![Bretagne historique 2](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Bretagne_historique_2.png)
Breton nationalism (
Breton
Breton most often refers to:
*anything associated with Brittany, and generally
** Breton people
** Breton language, a Southwestern Brittonic Celtic language of the Indo-European language family, spoken in Brittany
** Breton (horse), a breed
**Ga ...
: ''roadelouriezh Brezhoneg'',
French: ''nationalisme Breton'') is a form of
regional nationalism associated with the region of
Brittany
Brittany (; french: link=no, Bretagne ; br, Breizh, or ; Gallo language, Gallo: ''Bertaèyn'' ) is a peninsula, Historical region, historical country and cultural area in the west of modern France, covering the western part of what was known ...
in
France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
. The political aspirations of Breton nationalists include the desire to obtain the right to self-rule, whether within France or independently of it, and to acquire more power in the
European Union
The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of member states that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a total area of and an estimated total population of about 447million. The EU has often been des ...
,
United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and international security, security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be ...
and other international institutions.
Breton nationalism emerged in various forms over time, which nationalists consider to fall into phases known as "renovations" (''emsav''). The First ''Emsav'' was the birth of the modern Breton movement before 1914; the Second ''Emsav'' covers the period 1914-1945; and the Third ''Emsav'' for the postwar movements. Breton nationalism has an important cultural component which has long focused on the status of
Breton
Breton most often refers to:
*anything associated with Brittany, and generally
** Breton people
** Breton language, a Southwestern Brittonic Celtic language of the Indo-European language family, spoken in Brittany
** Breton (horse), a breed
**Ga ...
and
Gallo
Gallo may refer to:
*Related to Gaul:
** Gallo-Roman culture
**Gallo language, a regional language of France
**Gallo-Romance, a branch of Romance languages
**Gallo-Italic or Gallo-Italian language, a branch spoken in Northern Italy of the Romