers, took refuge in Prague, where he gained the support of Svatopluk.M. K. Barański: ''Dynastia Piastów w Polsce'', p. 201. From then Bolesław was the sole lord of the Polish lands, though in fact his over-lordship began in 1107 when Zbigniew paid him homage as his feudal lord. In 1108 the balance of power in Europe changed. Svatopluk decided to pay homage to Emperor Henry V and in exchange received from him the formal investiture of Bohemia. At the same time King Coloman of Hungary was under attack from the combined forces of the Holy Roman Empire and Bohemia. Svatopluk, joined by Zbigniew and his followers, also attacked Poland. Bolesław avoided a direct confrontation because he was busy fighting Pomerania. The Polish-Hungarian coalition gave aid and shelter to Bořivoj II. Later that year, Bolesław and Coloman sent a new expedition to Bohemia, prompted by the invasion of Hungary by the German-Bohemian coalition (during which Pozsony Castle was put under siege)M. K. Barański: ''Dynastia Piastów w Polsce'', p. 202. and the fact that Svatopluk, who owed Bolesław his throne, didn't honor his promise to return Silesian cities seized from Poland ( Racibórz, Kamieniec, Koźle among others) by his predecessors.R. Grodecki, S. Zachorowski, J. Dąbrowski: ''Dzieje Polski średniowiecznej'', vol. I , p. 141. Bolesław then decided to restore Bořivoj II to the Bohemian throne, but was unable to do so owing to the need to divert his forces north to thwart a Pomeranian invasion.


Polish-German War of 1109

In response to Bolesław's aggressive foreign policy, the
Holy Roman Emperor The Holy Roman Emperor, originally and officially the Emperor of the Romans ( la, Imperator Romanorum, german: Kaiser der Römer) during the Middle Ages, and also known as the Roman-German Emperor since the early modern period ( la, Imperat ...
,
Henry V Henry V may refer to: People * Henry V, Duke of Bavaria (died 1026) * Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor (1081/86–1125) * Henry V, Duke of Carinthia (died 1161) * Henry V, Count Palatine of the Rhine (c. 1173–1227) * Henry V, Count of Luxembourg (121 ...
, undertook a punitive expedition against Poland in 1109, assisted by Czech warriors provided by Svatopluk of Bohemia. The alleged ''casus belli'' was to restore Zbigniew to his former position. The Emperor gave Bolesław an ultimatum: he would abandon the expedition only if Bolesław gave Zbigniew half of Poland to rule, formally recognized Henry as overlord and paid 300 pieces of fine silver as a regular tribute.K. Kmąk
''Wojna polsko-niemiecka 1109 (in Polish)''
etrieved 15 July 2014
Bolesław rejected Henry's demands. During the negotiations between the Empire and Poland, the Polish ruler was in the middle of a war against Pomerania. On the west side of the
Oder The Oder ( , ; Czech, Lower Sorbian and ; ) is a river in Central Europe. It is Poland's second-longest river in total length and third-longest within its borders after the Vistula and Warta. The Oder rises in the Czech Republic and flows ...
river, Henry V hurriedly gathered knights for his expedition against Poland. Before the fight ended in Pomerania, the German troops were able to approach Głogów. The military operations mainly took place in
Silesia Silesia (, also , ) is a historical region of Central Europe that lies mostly within Poland, with small parts in the Czech Silesia, Czech Republic and Germany. Its area is approximately , and the population is estimated at around 8,000,000. S ...
in southwestern Poland, where Henry V's army laid siege to the major cities of Głogów,
Wrocław Wrocław (; german: Breslau, or . ; Silesian German: ''Brassel'') is a city in southwestern Poland and the largest city in the historical region of Silesia. It lies on the banks of the River Oder in the Silesian Lowlands of Central Europe, r ...
and
Bytom Odrzański Bytom Odrzański (german: Beuthen an der Oder) is a town on the Oder river in western Poland, in Nowa Sól County of Lubusz Voivodeship. As of December 2021, the town has a population of 4,191. History Archaeological findings from the Stone Age ...
. In addition to defending the towns, Bolesław conducted a guerrilla war against the Holy Roman Emperor and his allies. He reportedly defeated the expedition at the
Battle of Hundsfeld The Battle of Hundsfeld or Battle of Psie Pole was said to be fought on 24 August 1109 near the Silesian capital Wrocław between the Holy Roman Empire in aid of the claims of the exiled Piast duke Zbigniew against his ruling half-brother, Bolesł ...
on 24 August 1109, although the existence of this battle is doubted by historians because it was first recorded about a century later.


Second Expedition to Bohemia

In 1110 Bolesław undertook an unsuccessful military expedition against
Bohemia Bohemia ( ; cs, Čechy ; ; hsb, Čěska; szl, Czechy) is the westernmost and largest historical region of the Czech Republic. Bohemia can also refer to a wider area consisting of the historical Lands of the Bohemian Crown ruled by the Bohem ...
. His intention was to install yet another pretender on the Czech throne, Soběslav I, who sought refuge in Poland. During the campaign he won a decisive victory against the Czechs at the Battle of Trutina on 8 October 1110; however, following this battle he ordered his forces to withdraw. The reason for this is speculated to be the unpopularity of Soběslav I among Czechs as well as Bolesław's unwillingness to further harm his relations with the Holy Roman Empire. In 1111 a truce between Poland and the Empire was signed, stipulating that Soběslav I would be able to return to Bohemia while Zbigniew would be able to return Poland. Bolesław's assent was likely under pressure from the many supporters of the exiled prince in 1108, who, according to the reports of Gallus Anonymus, was surrounded by bad advisers (probably including Martin I, Archbishop of Gniezno). Once in Poland, his advisers persuaded Zbigniew to claim sovereignty over his previous domains. The first step was his presence at the
Advent Advent is a Christian season of preparation for the Nativity of Christ at Christmas. It is the beginning of the liturgical year in Western Christianity. The name was adopted from Latin "coming; arrival", translating Greek '' parousia''. ...
ceremonial, surrounded by attendants, with a sword carried before him, an exclusive prerogative of the ruler. As he had recognized Bolesław as his overlord in Łęczyca in 1107, Boleslaw considered this an act of treason, causing a definitive breach in their relationship. Probably for these reasons, Zbigniew was blinded on Bolesław's orders in 1112.


Excommunication

The blinding of Zbigniew caused a strong negative reaction among Bolesław's subjects. Unlike in the east, blinding in medieval Poland was accomplished not by burning the eyes out with a red hot iron rod or knife, but employed a much more brutal technique in which the condemned's eyes were pried out using special pliers. The condemned was then made to open his eyes and if he did not do so, his eyelids were also removed. Contemporary sources don't provide clear information on whether Bolesław was excluded from the community of the Church. It is generally believed that Archbishop Martin I of Gniezno (who was a strong supporter of Zbigniew)
excommunicated Excommunication is an institutional act of religious censure used to end or at least regulate the communion of a member of a congregation with other members of the religious institution who are in normal communion with each other. The purpose ...
Bolesław for blinding his half-brother. The excommunication exempted all Bolesław's subjects from their oaths of obedience. The prince was faced with a real possibility of an uprising of the sort that deposed Bolesław the Bold. Recognizing his precarious situation, Bolesław sought the customary penance that would reconcile him with the high priesthood. According to
Gallus Anonymus ''Gallus Anonymus'' ( Polonized variant: ''Gall '') is the name traditionally given to the anonymous author of ''Gesta principum Polonorum'' (Deeds of the Princes of the Poles), composed in Latin between 1112 and 1118. ''Gallus'' is generally rega ...
, Bolesław first fasted for forty days and made gifts to the poor: :: (...)''He slept in ashes and sackcloth, among the streams of tears and sobs, as he renounced communion and conversation with people.'' It's possible that Bolesław decided to do this to rebuild his weakened authority and gain the favor of Zbigniew's supporters. Blinding his half-brother might have been perceived by Polish society as a breach of the principle of solidarity among the members of the ruling dynasty, a key foundation of public order. According to Gallus, Bolesław also sought and received forgiveness from his half-brother. In the next part of his penance, the prince made a pilgrimage to
Hungary Hungary ( hu, Magyarország ) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning of the Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Cr ...
to the Abbeys of
Saint Giles Saint Giles (, la, Aegidius, french: Gilles), also known as Giles the Hermit, was a hermit or monk active in the lower Rhône most likely in the 6th century. Revered as a saint, his cult became widely diffused but his hagiography is mostly lege ...
in
Somogyvár Somogyvár ( hr, Šemudvar) is a village in Somogy County, Hungary. Geography It is situated south from Lengyeltóti, between Lengyeltóti, Öreglak and Somogyvámos. History It is a historical tradition that, after the death of Géza of Hun ...
and Saint Stephen I in
Székesfehérvár Székesfehérvár (; german: Stuhlweißenburg ), known colloquially as Fehérvár ("white castle"), is a city in central Hungary, and the country's ninth-largest city. It is the regional capital of Central Transdanubia, and the centre of Fej� ...
. The pilgrimage to the Abbey of Saint Giles also had a political goal; Bolesław strengthened his ties of friendship and alliance with the
Arpad dynasty Arpad or Árpád may refer to: People * Árpád (given name), a Hungarian men's name * Árpád (c. 845–907), first ruler of Hungary Places * Arpad, Syria, an ancient city in present-day Syria near Tell Rifaat * Árpád, the Hungarian name fo ...
. Following his return to Poland, Bolesław even traveled to
Gniezno Gniezno (; german: Gnesen; la, Gnesna) is a city in central-western Poland, about east of Poznań. Its population in 2021 was 66,769, making it the sixth-largest city in the Greater Poland Voivodeship. One of the Piast dynasty's chief cities, ...
to pay further penance at the tomb of Saint Adalbert of Prague, where poor people and clergy received numerous costly gifts from the prince.Gallus Anonymus: ''Cronicae et gesta ducum sive principum Polonorum'', p. 161. Only after this was the excommunication finally lifted. Following his repentance the Polish prince made a vague commitment to the Church. No information survives about Zbigniew's death. In the obituary of the Benedictine monastery in Lubiń dated 8 July 1113 was reported the death of a monk in Tyniec called ''brother Zbigniew''. Historians believed that he could be Bolesław's half-brother. The information marked that his burial place was in the Benedictine monastery of
Tyniec Tyniec is a historic village in Poland on the Vistula river, since 1973 a part of the city of Kraków (currently in the district of Dębniki). Tyniec is notable for its Benedictine abbey founded by King Casimir the Restorer in 1044. Etymology ...
.


Conquest and conversion of Pomerania

The loss of Pomerania during the reign of Casimir I the Restorer weakened the Polish state, and, during the second half of the 11th century, subsequent rulers weren't able to recover all the lands that once belonged to
Mieszko I Mieszko I (; – 25 May 992) was the first ruler of Poland and the founder of the first independent Polish state, the Duchy of Poland. His reign stretched from 960 to his death and he was a member of the Piast dynasty, a son of Siemomysł and ...
and
Bolesław I the Brave Bolesław I the Brave ; cs, Boleslav Chrabrý; la, Boleslaus I rex Poloniae (17 June 1025), less often known as Bolesław the Great, was Duke of Poland from 992 to 1025, and the first King of Poland in 1025. He was also Duke of Bohemia betwe ...
. Only after defeating Zbigniew and successfully opposing Bohemian claims against Silesia in 1109 was Bolesław III able to expand to the West.


Strengthening the Polish-Pomeranian borders

The conquest of Pomerania had been a lifelong pursuit for Bolesław. His political goals were twofold: strengthen the Polish border on the Noteć river line, and subjugate Pomerania. He intended to exercise Polish political overlordship but not actually incorporate Pomerania with the exception of
Gdańsk Pomerania Gdańsk Pomerania ( pl, Pomorze Gdańskie), csb, Gduńsczim Pòmòrzã, german: Danziger Pommern) is a geographical region within Pomerelia in northern and northwestern Poland, covering the bulk of Pomeranian Voivodeship. It forms a part and ...
and a southern belt north of the River Noteć. By 1113 the northern border had been strengthened, including the fortification of
Santok Santok (german: Zantoch) is a village in Gorzów County, Lubusz Voivodeship, in western Poland. It is the seat of the gmina (administrative district) called Gmina Santok. Geography It is located at the confluence of the Noteć and Warta rive ...
, Wieleń, Nakło,
Czarnków Czarnków (german: Scharnikau, before 1939: Czarnikau) is a town in Poland in Czarnków-Trzcianka County in Greater Poland Voivodeship. As of December 2021, the town has 10,279 inhabitants. The town lies on the Noteć river. Because there are m ...
, Ujście and Wyszogród. Some sources report that the border began at the mouth of the rivers Warta and Oder in the west, running along the Noteć all the way to the
Vistula The Vistula (; pl, Wisła, ) is the longest river in Poland and the ninth-longest river in Europe, at in length. The drainage basin, reaching into three other nations, covers , of which is in Poland. The Vistula rises at Barania Góra in ...
. Before Bolesław III began to expand in
Gdańsk Pomerania Gdańsk Pomerania ( pl, Pomorze Gdańskie), csb, Gduńsczim Pòmòrzã, german: Danziger Pommern) is a geographical region within Pomerelia in northern and northwestern Poland, covering the bulk of Pomeranian Voivodeship. It forms a part and ...
(Pomerelia), he normalized his political relations with Bohemia in 1114 at a great convention on the border of the Nysa Kłodzka river. He was assisted by Bohemian princes of the Premyslid line: namely, Vladislaus I, Otto II the Black and Soběslav I. The pact was sealed by the marriage of Bolesław (a widower since his wife Zbyslava's death) with Vladislaus I and Otto II's sister-in-law, the German noblewoman Salomea of Berg.


The conquest of Gdańsk Pomerania

After normalising his relations with Bohemia, Bolesław conducted a successful expedition against Prussia in 1115. This secured Poland's north-east border, which allowed him to invade Gdańsk Pomerania. The conquest of this part of the Pomeranian lands from 1115–19 achieved a long-time aim of previous Polish rulers: the complete incorporation of the territories on the Vistula River, including the castellany of Nakło, into Poland. The northern borders of the Polish duchy were probably established on the line of the rivers Gwda and Uniesta (in later times these rivers were the boundary between Pomerania and the Oder Slavic). It is also possible that the border ran along the Łeba. The local rulers of the conquered
Gdańsk Gdańsk ( , also ; ; csb, Gduńsk;Stefan Ramułt, ''Słownik języka pomorskiego, czyli kaszubskiego'', Kraków 1893, Gdańsk 2003, ISBN 83-87408-64-6. , Johann Georg Theodor Grässe, ''Orbis latinus oder Verzeichniss der lateinischen Benen ...
and Słupsk were replaced by Polish nobles. Bolesław also introduced Polish clerical organization, in order to protect his interests in that territory. However, these areas refused to follow the church organization. The incorporation into the Polish Church occurred only during 1125–26 at the time of the visit of the papal legate, Gilles, Cardinal-Bishop of Tusculum.


Rebellion of Skarbimir

During Bolesław's Pomeranian campaign a rebellion led by Count Palatine
Skarbimir Skarbimir of the Clan Awdaniec (died before 1132) was a Medieval Polish magnate, tutor, advisor and count palatine of Polish monarch Bolesław III Wrymouth. Biography Early life Skarbimir was a son of Michal the Old of the Clan Abdank, one time ...
from the Awdaniec family began. The rebellion was quelled by the prince in 1117 and the mutinous nobleman was blinded as punishment. The conflict between Bolesław and the Awdaniec family is difficult to explain due to the lack of sources. The cause was probably the growing influence of the family, Skarbimir's ambition, and his jealousy of Bolesław and his increased popularity.B. Snoch: ''Protoplasta książąt śląskich'', p. 17. Other probable factors were the desire to establish Władysław II, Bolesław's first-born son, as the sole ruler after his death, or Boleslaw's fears of losing his position, as had happened in the conflict with Sieciech. It was also suggested that Skarbimir contacted the Pomeranians and
Vladimir II Monomakh Vladimir II Monomakh (Old East Slavic: Володимѣръ Мономахъ, ''Volodiměrŭ Monomakhŭ''; uk, Володимир Мономах, translit=Volodymyr Monomakh; russian: Владимир Мономах; Christian name: ''Vasiliy'' ...
, Grand Prince of
Kievan Rus' Kievan Rusʹ, also known as Kyivan Rusʹ ( orv, , Rusĭ, or , , ; Old Norse: ''Garðaríki''), was a state in Eastern and Northern Europe from the late 9th to the mid-13th century.John Channon & Robert Hudson, ''Penguin Historical Atlas o ...
. Medieval historiography also associated the rebellion with the Law of Succession issued by Boleslaw. The underlying inheritance controversy arose between 1115 and 1116, after the birth of his second son Leszek, first of his second marriage. According to one hypothesis, Skarbimir objected to the adoption of the statute, which changed the traditional Polish succession customs. In the suppression of the rebellion a major role was played by
Piotr Włostowic Herb ŁabędźPiotr Włostowic ( 1080 – 1153), also known as Peter Wlast or ''Włost'') was a Polish noble, castellan of Wrocław, and a ruler (''możnowładca'') of part of Silesia. From 1117 he was voivode (''palatyn'') of the Duke of Polan ...
of the Labedz family, who replaced Skarbimir as Count Palatine. On his defeat, Skarbimir received a minor punishment from Bolesław. The rebellion of Skarbimir also underlined the importance of the conquest of Gdańsk Pomerania.K. Maleczyński: ''Bolesław III Krzywousty'', pp. 212–214; A. Jóźwik
''Grodzisko w Czermnie'' (in Polish)
etrieved 17 July 2014


Intervention of Kievan Rus'

The Rurikid ruler Vladimir II Monomakh and his sons are believed to have intervened in Skarbimir's rebellion. In 1118 Monomakh incorporated
Volhynia Volhynia (also spelled Volynia) ( ; uk, Воли́нь, Volyn' pl, Wołyń, russian: Волы́нь, Volýnʹ, ), is a historic region in Central and Eastern Europe, between south-eastern Poland, south-western Belarus, and western Ukraine. The ...
into his domains and expelled the ruler, Yaroslav Sviatopolkovich, who sought refuge first in Hungary,''Полное собранiе русскихъ лѣтописей'', vol. 2: ''Ипатiевская лѣтопись'', p. 8. then in Poland. In Yaroslav's place, Monomakh made his son Roman ruler of Volhynia, and after Roman's early death in 1119, replaced him with another son, Andrew, who invaded Polish territory in 1120 with the support of the
Kipchaks The Kipchaks or Qipchaks, also known as Kipchak Turks or Polovtsians, were a Turkic nomadic people and confederation that existed in the Middle Ages, inhabiting parts of the Eurasian Steppe. First mentioned in the 8th century as part of the ...
tribe. A year later, Bolesław, with his brother-in-law, the exiled Yaroslav, organized a retaliatory expedition to Czermno.''Полное собранiе русскихъ лѣтописей'', vol. 7: ''Лѣтопись по Воскресенскому списку'', p. 25. For several years thereafter Bolesław intervened in the dynastic disputes of the
House of Rurik The Rurik dynasty ( be, Ру́рыкавічы, Rúrykavichy; russian: Рю́риковичи, Ryúrikovichi, ; uk, Рю́риковичі, Riúrykovychi, ; literally "sons/scions of Rurik"), also known as the Rurikid dynasty or Rurikids, was ...
. During the 1120s the Kievan princes continued their expeditions against Poland. The neutrality of the neighbouring
Principality of Peremyshl The Principality of Peremyshl was a medieval petty principality centred on Peremyshl (now Przemyśl, Poland) in the Cherven lands ("Red Rus'"). First mentioning The Rus' Primary Chronicle, writing for the year 981, gives the first mention of P ...
was attributed to Count Palatine Piotr Włostowic, who in 1122 captured Prince Volodar.S. Szczur: ''Historia Polski – średniowiecze'', p. 125. Jan Długosz placed this event in 1122 and again in 1134, where his reports about the kidnapping story appears Volodar captured by Piotr Włostowic. The chronicler mistaken the name of the kidnapped Volodar with Yaropolk. Jan Długosz
''Jana Długosza kanonika krakowskiego Dziejów polskich ksiąg dwanaście'', vol. I, p. 499, 521–523. (in Polish)
etrieved 17 July 2014
A year later Bolesław intervened again in Volhynia, where he wished to restore Yaroslav. The expedition (aided by Bohemian, Hungarian, Peremyshl and Terebovl forces) failed due to the death of Yaroslav and the stubborn resistance of the besieged Volodymyr-Volynskyi, aided by Skarbimir's supporters. This failed military expedition led to disturbances in the Polish-Hungarian-Halych alliance.


Conquest of Western Pomerania

In 1121 (or 1119) Pomeranian Dukes
Wartislaw I Wartislaw I (''Warcisław I'') (around 1092 – August 9, 1135) was the first historical ruler of the Duchy of Pomerania and the founder of the Griffin dynasty. Most of the information about him comes from the writings on the life of Otto of ...
and Swietopelk I were defeated by Bolesław's army at the battle of Niekładź near Gryfice. Polish troops ravaged Pomerania, destroyed native cities, and forced thousands of Pomeranians to resettle deep into Polish territory. Bolesław's further expansion was directed to
Szczecin Szczecin (, , german: Stettin ; sv, Stettin ; Latin: ''Sedinum'' or ''Stetinum'') is the capital and largest city of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship in northwestern Poland. Located near the Baltic Sea and the German border, it is a major s ...
(1121–22). He knew that this city was well defended by both the natural barrier of the Oder river and his well-built fortifications, like
Kołobrzeg Kołobrzeg ( ; csb, Kòlbrzég; german: Kolberg, ), ; csb, Kòlbrzég , is a port city in the West Pomeranian Voivodeship in north-western Poland with about 47,000 inhabitants (). Kołobrzeg is located on the Parsęta River on the south coast ...
. The only way to approach the walls was through the frozen waters of a nearby swamp. Taking advantage of the element of surprise, Bolesław launched his assault from precisely that direction, and took control of the city. Much of the population was slaughtered and the survivors were forced to pay homage to the Polish ruler.O. Baranowska: ''Pomorze Zachodnie – moja mała ojczyzna'', pp. 40–42. Bolesław probably fought battles on the western side of the Oder, as well as near Lake Morzyce (now the German ''
Müritz The Müritz (; from Slavic "little sea") is a lake in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, northern Germany. Its area is , which makes it the second largest lake in Germany (after Lake Constance) and the largest lake located entirely within German territory ...
''), which were technically outside of Pomerania. At the same time, Lothair, Duke of Saxony (and future Holy Roman Emperor), also moved against this area. According to contemporary sources, a Saxon army approached from above the
Elbe The Elbe (; cs, Labe ; nds, Ilv or ''Elv''; Upper and dsb, Łobjo) is one of the major rivers of Central Europe. It rises in the Giant Mountains of the northern Czech Republic before traversing much of Bohemia (western half of the Czech Re ...
River in the direction of modern-day
Rostock Rostock (), officially the Hanseatic and University City of Rostock (german: link=no, Hanse- und Universitätsstadt Rostock), is the largest city in the German state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern and lies in the Mecklenburgian part of the state ...
. They conquered the
Warini The Varini, Warni or Warini were one or more Germanic peoples who originally lived in what is now northeastern Germany, near the Baltic sea. They are first named in the Roman era, and appear to have survived into the Middle Ages. It is proposed ...
s,
Circipanes Circipania (german: Circipanien, Zirzipanien) was a medieval territory in what is now northeastern Germany. The name derives from Latin ''circum'' (around) and ''Pane'' (the Peene River). The region was enclosed roughly by the upper Recknitz, Tr ...
, Kessinians and part of the Tollensers tribes. This two-pronged expansion was probably the result of earlier unknown agreements between the rulers. This was the first step for the later Christianization of Pomeranian lands. In 1122 Bolesław finally conquered
Western Pomerania Historical Western Pomerania, also called Cispomerania, Fore Pomerania, Front Pomerania or Hither Pomerania (german: Vorpommern), is the western extremity of the historic region of Pomerania forming the southern coast of the Baltic Sea, West ...
, which became a Polish fief. Duke Wartislaw I was forced to pay homage, as well as an annual
tribute A tribute (; from Latin ''tributum'', "contribution") is wealth, often in kind, that a party gives to another as a sign of submission, allegiance or respect. Various ancient states exacted tribute from the rulers of land which the state conq ...
of 500 marks of fine silver to the Polish ruler, and was further obliged to give military aid at Bolesław's request.L. Fabiańczyk: ''Apostoł Pomorza'', p. 39. In subsequent years the tribute was reduced to 300 marks.J.W. Szymański: ''Książęcy ród Gryfitów'', p. 381. This success enabled Bolesław to make further conquests. In 1123 his troops even reached
Rügen Rügen (; la, Rugia, ) is Germany's largest island. It is located off the Pomeranian coast in the Baltic Sea and belongs to the state of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. The "gateway" to Rügen island is the Hanseatic city of Stralsund, where ...
, but failed to conquer it. According to modern historiography, Bolesław began to pay tribute to Emperor Henry V, at least from 1135, believed to have been 500 marks of fine silver annually. It is unknown why Bolesław did this, as the sources do not contain any reference to the Polish ruler being tributary to the Holy Roman Empire in the period 1121–35.


Christianization of Western Pomerania

In order to strengthen ties with Pomerania, Bolesław organized a mission to Christianize the newly acquired territory. At the same time he wished to subordinate Pomerania to the Gniezno Archbishopric. Unfortunately first attempts made by unknown missionaries did not make the desired progress. Another attempt, officially sponsored by Bolesław and led by Bernard the Spaniard, who traveled to
Wolin Wolin (; formerly german: Wollin ) is the name both of a Polish island in the Baltic Sea, just off the Polish coast, and a town on that island. Administratively, the island belongs to the West Pomeranian Voivodeship. Wolin is separated from th ...
during 1122–23, ended in another failure. The next two missions were carried out in 1124–25 and 1128 by Bishop
Otto of Bamberg Otto of Bamberg (1060 or 1061 – 30 June 1139) was a German missionary and papal legate who converted much of medieval Pomerania to Christianity. He was the bishop of Bamberg from 1102 until his death. He was canonized in 1189. Early life T ...
(called the Apostle of Pomerania). After appropriate consultation with Bolesław, Bishop Otto set out on the first stage of Christianization of the region in 1124. During the mission Otto stayed first at Bolesław's court, where he was provided with appropriate equipment, fire and several clergymen for his trip to Pomerania. The Bishop was accompanied throughout his mission by the Pomeranian ruler Wartislaw I, who greeted him on the border of his domains, in the environs of the city of Sanok. In
Stargard Stargard (; 1945: ''Starogród'', 1950–2016: ''Stargard Szczeciński''; formerly German language, German: ''Stargard in Pommern'', or ''Stargard an der Ihna''; csb, Stôrgard) is a city in northwestern Poland, located in the West Pomeranian V ...
the pagan prince promised Otto his assistance in the Pomeranian cities as well as help during the journey. He also assigned 500 armored knights to act as guards for the bishop's protection, and obtain the baptism of the elders tribal leaders.J. Kłoczowski: ''Młodsza Europa. Europa Środkowo-Wschodnia w kręgu cywilizacji chrześcijańskiej średniowiecza'', p. 35. Primary missionary activities were directed to Pyrzyce, then the towns of Kamień,
Wolin Wolin (; formerly german: Wollin ) is the name both of a Polish island in the Baltic Sea, just off the Polish coast, and a town on that island. Administratively, the island belongs to the West Pomeranian Voivodeship. Wolin is separated from th ...
,
Szczecin Szczecin (, , german: Stettin ; sv, Stettin ; Latin: ''Sedinum'' or ''Stetinum'') is the capital and largest city of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship in northwestern Poland. Located near the Baltic Sea and the German border, it is a major s ...
and once again Wolin. In the first two towns the Christianization went without resistance. In Kamień the task was facilitated by the intercession of Wartislaw I's own wife and dignitaries. At
Szczecin Szczecin (, , german: Stettin ; sv, Stettin ; Latin: ''Sedinum'' or ''Stetinum'') is the capital and largest city of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship in northwestern Poland. Located near the Baltic Sea and the German border, it is a major s ...
and
Wolin Wolin (; formerly german: Wollin ) is the name both of a Polish island in the Baltic Sea, just off the Polish coast, and a town on that island. Administratively, the island belongs to the West Pomeranian Voivodeship. Wolin is separated from th ...
, which were important centers of
Slavic paganism Slavic mythology or Slavic religion is the religious beliefs, myths, and ritual practices of the Slavs before Christianisation, which occurred at various stages between the 8th and the 13th century. The South Slavs, who likely settled in the Ba ...
, opposition to conversion was particularly strong among the pagan priests and local population. The conversion was finally accepted only after Bolesław lowered the annual tribute imposed on the Pomeranians. Four great pagan temples were torn down and churches were built in their places. Otto's mission of 1124 ended with the erection of bishoprics in
Lubusz Lebus ( pl, Lubusz) is a historic town in the Märkisch-Oderland District of Brandenburg, Germany. It is the administrative seat of '' Amt'' ("collective municipality") Lebus. The town, located on the west bank of the Oder river at the border wit ...
for Western Pomerania and in Kruszwica for Eastern Pomerania (Gdańsk), which was subordinated to the Archbishopric of Gniezno. In 1127 the first pagan rebellions began to take place. These were due to both the large tribute imposed by Poland as well as a plague that descended on Pomerania, which was blamed on Christianity. The rebellions were largely instigated by the old pagan priests, who had not come to terms with their new circumstances. Wartislaw I confronted these uprisings with some success, but was unable to prevent several insurgent raids into Polish territory. Because of this Bolesław prepared a massive punitive expedition that may have spoiled all the earlier accomplishments of the missionary work by Bishop Otto. Thanks to Otto's diplomacy, direct confrontation was avoided and in 1128 he embarked on another mission to Pomerania. Wartislaw I greeted Otto at Demmin with some Polish knights. This time more pressure was applied to the territories west of the Oder River, i.e.
Usedom Usedom (german: Usedom , pl, Uznam ) is a Baltic Sea island in Pomerania, divided between Germany and Poland. It is the second largest Pomeranian island after Rügen, and the most populous island in the Baltic Sea. It is north of the Szczeci ...
,
Wolgast Wolgast (; csb, Wòłogòszcz) is a town in the district of Vorpommern-Greifswald, in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany. It is situated on the bank of the river (or strait) Peenestrom, vis-a-vis the island of Usedom on the Baltic coast that can b ...
and Gützkow, which weren't under Polish suzerainty. The final stage of the mission returned to Szczecin, Wolin and Kamień. The Christianization of Pomerania is considered one of the greatest accomplishments of Bolesław's Pomeranian policy. In 1129 Bolesław concluded with
Niels, King of Denmark Niels ( la, Nicolaus, English exonym Nicholas; – 25 June 1134) was the King of Denmark from 1104 to 1134. Niels succeeded his brother Eric Evergood and is presumed to have been the youngest son of King Sweyn II Estridson. King Niels activel ...
an alliance directed against Wartislaw I and the attempts of Lothair III, King of Germany to subordinate Western Pomerania. In retaliation for the sack of Płock by Wartislaw I in 1128, Polish-Danish troops took the Western Pomeranian islands of
Wolin Wolin (; formerly german: Wollin ) is the name both of a Polish island in the Baltic Sea, just off the Polish coast, and a town on that island. Administratively, the island belongs to the West Pomeranian Voivodeship. Wolin is separated from th ...
and
Usedom Usedom (german: Usedom , pl, Uznam ) is a Baltic Sea island in Pomerania, divided between Germany and Poland. It is the second largest Pomeranian island after Rügen, and the most populous island in the Baltic Sea. It is north of the Szczeci ...
. At end of the 1120s Bolesław began to implement an ecclesiastical organization of Pomerania.
Gdańsk Pomerania Gdańsk Pomerania ( pl, Pomorze Gdańskie), csb, Gduńsczim Pòmòrzã, german: Danziger Pommern) is a geographical region within Pomerelia in northern and northwestern Poland, covering the bulk of Pomeranian Voivodeship. It forms a part and ...
was added to the
Diocese of Włocławek In church governance, a diocese or bishopric is the ecclesiastical district under the jurisdiction of a bishop. History In the later organization of the Roman Empire, the increasingly subdivided provinces were administratively associate ...
, known at the time as the Kujavian Diocese. A strip of borderland north of Noteć was split between the Diocese of Gniezno and Diocese of Poznan. The bulk of Pomerania was, however, made an independent Pomeranian bishopric (whose first bishop, Adalbert, was one of the participants in the missionary expedition and former Polish royal chaplain), set up in the territory of the
Duchy of Pomerania The Duchy of Pomerania (german: Herzogtum Pommern; pl, Księstwo Pomorskie; Latin: ''Ducatus Pomeraniae'') was a duchy in Pomerania on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea, ruled by dukes of the House of Pomerania (''Griffins''). The country ha ...
in 1140, and, after Bolesław died in 1138, the duchy became independent of Poland.


The project of Archbishop Norbert of Magdeburg

During the 1130s, Norbert, Archbishop of Magdeburg undertook a project under which Pomerania would be divided between two dioceses subordinated to his archbishopric. At the same time, he revived the old claims of Magdeburg's ecclesiastical sovereignty over all Poland. A first Bull was prepared by 1131, but never entered into force. Despite this setback, Norbert continued to attempt to subdue the Polish Church during 1132–33. A call was made in the
Curia Curia (Latin plural curiae) in ancient Rome referred to one of the original groupings of the citizenry, eventually numbering 30, and later every Roman citizen was presumed to belong to one. While they originally likely had wider powers, they came ...
on behalf of the Polish bishops. The Polish bishops didn't appear before
Pope Innocent II Pope Innocent II ( la, Innocentius II; died 24 September 1143), born Gregorio Papareschi, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 14 February 1130 to his death in 1143. His election as pope was controversial and the fi ...
, which resulted in the issuing of the
Bull A bull is an intact (i.e., not castrated) adult male of the species ''Bos taurus'' (cattle). More muscular and aggressive than the females of the same species (i.e., cows), bulls have long been an important symbol in many religions, includin ...
''Sacrosancta Romana'' in 1133, which confirmed the sovereignty of the Archbishopric of Magdeburg over the Polish Church and the projected Pomeranian dioceses. The formal ''privilegium maius'' was the culmination of Norbert's efforts. Bolesław, trying to save his past efforts in Pomeranian politics, submitted at Merseburg in 1135.


Conquest of Rügen and alliance with Wartislaw I

To consolidate his power over Pomerania Bolesław conducted an expedition to the island of
Rügen Rügen (; la, Rugia, ) is Germany's largest island. It is located off the Pomeranian coast in the Baltic Sea and belongs to the state of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. The "gateway" to Rügen island is the Hanseatic city of Stralsund, where ...
in 1130. For this purpose, he concluded an alliance with the Danish duke Magnus Nilsson (his son-in-law) who provided him with a fleet in exchange for support in his efforts to obtain the Swedish throne. The fleet transported Polish troops to Rügen, but the intended battle on the island never happened, because, at the sight of the Polish-Danish combined forces, the defending
Rani ''Rani'' in Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia, sometimes spelled ''Ranee'', is a Hindu/Sanskrit feminine given name. The term is the female form of the term for princely rulers in South and Southeast Asia and applies equally to the wife of a ...
recognized Bolesław's overlordship. After the successful invasion of the Danish capital,
Roskilde Roskilde ( , ) is a city west of Copenhagen on the Danish island of Zealand. With a population of 51,916 (), the city is a business and educational centre for the region and the 10th largest city in Denmark. It is governed by the administrative ...
, in 1134, Bolesław formed an alliance with Wartislaw I of Pomerania against King
Eric II of Denmark Eric II the Memorable ( da, Erik II Emune; – 18 September 1137) was king of Denmark between 1134 and 1137. Eric was an illegitimate son of Eric I of Denmark, who ruled Denmark from 1095 to 1103. Eric the Memorable rebelled against his uncle Niel ...
, an ally of Emperor Lothair III. The role of the Polish prince was limited to aiding the House of Griffins, not due while the real interest in Danish affairs. The Danish, after repelling the first attack, led a successful retaliatory expedition and expansion into Pomerania.


Congress of Merseburg


Political Background

In 1125
Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor Henry V (german: Heinrich V.; probably 11 August 1081 or 1086 – 23 May 1125, in Utrecht) was King of Germany (from 1099 to 1125) and Holy Roman Emperor (from 1111 to 1125), as the fourth and last ruler of the Salian dynasty. He was made co-r ...
and King of Germany, died. His successor,
Lothair of Supplinburg Lothair III, sometimes numbered Lothair II and also known as Lothair of Supplinburg (1075 – 4 December 1137), was Holy Roman Emperor from 1133 until his death. He was appointed Duke of Saxony in 1106 and elected King of Germany in 1125 before ...
, has been embroiled in disputes over his inheritance. For the Imperial crown, he became involved in the affairs of the Papacy. In 1130 there was a double election to the Apostolic See. Lothair supported
Pope Innocent II Pope Innocent II ( la, Innocentius II; died 24 September 1143), born Gregorio Papareschi, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 14 February 1130 to his death in 1143. His election as pope was controversial and the fi ...
, hoping in this way to secure his own coronation.W. Czapliński, A. Galos, W. Korta: ''Historia Niemiec'', p. 138. Contrary to was expected, Lothair's Imperial coronation didn't end his disputes against the contenders for the German throne. In 1130 Bolesław controlled the areas situated on the left bank of the Oder river on the island of Rügen. Germany also wanted to control these lands, but the internal political situation and the involvement in the civil war in Hungary, however, didn't allow an armed conflict. The Bull ''Sacrosancta Romana'' of 1133 give the Archbishopric of Magdeburg sovereign rights over the Pomeranian dioceses instituted by Bolesław. The death of King
Stephen II of Hungary Stephen II ( hu, II István; hr, Stjepan II; sk, Štefan II; 1101 – early 1131), King of Hungary and Croatia, ruled from 1116 until 1131. His father, King Coloman, had him crowned as a child, thus denying the crown to his uncle Álmos ...
in 1131 led the country into civil war between two claimants to the throne: Béla the Blind (son of Álmos, Duke of Croatia) and Boris (the alleged son of King Coloman). Boris sought the help of the Polish ruler, who hoped for a closer alliance with Hungary and cooperation with the Kievan Rus' princes (Boris was a son of a daughter of
Vladimir II Monomakh Vladimir II Monomakh (Old East Slavic: Володимѣръ Мономахъ, ''Volodiměrŭ Monomakhŭ''; uk, Володимир Мономах, translit=Volodymyr Monomakh; russian: Владимир Мономах; Christian name: ''Vasiliy'' ...
). However, Bolesław overestimated his strength against Béla, who counted with the support of almost all his country. The Polish army faced the combined forces of Hungary, Bohemia, Austria and Germany in the Battle of the
Sajó The Sajó ( , Hungarian) or Slaná ( Slovak) is a river in Slovakia and Hungary. Its length is 229 km, of which 110 km is in Slovakia. Its source is in the Stolica Mountains range of the Slovak Ore Mountains. It flows through the ...
river (22 July 1132), where the coalition had a complete victory over the Polish prince, who was forced to retreat. The success in Hungary was used by the Bohemian ruler Soběslav I, an Imperial vassal, who during 1132–34 repeatedly led invasions to Silesia. The issue over the property of Silesia was subjected to the decision of Lothair III.


Preparations for the Congress

In February 1134 Soběslav I of Bohemia and dignitaries of King Béla II of Hungary, together with Bishop Peter of
Székesfehérvár Székesfehérvár (; german: Stuhlweißenburg ), known colloquially as Fehérvár ("white castle"), is a city in central Hungary, and the country's ninth-largest city. It is the regional capital of Central Transdanubia, and the centre of Fej� ...
went to
Altenburg Altenburg () is a city in Thuringia, Germany, located south of Leipzig, west of Dresden and east of Erfurt. It is the capital of the Altenburger Land district and part of a polycentric old-industrial textile and metal production region betw ...
, where they presented their allegations against the Polish ruler. They asked the intervention of the Holy Roman Empire (preliminary requests occurred two years earlier). Lothair III accepted the request, acting as an arbitrator in the dynastic disputes in
Central Europe Central Europe is an area of Europe between Western Europe and Eastern Europe, based on a common historical, social and cultural identity. The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) between Catholicism and Protestantism significantly shaped the a ...
. At the same time Béla II and Prince Volodymyrko of Peremyshl undertook a military expedition against Poland. The combined forces occupied
Lesser Poland Lesser Poland, often known by its Polish name Małopolska ( la, Polonia Minor), is a historical region situated in southern and south-eastern Poland. Its capital and largest city is Kraków. Throughout centuries, Lesser Poland developed a ...
, reaching to
Wiślica Wiślica is a town in Busko County, Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship, in south-central Poland. It is the seat of the gmina (administrative district) called Gmina Wiślica. It lies on the Nida River, approximately south of Busko-Zdrój and so ...
. Shortly after, Bolesław received a summons to the Imperial court at
Magdeburg Magdeburg (; nds, label=Low Saxon, Meideborg ) is the capital and second-largest city of the German state Saxony-Anhalt. The city is situated at the Elbe river. Otto I, the first Holy Roman Emperor and founder of the Archdiocese of Magdebu ...
on 26 June 1135. Playing for time, however, he only send deputies. The emperor sent another delegation and requested a personal appearance of the Polish ruler, setting a new date on 15 August 1135, this time in
Merseburg Merseburg () is a town in central Germany in southern Saxony-Anhalt, situated on the river Saale, and approximately 14 km south of Halle (Saale) and 30 km west of Leipzig. It is the capital of the Saalekreis district. It had a dioces ...
. Bolesław realized that without an agreement with Lothair III he couldn't maintain the control over the newly conquered lands on the west side of the Oder and the island of Rügen. Even before the Congress of Merseburg was performed, Bolesław persuaded one of ruling princes of Western Pomerania,
Ratibor I Ratibor or Ratiboř may refer to: People * Ratibor (Polabian prince) (died 1043), a prince of the Obotrite confederacy from the Polabian tribe * Ratibor I, Duke of Pomerania (1124–1156), duke of the House of Pomerania (Griffins) * Ratibor II, Duk ...
to make an expedition against Denmark. It was a clear expression of ostentation to Emperor Lothair III because the King of Denmark was a German vassal. The fleet formed by 650 boats (with 44 knights and 2 horses) attacked the rich Norwegian port city of Kungahälla (now Kungälv in
Sweden Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic countries, Nordic c ...
).L. Fabiańczyk: ''Apostoł Pomorza'', p. 70.


Provisions of the Congress

The Congress took place on 15 August 1135. During the ceremony, Emperor Lothair II recognized the rights of the Polish ruler over Pomerania. In return, Bolesław agreed to pay homage for the Pomeranian lands and the Principality of Rügen, with the payment of 6,000 pieces of fine silver from these lands to the Holy Roman Empire; however, he remained fully independent ruler of his main realm, Poland. With Bolesław's death in 1138, Polish authority over Pomerania ended, triggering competition of the
Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire was a political entity in Western, Central, and Southern Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars. From the accession of Otto I in 962 unt ...
and
Denmark ) , song = ( en, "King Christian stood by the lofty mast") , song_type = National and royal anthem , image_map = EU-Denmark.svg , map_caption = , subdivision_type = Sovereign state , subdivision_name = Kingdom of Denmark , establish ...
for the area. The conflict with Hungary also ended, with Bolesław recognizing Béla II's rule. The agreement was sealed with the betrothal of Bolesław's daughter Judith with Béla II's Géza (this marriage never took place). In case of the Bohemian-Polish dispute the Imperial mediation failed. Bolesław argued he must be treated as a sovereign ruler, who wasn't the case of Soběslav I, an imperial vassal. Lothair III, unable to come to an agreement with the Polish ruler, proposed to discuss the matter in subsequent negotiations. The Congress ended with church ceremonies, during which Bolesław carried the imperial sword. This was an honor granted only to sovereign rulers. An indirect goal of Polish diplomacy was the successful invalidation of the Papal Bull of 1133 and the recognition of metropolitan rights of the Archbishopric of Gniezno at the Synod of Pisa in 1135. On 7 July 1136 was issued the protectionist Bull '' Ex commisso nobis a Deo'' under which Pope Innocent II confirmed the unquestioned sovereignty of the Archbishopric of Gniezno over the Polish dioceses.


Last years and death


Normalization of relations with his neighbors

After entering in the imperial sphere of influence, Poland normalized his relations with Bohemia at the Congress of Kłodzko on 30 May 1137 (the so-called ''Peace of Kłodzko''), but the details of this agreement are unknown.S. Szczur: ''Historia Polski – średniowiecze'', p. 127. This treaty was confirmed in the town of Niemcza, where Władysław, the eldest son of Bolesław, stood as godfather in the baptism of Wenceslaus, Soběslav I's son. In the last years of his life, Bolesław's main concern was to arranged political marriages for his children in order to strengthen his relations with neighboring countries. In 1137 Bolesław reinforced his relations with the Kievan Rus' with the marriage of his son Bolesław with Princess Viacheslava, daughter of Vsevolod, Prince of Pskov. In the year of his death, by contrast, finally normalized his relations with Hungary through the marriage of his son
Mieszko Mieszko is a Slavic given name of uncertain origin. Onomastics There are three major theories concerning the origin and meaning of the name of Duke Mieszko I of Poland. The most popular theory, proposed by Jan Długosz, explains that Mieszko is a ...
with Princess Elizabeth, daughter of King Béla II.


Death

Bolesław III Wrymouth died on 28 October 1138, probably in the town of Sochaczew. There are no records about the circumstances of his death. Twelfth-century sources didn't provide information about his place of burial. It was only in the 15th century, when
Jan Długosz Jan Długosz (; 1 December 1415 – 19 May 1480), also known in Latin as Johannes Longinus, was a Polish priest, chronicler, diplomat, soldier, and secretary to Bishop Zbigniew Oleśnicki of Kraków. He is considered Poland's first histo ...
recorded that the Prince's tomb was in the Masovian Blessed Virgin Mary Cathedral in Płock. However, he didn't show from where he took this information. Presumably the chronicler took this report from the lost ''Rocznik mazowiecki''. Wawrzyniec Wszerecz, Canon of Płock during the 16th–17th century, wrote that Bolesław was in a common coffin at the cathedral, where the remains of his father Władysław I Herman and several other Piast Masovian rulers were also placed.


Family


First marriage

Zbyslava of Kiev (c. 1085/90 – c. 1114), his first wife, was a member of the Rurikid dynasty. She was the daughter of Grand Prince Sviatopolk II of Kiev. The marriage was probably concluded in 1103 with the purpose to obtain future military help from Kiev in the fight against Zbigniew. This union also notoriously limited the attacks of the princes of Galicia and Terebovlia against Poland. Until Zbyslava's death the relations between Poland and the
Principality of Galicia–Volhynia A principality (or sometimes princedom) can either be a monarchical feudatory or a sovereign state, ruled or reigned over by a regnant-monarch with the title of prince and/or princess, or by a monarch with another title considered to fall under ...
remained friendly. The children born from this marriage were: #
Władysław II the Exile : ''This article refers to the 12th century Polish monarch. For the 14th century founder of the Jagiellon dynasty, see Jogaila, and for other monarchs with similar names, see Ladislaus II (disambiguation).'' Vladislaus II the Exile ( pl, Władys ...
(1105 – 30 May 1159), the only son of Bolesław and Zbyslava, was Prince of
Kraków Kraków (), or Cracow, is the second-largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula, Vistula River in Lesser Poland Voivodeship, the city dates back to the seventh century. Kraków was the official capital of Poland un ...
,
Silesia Silesia (, also , ) is a historical region of Central Europe that lies mostly within Poland, with small parts in the Czech Silesia, Czech Republic and Germany. Its area is approximately , and the population is estimated at around 8,000,000. S ...
,
Sandomierz Sandomierz (pronounced: ; la, Sandomiria) is a historic town in south-eastern Poland with 23,863 inhabitants (as of 2017), situated on the Vistula River in the Sandomierz Basin. It has been part of Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship (Holy Cross Prov ...
, eastern
Greater Poland Greater Poland, often known by its Polish name Wielkopolska (; german: Großpolen, sv, Storpolen, la, Polonia Maior), is a historical region of west-central Poland. Its chief and largest city is Poznań followed by Kalisz, the oldest cit ...
,
Kuyavia Kuyavia ( pl, Kujawy; german: Kujawien; la, Cuiavia), also referred to as Cuyavia, is a historical region in north-central Poland, situated on the left bank of Vistula, as well as east from Noteć River and Lake Gopło. It is divided into three ...
,
Western Pomerania Historical Western Pomerania, also called Cispomerania, Fore Pomerania, Front Pomerania or Hither Pomerania (german: Vorpommern), is the western extremity of the historic region of Pomerania forming the southern coast of the Baltic Sea, West ...
and
Gdańsk Pomerania Gdańsk Pomerania ( pl, Pomorze Gdańskie), csb, Gduńsczim Pòmòrzã, german: Danziger Pommern) is a geographical region within Pomerelia in northern and northwestern Poland, covering the bulk of Pomeranian Voivodeship. It forms a part and ...
(1138–46). Gallus Anonymous wrote that the heir of the Polish throne was born in the winter of 1107–08, but omitted the gender and name of the child. The ''Rocznik świętokrzyski'' and ''Rocznik kapitulny'' recorded Władysław's birth in 1105. # A daughter udith?(c. 1112 – after 1124), married in 1124 to Vsevolod Davidovich, Prince of
Murom Murom ( rus, Муром, p=ˈmurəm; Old Norse: ''Moramar'') is a historical types of inhabited localities in Russia, city in Vladimir Oblast, Russia, which sprawls along the left bank of the Oka River. Population: History In the 9th century A ...
. Her filiation is doubtful, because in Russian chronicles was only noted that Vsevolod's wife came from Poland; she probably could be either Bolesław and Zbyslava's daughter or a member of the Awdaniec family as daughter of
Skarbimir Skarbimir of the Clan Awdaniec (died before 1132) was a Medieval Polish magnate, tutor, advisor and count palatine of Polish monarch Bolesław III Wrymouth. Biography Early life Skarbimir was a son of Michal the Old of the Clan Abdank, one time ...
. Older historiography attributed another child born from the marriage of Bolesław and Zbyslava. In addition to Władysław II and the unnamed daughter was also added an unnamed second son. Gallus Anonymous wrote that this son was born around 1107–08. According to Oswald Balzer, he died shortly after birth. However, Karol Maleczyński believed that he never existed, pointed that probably the sources who provided the year of 1105 as Władysław II's date of birth (''Rocznik świętokrzyski'' and ''Rocznik kapitulny'') could be made a mistake.K. Maleczyński: ''Bolesław III Krzywousty'', pp. 315–316.


Second marriage

Salomea of Berg (c. 1093/1101 – 27 July 1144), his second wife, was a
German German(s) may refer to: * Germany (of or related to) **Germania (historical use) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law **Ge ...
noblewoman. She was the daughter of Count Henry of Berg-Schelklingen. The marriage took place in January or February 1115. This union was motivated by the current political situation, on the occasion of the signing of a peace treaty between Poland and Bohemia. Salomea came from a powerful and influential family, who, after the death of Emperor Henry V in 1125, as a result of the support of the opposition in Germany, lost their political influence at the court of Lothair III. # Leszek (1115/16 – 26 August before 1131), the eldest son of Bolesław and Salomea. He probably died in infancy.K. Jasiński: ''Rodowód pierwszych Piastów'', p. 209. # Ryksa (1116 – after 25 December 1156), eldest daughter of Bolesław and Salomea, in 1127 she married with to Danish prince Magnus Nilsson, future King of
Västergötland Västergötland (), also known as West Gothland or the Latinized version Westrogothia in older literature, is one of the 25 traditional non-administrative provinces of Sweden (''landskap'' in Swedish), situated in the southwest of Sweden. Väs ...
. This union was made to obtain Danish support for Poland in the war against Germany, but in 1134 Denmark took the side of Germany in the conflict. After Magnus' death in 1134, Ryksa returned to Poland. Later she married with Volodar Glebovich, Prince of
Minsk Minsk ( be, Мінск ; russian: Минск) is the capital and the largest city of Belarus, located on the Svislach (Berezina), Svislach and the now subterranean Nyamiha, Niamiha rivers. As the capital, Minsk has a special administrative stat ...
and Hrodno; this marriage was concluded in order to obtain an ally in the Polish war against Hungary. Her third marriage was with King Sverker I of Sweden.K. Maleczyński: ''Bolesław III Krzywousty'', p. 316. # A daughter (before 1117/22 – after 1131), betrothed or married in 1131 to Conrad, Count of Plötzkau and Margrave of
Nordmark The Northern March or North March (german: Nordmark) was created out of the division of the vast ''Marca Geronis'' in 965. It initially comprised the northern third of the ''Marca'' (roughly corresponding to the modern state of Brandenburg) and ...
. # Casimir, known in historiography as ''the Older'' (9 August 1122 – 19 October 1131), according to sources (like ''Rocznik kapituły krakowskiej''), he died aged 9. Jan Długosz in his chronicle wrote that he was born from the marriage of Bolesław and Adelaide, the Prince's supposed second wife. # Gertruda (1123/24 – 7 May 1160), a nun at
Zwiefalten Zwiefalten is a municipality in the district of Reutlingen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany located halfway between Stuttgart and Lake Constance. The former Zwiefalten Abbey dominates the town. The former monastery is considered one of the finest exa ...
(1139). #
Bolesław IV the Curly Bolesław IV the Curly (; 1122 – 5 January 1173), a member of the Piast dynasty, was Duke of Masovia from 1138 and High Duke of Poland from 1146 until his death. Early life Bolesław was the third son of Duke Bolesław III Wrymouth of Polan ...
(c. 1125 – 5 January 1173), Prince of Masovia and Kuyavia (1138–46), of Kraków, Gniezno and Kalisz (1146–73), of Sandomierz (1166–73), married aged 12 with Viacheslava, daughter of Vsevolod, Prince of Pskov.K. Maleczyński: ''Bolesław III Krzywousty'', p. 317. Jan Długosz reported his birth in 1127 as the second son born from Bolesław and Adelaide. #
Mieszko III the Old Mieszko III the Old (c. 1126/27 – 13 March 1202), of the Piast dynasty, was Duke of Greater Poland from 1138 and High Duke of Poland, with interruptions, from 1173 until his death. He was the fourth and second surviving son of Duke Bolesła ...
(1126/27 – Kalisz, 13 March 1202), Duke of
Greater Poland Greater Poland, often known by its Polish name Wielkopolska (; german: Großpolen, sv, Storpolen, la, Polonia Maior), is a historical region of west-central Poland. Its chief and largest city is Poznań followed by Kalisz, the oldest cit ...
(1138–1202), of Kraków (1173–77, 1190, 1199–1202), of Kalisz (1173–1202), of Upper Gdańsk Pomerania (1173–1202) and Kuyavia (1195–98), around 1136 married to Elizabeth, daughter of King Béla II of Hungary. The marriage was concluded as one of the provisions of the Congress of Merseburg. # Dobroniega Ludgarda (1129 – by 1160), after her father's death she was married by her mother Salomea around 1146–48 to Theodoric I, Margrave of Lusatia, who later repudiated her. # Judith (1130 – 8 July 1175), betrothed in 1136 to Prince Géza, son of King Béla II of Hungary; however, the marriage never took place and in 1148 she married to
Otto I, Margrave of Brandenburg Otto I (c. 1128 – July 8, 1184) was the second Margrave of Brandenburg, from 1170 until his death. Life Otto I was born into the House of Ascania as the eldest son of Albert I ("Albert the Bear"), who founded the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1 ...
.K. Maleczyński: Bolesław III Krzywousty, p. 318. # Henry (1131 – 18 October 1166), Duke of Sandomierz (1146–66), according to Jan Długosz he was born in 1132. Further mention of him was made in his chronicle by 1139, describing the division of the country in districts. Karol Maleczyński placed his birth between 1127 and 1131. During his father's lifetime Henry didn't play an important political role. He died in 1166 in battle against the Prussians, unmarried and childless. # Agnes (1137 – after 1182), around 1140–41 she was a proposed bride to one of the sons of Grand Prince Vsevolod II of Kiev. This union was to ensure the support of Kiev in the dispute between Salomea's sons and Władysław II, their half-brother. At the end, the marriage never took place and she married around 1149–51 to Mstislav II, Prince of Pereyaslavl and Grand Prince of
Kiev Kyiv, also spelled Kiev, is the capital and most populous city of Ukraine. It is in north-central Ukraine along the Dnieper River. As of 1 January 2021, its population was 2,962,180, making Kyiv the seventh-most populous city in Europe. Ky ...
since 1168. #
Casimir II the Just Casimir II the Just ( pl, Kazimierz II Sprawiedliwy; 28 October 1138 – 5 May 1194) was a Lesser Polish Duke of Wiślica from 1166–1173, and of Sandomierz after 1173. He became ruler over the Polish Seniorate Province at Kraków and thereby Hi ...
(1138 – 5 May 1194), Duke of Wiślica (1166–73), of Sandomierz (1173–94) of Kraków (1177–94), of Masovia and Kuyavia (1186–94), for a long time considered a posthumous child, and for this reason not included in his father's testament. Older historiography attributed another two daughters from the marriage of Bolesław and Salomea: Adelaide and Sophia. Adelaide (c. 1114 - 25 March before 1132), was the first wife of Adalbert II the Pious, eldest son of Leopold III, Margrave of Austria. Modern historians denies that she was a daughter of Bolesław. Sophia (d. 10 October 1136), was probably the mother of Mateusz,
Bishop of Kraków A bishop is an ordained clergy member who is entrusted with a position of authority and oversight in a religious institution. In Christianity, bishops are normally responsible for the governance of dioceses. The role or office of bishop is ...
. In older historiography Adelaide, a supposed daughter of
Emperor Henry IV Henry IV (german: Heinrich IV; 11 November 1050 – 7 August 1106) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1084 to 1105, King of Germany from 1054 to 1105, King of Italy and Burgundy from 1056 to 1105, and Duke of Bavaria from 1052 to 1054. He was the son ...
, was erroneously considered as another wife of Bolesław. The information about this stated that after the death of Zbyslava, Bolesław married her in
Bamberg Bamberg (, , ; East Franconian: ''Bambärch'') is a town in Upper Franconia, Germany, on the river Regnitz close to its confluence with the river Main. The town dates back to the 9th century, when its name was derived from the nearby ' castl ...
in 1110. This report is provided by
Jan Długosz Jan Długosz (; 1 December 1415 – 19 May 1480), also known in Latin as Johannes Longinus, was a Polish priest, chronicler, diplomat, soldier, and secretary to Bishop Zbigniew Oleśnicki of Kraków. He is considered Poland's first histo ...
and Archdeacon Sulger. This view was challenged by Oswald Balzer.


Succession provisions


Senioral principle

Bolesław's experiences during his youth probably motivated him to make a division of his domains between his surviving sons. The loyal Count Palatine
Piotr Włostowic Herb ŁabędźPiotr Włostowic ( 1080 – 1153), also known as Peter Wlast or ''Włost'') was a Polish noble, castellan of Wrocław, and a ruler (''możnowładca'') of part of Silesia. From 1117 he was voivode (''palatyn'') of the Duke of Polan ...
was appointed to execute the provisions. In his testament, also known as the "Statute of Succession", Bolesław introduced in Poland the senioral principle in an effort to keep the unity of the state and to prevent the struggle for power among his sons.S. Szczur: ''Historia Polski – średniowiecze'', p. 128. This regulation about the succession came into force after Bolesław's death, although is unknown the exact date of his establishment. It's believed that his creation could happen in 1115 or 1116, after the birth of a son Leszek, or after the suppression of the rebellion of Skarbimir (in 1117). Sources indicate that the original document about the succession was established in 1137. The Statute was nullified in 1180 but restored by
Pope Innocent III Pope Innocent III ( la, Innocentius III; 1160 or 1161 – 16 July 1216), born Lotario dei Conti di Segni (anglicized as Lothar of Segni), was the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 8 January 1198 to his death in 16 ...
in 1210 after a petition of the Silesian rulers; however, historians challenge the approval of the Statute by the Pope in the absence of any other information. The senioral principle established that the eldest member of the dynasty was to have supreme power over the rest and was also to control an indivisible "senioral part": a vast strip of land running north–south down the middle of Poland, with
Kraków Kraków (), or Cracow, is the second-largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula, Vistula River in Lesser Poland Voivodeship, the city dates back to the seventh century. Kraków was the official capital of Poland un ...
its chief city.A. Śmiech
''Testament Bolesława Krzywoustego''
(in Polish) etrieved 22 July 2014
The senior duke's prerogatives also included control over Pomerania, a fief of the Holy Roman Empire. Sources showed a discrepancy in terms of the power exercised by the senior duke. Pope Innocent III wrote about
primogeniture Primogeniture ( ) is the right, by law or custom, of the firstborn legitimate child to inherit the parent's entire or main estate in preference to shared inheritance among all or some children, any illegitimate child or any collateral relativ ...
, while Wincenty Kadłubek refers to both seniority and primogeniture. Kadłubek combined in one sentence the two systems, i.e. inheritance of supreme power in individual districts, where primogeniture was in force. Among historians, there is a view that Bolesław not established seniority, but primogeniture that belongs exclusively to Władysław II and his descendants. A fact who supported this hypothesis was the coverage and nature of power exercised by Bolesław IV the Curly in 1146.


Division of the Polish state

Bolesław divided his domains into the following provinces: The
Seniorate Province Seniorate Province, also known as the Senioral Province, , was a district principality in the Duchy of Poland that was formed in 1138, following the fragmentation of the state. Its ruler held the title of the High Duke, ruling all duchies wit ...
(with his capital
Kraków Kraków (), or Cracow, is the second-largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula, Vistula River in Lesser Poland Voivodeship, the city dates back to the seventh century. Kraków was the official capital of Poland un ...
) was supposed to be non-inherited and indivisible. It consisted of
Lesser Poland Lesser Poland, often known by its Polish name Małopolska ( la, Polonia Minor), is a historical region situated in southern and south-eastern Poland. Its capital and largest city is Kraków. Throughout centuries, Lesser Poland developed a ...
, Sieradz and Łęczyca, the western part of Kruszwica and
Kuyavia Kuyavia ( pl, Kujawy; german: Kujawien; la, Cuiavia), also referred to as Cuyavia, is a historical region in north-central Poland, situated on the left bank of Vistula, as well as east from Noteć River and Lake Gopło. It is divided into three ...
, the eastern part of
Greater Poland Greater Poland, often known by its Polish name Wielkopolska (; german: Großpolen, sv, Storpolen, la, Polonia Maior), is a historical region of west-central Poland. Its chief and largest city is Poznań followed by Kalisz, the oldest cit ...
,
Kalisz (The oldest city of Poland) , image_skyline = , image_caption = ''Top:'' Town Hall, Former "Calisia" Piano Factory''Middle:'' Courthouse, "Gołębnik" tenement''Bottom:'' Aerial view of the Kalisz Old Town , image_flag = POL Kalisz flag.svg ...
,
Gniezno Gniezno (; german: Gnesen; la, Gnesna) is a city in central-western Poland, about east of Poznań. Its population in 2021 was 66,769, making it the sixth-largest city in the Greater Poland Voivodeship. One of the Piast dynasty's chief cities, ...
and
Gdańsk Pomerania Gdańsk Pomerania ( pl, Pomorze Gdańskie), csb, Gduńsczim Pòmòrzã, german: Danziger Pommern) is a geographical region within Pomerelia in northern and northwestern Poland, covering the bulk of Pomeranian Voivodeship. It forms a part and ...
.
Western Pomerania Historical Western Pomerania, also called Cispomerania, Fore Pomerania, Front Pomerania or Hither Pomerania (german: Vorpommern), is the western extremity of the historic region of Pomerania forming the southern coast of the Baltic Sea, West ...
as a fief would remain under the control of the senior duke. * Władysław II received the Silesian Province, comprising
Silesia Silesia (, also , ) is a historical region of Central Europe that lies mostly within Poland, with small parts in the Czech Silesia, Czech Republic and Germany. Its area is approximately , and the population is estimated at around 8,000,000. S ...
, with his capital
Wrocław Wrocław (; german: Breslau, or . ; Silesian German: ''Brassel'') is a city in southwestern Poland and the largest city in the historical region of Silesia. It lies on the banks of the River Oder in the Silesian Lowlands of Central Europe, r ...
and the
Lubusz Lebus ( pl, Lubusz) is a historic town in the Märkisch-Oderland District of Brandenburg, Germany. It is the administrative seat of '' Amt'' ("collective municipality") Lebus. The town, located on the west bank of the Oder river at the border wit ...
land.R. Grodecki, S. Zachorowski, J. Dąbrowski: ''Dzieje Polski średniowiecznej'', vol. I, p. 155. He probably received this domain already between 1124 and 1125 after his marriage with
Agnes of Babenberg Agnes of Babenberg ( pl, Agnieszka austriacka; 1108/13 – 24/25 January 1163) was a scion of the Franconian House of Babenberg and by marriage High Duchess of Poland and Duchess of Silesia. Family and personality Agnes was a daughter of Le ...
. As the eldest son, he became in the first senior duke (or '' princeps''). * Bolesław IV received the Masovian Province, with his capital in Płock and eastern
Kuyavia Kuyavia ( pl, Kujawy; german: Kujawien; la, Cuiavia), also referred to as Cuyavia, is a historical region in north-central Poland, situated on the left bank of Vistula, as well as east from Noteć River and Lake Gopło. It is divided into three ...
. * Mieszko III received the Greater Poland Province, composed of the remaining western parts of Greater Poland, with his capital in
Poznań Poznań () is a city on the River Warta in west-central Poland, within the Greater Poland region. The city is an important cultural and business centre, and one of Poland's most populous regions with many regional customs such as Saint Joh ...
. * Henry received the Sandomierz Province, composed of eastern Lesser Polish territories centered around the city of
Sandomierz Sandomierz (pronounced: ; la, Sandomiria) is a historic town in south-eastern Poland with 23,863 inhabitants (as of 2017), situated on the Vistula River in the Sandomierz Basin. It has been part of Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship (Holy Cross Prov ...
and the Bug River to the north, with his capital in
Lublin Lublin is the ninth-largest city in Poland and the second-largest city of historical Lesser Poland. It is the capital and the center of Lublin Voivodeship with a population of 336,339 (December 2021). Lublin is the largest Polish city east of ...
. * Salomea, Bolesław's widow, received Łęczyca or Sieradz-Łęczyca as her dower. After her death, these lands were to be included in the Seniorate Province. Casimir II, Bolesław's youngest son, was not included in the testament, because he was born after his father's death or shortly before. Among medievalists there is a view that the Statute only provide the inheritance of Bolesław's descendants in the first generation (i.e. his sons). After their deaths, their lands were to be included in the Seniorate Province. However, the later fights between them made the provinces transformed into a hereditary domains.


Feudal division of Poland

The "Senioral Principle" was soon broken, leading to a period of nearly 200 years of Poland's disintegration, also known as feudal fragmentation, a phenomenon common in medieval Europe. Among others countries who were affected by this are
Russia Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. It is the largest country in the world, with its internationally recognised territory covering , and encompassing one-ei ...
,
Hungary Hungary ( hu, Magyarország ) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning of the Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Cr ...
, and
Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwee ...
. This was a time of internal struggles that caused the weakening of the Polish state and the enormous growth of internal development, culture, and improving the situation of the broad masses of the population. Distribution of the then princely rights by contemporary historiography also had a good side, which include: the reconstruction of the political system in the new economic fundamentals and increasing responsibility for the fate of the country placed upon its upper echelons.


Organization of state

A detailed knowledge of the internal organization of the 12th century Polish state is impossible. There are no documents from this period and the reports of chroniclers showed problems about a real knowledge of the principality's management. Bolesław divided his domains into provinces, districts and grods (a type of fortified village or
castellan A castellan is the title used in Medieval Europe for an appointed official, a governor of a castle and its surrounding territory referred to as the castellany. The title of ''governor'' is retained in the English prison system, as a remnant ...
y). Within them remained the ''Opole''. Territorial scope of the province corresponded to the laters '' Dzielnica''. It's believed that 6–7 provinces were created: Masovia, Silesia, Greater Poland, Kraków, Sandomierz, Kalisz-ŁęczycaS. Szczur: ''Historia Polski – średniowiecze'', p. 150. and Pomerania (from the lands of
Gdańsk Pomerania Gdańsk Pomerania ( pl, Pomorze Gdańskie), csb, Gduńsczim Pòmòrzã, german: Danziger Pommern) is a geographical region within Pomerelia in northern and northwestern Poland, covering the bulk of Pomeranian Voivodeship. It forms a part and ...
).J. Topolski (ed.): ''Dzieje Polski do roku 1501'', pp. 141–142. During Bolesław's reign attempts were made to organize the borders areas into marches following the German model. Among the marches corroborated in the available sources are: Głogów, Gdańsk and probably Lubusz.S. Szczur: ''Historia Polski – średniowiecze'', p. 151. Probably Bolesław had a number of well-maintained castles that served in the political, economic and administrative spheres. The state's nature during the
Piast dynasty The House of Piast was the first historical ruling dynasty of Poland. The first documented Polish monarch was Duke Mieszko I (c. 930–992). The Piasts' royal rule in Poland ended in 1370 with the death of king Casimir III the Great. Branch ...
was patrimonial. The ducal court (Latin: ''curia ducis'') was a center of power, which belonged to the reigning family (along with a separate court by the duchess), after them came the secular and Church dignitaries and subjects, next to lower officials, chivalry and courtly princely members and chaplains. The most important office at the court of Władysław I Herman and Bolesław was the
count palatine A count palatine (Latin ''comes palatinus''), also count of the palace or palsgrave (from German ''Pfalzgraf''), was originally an official attached to a royal or imperial palace or household and later a nobleman of a rank above that of an ord ...
(also known as
voivode Voivode (, also spelled ''voievod'', ''voevod'', ''voivoda'', ''vojvoda'' or ''wojewoda'') is a title denoting a military leader or warlord in Central, Southeastern and Eastern Europe since the Early Middle Ages. It primarily referred to the me ...
). The count palatine (Latin: ''comes palatinus'') included major command of the military expeditions (in place of the ruler), defense of the State, supervision of the administration (as head of the ducal court), control and appointment of the heads of the castellanies and the exercise of the courts. The office of count palatine was abolished in 1180. Already during the reign of
Mieszko II Lambert Mieszko II Lambert (; c. 990 – 10/11 May 1034) was King of Poland from 1025 to 1031, and Duke from 1032 until his death. He was the second son of Bolesław I the Brave, but the eldest born from his third wife Emnilda of Lusatia. He was pro ...
saw the development of Polish bureaucratic apparatus. The collector (Latin: ''camerarius''), managed the economy of the ducal court. Another specific offices in the ducal court the
cześnik A cup-bearer was historically an officer of high rank in royal courts, whose duty was to pour and serve the drinks at the royal table. On account of the constant fear of plots and intrigues (such as poisoning), a person must have been regarded as ...
(''cup-bearer''), the stolnik (esquire), the strażnik (guard), the
miecznik Swordbearer (Polish: ''miecznik'') was a court office in Poland. Responsible for the arsenal of the King and for carrying his sword. Since the 14th Century an honorable title of the district office, in Kingdom of Poland and after Union of Lublin i ...
(''Sword-bearer''), the Koniuszy ('' Master of the Horse'') and the Łowczy (''Master of the Hunt''). During Bolesław's reign appeared the office of the
chancellor Chancellor ( la, cancellarius) is a title of various official positions in the governments of many nations. The original chancellors were the of Roman courts of justice—ushers, who sat at the or lattice work screens of a basilica or law cou ...
, who directed the work of the court offices and the ducal chapel (Latin: ''capella''), which consisted of a bunch of secular and religious duties.R. Grodecki, S. Zachorowski, J. Dąbrowski: ''Dzieje Polski średniowiecznej'', vol. I, p. 197. Michał Awdaniec was a chancellor at this time. Also belonged to the central government the
treasurer A treasurer is the person responsible for running the treasury of an organization. The significant core functions of a corporate treasurer include cash and liquidity management, risk management, and corporate finance. Government The treasury ...
, the Mint Master and others. Also during the rule of Bolesław the structure of the state was closely linked to the organization of the Polish Church. The church was subject to the ruler, which had the right of
Investiture Investiture (from the Latin preposition ''in'' and verb ''vestire'', "dress" from ''vestis'' "robe") is a formal installation or ceremony that a person undergoes, often related to membership in Christian religious institutes as well as Christian k ...
. The ducal court was in contact with the subjects via the castellanies, who were managed by the ''Naczelnik'' or Town Chief (Latin: ''princeps terrae''). He had sovereignty over the castellanies or grods (Latin: ''comes''), while the castellans (grod rulers) should exercise the local civil authority, getting benefits from the public, organizing the defense and probably exercising the courts. Under the direct obligation of the ruler are the
bailiff A bailiff (from Middle English baillif, Old French ''baillis'', ''bail'' "custody") is a manager, overseer or custodian – a legal officer to whom some degree of authority or jurisdiction is given. Bailiffs are of various kinds and their o ...
, the źupan ( gastald), the minters, the celnik (tax collector) and collectors. All important functions in the principality are held by the nobility. The castellan belonged to the group of nobles, officials and ministerialis. Some had served directly to the ruler, others held the offices, while the role of others are of food shortages. The Margraves (who are in charge of the border areas) were directly subordinate to the Polish ruler and had greater power than the provincial chiefs. At the end of the 11th century waned this princely organization. Was replaced with the Western European model of troops consisting of chivalry. The Latin term ''milites'', which had been used to determine the soldiers came to be called the category of knights and warriors who could afford to keep a horse. Polish armed forces in Bolesław's times are composed of three types of forces: the princely army (''Oddziału nadwornego''), the lord's army (''Drużyny możnowładców'') and the militia (''
Pospolite ruszenie ''Pospolite ruszenie'' (, lit. ''mass mobilization''; "Noble Host", lat, motio belli, the French term ''levée en masse'' is also used) is a name for the mobilisation of armed forces during the period of the Kingdom of Poland and the Polish–Li ...
''), composed of branches of small feudal lords and peasants (according to other views the militia adjutant troops were powerful and also composed by clergy and laityL. Ratajczyk (ed.): ''Historyczny rodowód polskiego ceremoniału wojskowego'', p. 351.). The princely army consisting of his nobles—at the end of the 11th century, the so-called "New People" (pl: ''Nowi Ludzie''): tribal chiefs, local leaders and opolne rulers who aspired to participate in government, sent their sons to the duke's court, where he was accompanied the ruler. Bolesław's personal guard was probably chosen by himself, using an
invocation An invocation (from the Latin verb ''invocare'' "to call on, invoke, to give") may take the form of: *Supplication, prayer or spell. *A form of possession. *Command or conjuration. * Self-identification with certain spirits. These forms ...
which was written in the Chronicles of Gallus Anonymous: :: A young people, with great manners and high birth, by at my side constantly in battle, with me accustomed to hardships! The nobles maintained their own army, which consisted of poor knights supported by peasants. They also are responsible for their armament. Among the equipment used by them was a wooden weapons (like
spear A spear is a pole weapon consisting of a shaft, usually of wood, with a pointed head. The head may be simply the sharpened end of the shaft itself, as is the case with fire hardened spears, or it may be made of a more durable material fastene ...
), blunt weapons (like club), cutting weapons (like
sword A sword is an edged, bladed weapon intended for manual cutting or thrusting. Its blade, longer than a knife or dagger, is attached to a hilt and can be straight or curved. A thrusting sword tends to have a straighter blade with a pointed ti ...
) and belching weapons (like
crossbow A crossbow is a ranged weapon using an Elasticity (physics), elastic launching device consisting of a Bow and arrow, bow-like assembly called a ''prod'', mounted horizontally on a main frame called a ''tiller'', which is hand-held in a similar ...
,
bow and arrow The bow and arrow is a ranged weapon system consisting of an elastic launching device (bow) and long-shafted projectiles (arrows). Humans used bows and arrows for hunting and aggression long before recorded history, and the practice was common ...
,
sling sling may refer to: Places * Sling, Anglesey, Wales * Sling, Gloucestershire, England, a small village in the Forest of Dean People with the name * Otto Šling (1912–1952), repressed Czech communist functionary Arts, entertainment, and media ...
), and the so-called protective equipment (
shield A shield is a piece of personal armour held in the hand, which may or may not be strapped to the wrist or forearm. Shields are used to intercept specific attacks, whether from close-ranged weaponry or projectiles such as arrows, by means of ...
, helmet,
armor Armour (British English) or armor (American English; see spelling differences) is a covering used to protect an object, individual, or vehicle from physical injury or damage, especially direct contact weapons or projectiles during combat, or f ...
). These armies over time become larger than the princely one, the most notorious example from this was Sieciech. During the constant conflicts at the beginning of the 12th century, the nobles invoked the militia, particularly of endangered lands. The whole militia was divided into branches, which were given the names of their native districts (for example, the ''Kruszwiczan hordes''). In the case of an armed conflict to a greater weapon are invoked independent branches composed by peasants (for example, during 1109). In addition to the nobles (who were tied to the ruler and his court) and warriors the Polish society in Bolesław's times also consisted of free peasants and servants (attached to his place of residence). A distinct social group were the free people, the so-called guests (Latin: ''hospites'') -who do not own property-, the warriors (Latin: ''milites gregarii'') who had farms and are counted into the common people. At the end of the social scale are the slaves (brańcy of war, or their descendants). There are little difference between them and the free peasants, but their duty to their master was higher. Non-free population was also used for personal services or to work on the land in favor of the ruler. All aspects of life in the state were regulated by the ducal judge (Latin: ''ius ducale''). He covered all the rights of the duke, in relation to the subjects or property, the enforcement of a variety of benefits, dues and ministries.S. Szczur: ''Historia Polski – średniowiecze.'', pp. 152–154. The expanded state apparatus and the church maintained by benefits from the population producing material goods. The main burden of the tax rests on the lowest social class: the peasantry (Latin: ''heredes, rustici ducis, possesores''). Up to them to submit certain levies,
tithe A tithe (; from Old English: ''teogoþa'' "tenth") is a one-tenth part of something, paid as a contribution to a religious organization or compulsory tax to government. Today, tithes are normally voluntary and paid in cash or cheques or more ...
s, and other forms of taxes like the ''podworowe'' (in the form of a cow, which consisted of the entire village), ''podymne'' (for every house), ''poradlne'' (for each piece of land), ''narzazu'' (for grazing pigs in the woods), the ''stacji'' or ''stanu'' (who allow the maintenance of the duke's court) and the ''posług komunikacyjnych'', who regulated the transport ways in the country and was divided in three main taxes: ''przewód'' ("the cable"), ''powóz'' ("the carriage") and ''podwód'' ("the wagon"). Other minor taxes involved hunting, military, guards (who custodied the grods), taxes on regalia and criminal penalties. In addition, subjects were required to repair roads, bridges, construction and maintenance of castles.


Seals and coinage

Of the five oldest preserved
seals Seals may refer to: * Pinniped, a diverse group of semi-aquatic marine mammals, many of which are commonly called seals, particularly: ** Earless seal, or "true seal" ** Fur seal * Seal (emblem), a device to impress an emblem, used as a means of a ...
from Polish rulers four were discovered in various places during 2002–06, while one of more than 100 years ago. Polish archaeologists made further discoveries in Głębokie (2002), in Ostrów Tumski (2005), in
Gniezno Gniezno (; german: Gnesen; la, Gnesna) is a city in central-western Poland, about east of Poznań. Its population in 2021 was 66,769, making it the sixth-largest city in the Greater Poland Voivodeship. One of the Piast dynasty's chief cities, ...
(2005) and in an undisclosed location in the village of Susk near Sierpc, 32 km. from Płock (2006).S. Suchodolski
''Nowe (mazowieckie) znalezisko bulli Bolesława Krzywoustego i problemy ołowianych pieczęci we wczesnośredniowiecznej Polsce, p. 1'' (in Polish).
etrieved 26 July 2014
M. Andrałojć, W. Andrałojć
''Bulle księcia Bolesława Krzywoustego'' (in Polish)
etrieved 26 July 2014
The first preliminary studies suggested that the seals could belonged to Bolesław III Wrymouth. They are made of
lead Lead is a chemical element with the symbol Pb (from the Latin ) and atomic number 82. It is a heavy metal that is denser than most common materials. Lead is soft and malleable, and also has a relatively low melting point. When freshly cut, ...
, a durable material, with a diameter of 36–40 mm. The lead seals are used at that time in European courts and are from the ''
Bulla Bulla (Latin, 'bubble') may refer to: Science and medicine * Bulla (dermatology), a bulla * Bulla, a focal lung pneumatosis, an air pocket in the lung * Auditory bulla, a hollow bony structure on the skull enclosing the ear * Ethmoid bulla, pa ...
'' tipe. Seals are known in municipal and military orders. Occasionally, in the most important documents (acts) were used golden bullas.M. Andrałojć, W. Andrałojć
''Nie śniło się historykom''
(in Polish) etrieved 26 July 2014
The discovered bullas from Bolesław's reign fall into two major types, differing in the form of writing: * Type I: extended stored on the obverse in the genitive, with the Latin word ''sigillum''. * Type II: short and around the bulla. One example from both type of seals came from the relationship with St. Adalbert, where he emphasizes his pontifical recognition (in type I) and in the crosier, with the gesture of the imposition of hands, clearly visible in the seals after restoration (in type II). The use of the genitive seals in Poland came from the 12th century, a phenomenon (unprecedented), with its only then monetary equivalent in the denarius with the Latin legend: ''Denarivs ducis Bolezlai''. At the end of Bolesław's reign returned to the staid mold inscriptions with the Latin legend: ''Dvx Bolezlavus''. According to S. Suchodolski the bullas were used for the authentication of princely documents like letters, privileges, judgments, etc., and by T. Jurek, they could also be used to secure the business arrangements (like buy of doors, chests, reliquaries). In October 2006, the Poznań Society of Friends of Learning has confirmed that the discovered bullas during 2002–05 belonged to Bolesław III Wrymouth. During Bolesław's reign appeared a two-sided
denarius The denarius (, dēnāriī ) was the standard Roman silver coin from its introduction in the Second Punic War to the reign of Gordian III (AD 238–244), when it was gradually replaced by the antoninianus. It continued to be minted in very ...
, which was denominated the foreign coin (Polish: ''monetą obcą''). The first known denarius from this time bears the Latin legend ''Bolezlav''. For the others most commonly used coins bears the Latin inscription ''Bolezlavs, denarivus, dicis Bolezlai'' with St. Adalbert in the reverse. Another type of coins didn't have legends. They differ mostly came from the weight: they were much lighter, punched for purely economic purposes.W. Garbaczewski
''Polska: Epoka denarowa w mennictwie polskim'' (in Polish)
etrieved 26 July 2014
In this time was also modeled mainly on the Magdeburg technique a
bracteate A bracteate (from the Latin ''bractea'', a thin piece of metal) is a flat, thin, single-sided gold medal worn as jewelry that was produced in Northern Europe predominantly during the Migration Period of the Germanic Iron Age (including the Vende ...
, who was one of the oldest in Europe. There are two types of bracteates who dated from Bolesław's reign: * The type II shows in both sides before Bolesław and St. Adalbert, who put his hand over the ruler in a gesture of protection. The legend shows the Latin inscription ''Bolezlaus Adalbertus''. This bracteate initially was considered a way of penance from Bolesław for Zbigniew's blinding. Was probably minted in Kraków around 1127. * The type I is less frequent. Showed St. Adalbert in episcopal robes, holding a crozier and Gospel. Legend of the coin determines the form of the Archbishop of Gniezno. Further studies have shown that the coin was minted between the period of the Congress of Merseburg (1135) and Bolesław's death (1138). It's now called the ''protective'', since illustrates the protection of St. Adalbert to the Polish ruler, who after his homage to the Holy Roman Empire in 1135 only recognizes the saint as his protector. It's one of the few examples of political propaganda in the coin's legend.M. Folwarniak
''Pierwsze polskie brakteaty. Poglądy na ich temat w ujęciu historycznym'' (in Polish)
etrieved 26 July 2014
According to A. Schmidt this was an Archbishop's coin which was minted in Gniezno, probably in 1135. In addition to the two presented bracteates from Bolesław's there is one, which is now counted among the oldest known in
numismatics Numismatics is the study or collection of currency, including coins, tokens, paper money, medals and related objects. Specialists, known as numismatists, are often characterized as students or collectors of coins, but the discipline also inc ...
. This bracteate was found in Brzeg (in Gmina Pęczniew) and preserved almost the 2/3 part of the whole weight of 0.61 g and a diameter of 27 mm. The coin shows the figure of the ruler with crown, sword in hand and an outstretched hand. Initially, was believed that showed Władysław II the Exile. Further studies, included by A. Mikolajczyk, identified this image with Bolesław III Wrymouth. Among researchers, however, today, there are discrepancies about what ruler showed the coin, because the inscription preserved is incomplete. Princely mints are mostly located in Wrocław, Płock, Gniezno and Kraków. In that time also existed private mints, such as Palatine Sieciech, who placed them in Sieciechów and near Kraków.


Church foundations

It was customary between the 12th-century ruling families a wide-ranging religious activities like donations in the benefit of the Church. The main objective was to spread Christianity. This was to include show religious rulers in the face of God, church hierarchs, clergy and society. Bolesław wasn't the exception, and he wasn't not only a predatory warrior, a cunning politician and a diplomat; he was also a patron of cultural developments in his realm. Like most medieval monarchs, he founded several churches and monasteries. Among the most important of which are: * The
Benedictine , image = Medalla San Benito.PNG , caption = Design on the obverse side of the Saint Benedict Medal , abbreviation = OSB , formation = , motto = (English: 'Pray and Work') , foun ...
monastery of Holy Cross atop the
Łysa Góra Łysa Góra (''Bald Mountain''; also known as Łysiec or Święty Krzyż) is a well-known hill in Świętokrzyskie Mountains, Poland. With a height of 595 metres (1,952 ft), it is the second highest point in that range (after Łysica at 61 ...
which was founded in place of an ancient pagan temple. The first Abbot of this monastery, Boguchwał, wrote about the foundation and the Duke: :: ''The pious Duke Bolesław founded in Łysa Góra an Abbey dedicated to the Holy Trinity with monks of the Order of St. Benedict''. Stored documents from about 1427 (called the ''świętokrzyskie dokumenty pergaminowe'') confirm the history of the Bishop, adding that the co-founder of the monastery was the knight Wojsław. * The St. Giles-Church in Inowłódz was built in the Romanesque style. According to a modern plate inscription (presumably from the 17th century) this temple was built in 1082 by Władysław I Herman. However, modern research revealed that the foundation of the Church was probably during the 12th century (at the latest from 1138) and the founder was Bolesław. * The Collegiate Church of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Ostrów Tumski was founded thanks to the donations of Haymo, Bishop of Wrocław and ''comes'' Wojsław in 1120, following the reports of the 15th-century ''Rocznika głogowskiego''. Modern scholars believed that the founder was Bolesław (T. Lalik), or the foundation was made by Bishop Haymo and Wojsław with the consent of the Duke (H. Gerlic) or was a foundation made by Bishop Haymo and Bolesław (T. Jurek). In earlier studies of the history of Silesia existed the opinion that Bolesław founded the Collegiate as a gesture of gratitude for the loyalty and bravery of the people of Głogów and also as a way of penance for Zbigniew's blinding. * The Benedictine Abbey in
Tyniec Tyniec is a historic village in Poland on the Vistula river, since 1973 a part of the city of Kraków (currently in the district of Dębniki). Tyniec is notable for its Benedictine abbey founded by King Casimir the Restorer in 1044. Etymology ...
according to some hypotheses was also founded by Bolesław. In 1124 the Papal legate issued the confirmation of the goods received from the Abbey's estates. * The Abbey of Lubiń was restored during 1137–38 by Bolesław and the Awdaniec family. * The
Wawel Cathedral The Wawel Cathedral ( pl, Katedra Wawelska), formally titled the Royal Archcathedral Basilica of Saints Stanislaus and Wenceslaus, is a Roman Catholic cathedral situated on Wawel Hill in Kraków, Poland. Nearly 1000 years old, it is part of the ...
was completed during Bolesław's reign. In 1118 Bishop Maurus was buried there. * The Canons regular of St. Augustine in Trzemeszno was probably founded by Bolesław. Evidence of this was in a document issued by Mieszko III the Old in 1145. The connection of Bolesław and his second wife Salomea with the
Swabia Swabia ; german: Schwaben , colloquially ''Schwabenland'' or ''Ländle''; archaic English also Suabia or Svebia is a cultural, historic and linguistic region in southwestern Germany. The name is ultimately derived from the medieval Duchy of ...
n monastery of
Zwiefalten Zwiefalten is a municipality in the district of Reutlingen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany located halfway between Stuttgart and Lake Constance. The former Zwiefalten Abbey dominates the town. The former monastery is considered one of the finest exa ...
was well known. The detailed description of
Berthold of Zwiefalten Berthold of Zwiefalten (c. 1089 – 21 May 1169) was a German Benedictine monk who thrice served as abbot of Zwiefalten Abbey and wrote its early history. Berthold was born around 1089 in Württemberg,..the gold, the silver, and the tablecloths, and especially in the most numerous of any kind of valuable furs to this monastery more than seventy grzywna. Salomea, his wife, sent gold woven stole, two alb knitted silk and silver pitcher with four grzywna on the box of ivory studded with gold, to draw up the choir covers his red coat decorated with gold stripes, and another coat on for the Mass all interwoven gold, dissuaded gold stripes and bottom trimmed with red frames, which according to the custom of the people is decorated with golden stars, curtain wall, one with a silk frames, the other adorned with white lions and the third red in the white list, ..a hand from Saint Stephen the Martyr .. a large piece of the Holy Cross, a tooth from Saint John the Baptist, a tooth from Saint Pancras, a tooth of Saint Cecilia, some of the blood of Christ, milk of the Virgin Mary and a chain of Saint Peter. In addition, one hundred pounds of silver, one gold appliqué alb, a cross gold weighing more than four fine gold, a silver gilt chalice, a silver plated pitcher of nearly six fines, a stole embroidered with gold, together with a scarf, a belt, a dalmatic all woven of gold, with the value of fifty and more brands, one black tunic with gold appliqué, a scarf and a cloth interwoven with gold, which together can have a value of twenty grzywna, a curtain wall, knitted silk, one box of ivory, one beautiful crystal vessel, three horses, two ounces of gold, two coats, one of which ..ermine, a bishop's miter with gloves, on four fine and three coats of other goodies. The same source mentioned that the golden cross donated to the monastery was made by master Leopard, who worked for the Polish ruler during 1129–37. The Reliquary of 1113 is an example of the artistic development during Bolesław's rule; was made during the penitential journey to the tomb of Saint Adalbert in Gniezno Cathedral after the blinding of Zbigniew, according to the reports the Gallus Anonymous: :: The evidence of the great work of goldsmiths, Bolesław had made on a relic of the Saint, as a testimony to his devotion and penance. Half coffin contains in itself 80 grzywna, the purest gold, not counting the pearls and precious stones that probably matched the value of the gold. The Reliquary contained the head of Saint Adalbert. At the end of the 15th century it was melted in order to make a new one. According to the notes of 1494, it had the form of an octagonal shrine. The side walls have the shape of squares and were separated by small columns, which were based on the figures of saints or prophets. The monument was decorated with 8 pearls and 40 sapphires.


Polish historiography during Bolesław's reign

During his rule, Bolesław wanted the history of the
Piast dynasty The House of Piast was the first historical ruling dynasty of Poland. The first documented Polish monarch was Duke Mieszko I (c. 930–992). The Piasts' royal rule in Poland ended in 1370 with the death of king Casimir III the Great. Branch ...
to be written. This task was assigned to an unnamed Benedictine monk (who had been incorrectly named as Gallus Anonymous). Modern research, however, suggests that the monk was a Venetian. His ''Chronica Polonorum'', written in Latin, was made between 1112 and 1116. The history of the State (Latin: ''gesta ducum'') was made describing the fate of the rulers. The Chronicle covers the history from legendary times until 1114. Composed of three parts, this unfinished literary work justified the right of the Piasts to rule over Poland. The Chronicle also explain many controversial events that were placed under the responsibility of the rulers, and give a full explanation about their policy.P. Jasienica: ''Polska Piastów'', pp 133–136.


See also

*
Piast dynasty The House of Piast was the first historical ruling dynasty of Poland. The first documented Polish monarch was Duke Mieszko I (c. 930–992). The Piasts' royal rule in Poland ended in 1370 with the death of king Casimir III the Great. Branch ...
* History of Poland (966–1385)


Notes


References


Sources

* Gallus Anonymous: ''Cronicae et gesta ducum sive principum Polonorum'', Kraków 1923. * Wincenty Kadłubek: ''Kronika polska'', Wrocław 2003. * Cosmas of Prague: ''Kosmasa Kronika Czechów'', Warsaw 1968. * Jan Wikarjak (ed.): ''Pomorze Zachodnie w żywotach Ottona'', Warsaw 1979. * ''Полное собранiе русскихъ лѣтописей, изданное по Высочайшему повелѣнiю Археографическою Коммиссiею'', vol. 1, ''Лаврентiевская и Троицкая лѣтописи'', Санктпетербургъ 1846. * ''Полное собранiе русскихъ лѣтописей, изданное по Высочайшему повелѣнiю Археографическою Коммиссiею'', vol. 2, ''Ипатiевская лѣтопись'', Санктпетербургъ 1843. * ''Полное собранiе русскихъ лѣтописей, изданное по Высочайшему повелѣнiю Археографическою Коммиссiею'', vol. 7, ''Летопись по Воскресенскому списку'', Санктпетербургъ 1856.


Online sources

* Marcin Bielski
''Kronika polska'' (in Polish)
Kraków 1597, etrieved 28 July 2014 * August Bielowski (ed)
''Monumenta Poloniae Historica'' (in Polish)
vol. II, Lwów 1872, etrieved 28 July 2014 * Papal Bullbr>''Ex commisso nobis a Deo'' in: ''Codex diplomaticus majoris Polonia'' (in Latin)
vol. 1, nr 7, etrieved 28 July 2014 * Papal Bul
''Sacrosancta Romana'' in: ''Codex diplomaticus majoris Polonia'' (in Latin)
vol. 1, nr 6, etrieved 28 July 2014 * Gallus Anonymous
''Kronika polska'' (in Polish)
Wrocław 2003, etrieved 28 July 2014 *
Jan Długosz Jan Długosz (; 1 December 1415 – 19 May 1480), also known in Latin as Johannes Longinus, was a Polish priest, chronicler, diplomat, soldier, and secretary to Bishop Zbigniew Oleśnicki of Kraków. He is considered Poland's first histo ...

''Jana Długosza kanonika krakowskiego Dziejów polskich ksiąg dwanaście'' (in Polish)
vol. I, Kraków 1867, etrieved 28 July 2014 * G. H. Pertz
''Annales Magdeburgenses (Monumenta Germaniae Historica) (Monumenta Germaniae Historica)'' (in Latin)
vol. XVI, Hannover 1859, etrieved 1 July 2011 * G. H. Pertz
''Annalista Saxo w: Chronica et annales aevi Salici (Monumenta Germaniae Historica)'' (in Latin)
vol. VI, Hannover 1844, etrieved 28 July 2014 * Collective work
''Monumenta Poloniae Historica'' (in Polish)
(Polish historical monuments), vol. III, Lwów 1878, etrieved 28 July 2014


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External links


Map of the feudal dissolution
{{DEFAULTSORT:Boleslaw 3 Wrymouth 1086 births 1138 deaths 12th-century Polish monarchs 11th-century Polish people 12th-century Polish people Piast dynasty People temporarily excommunicated by the Catholic Church Burials at Płock Cathedral People of Byzantine descent People from Płock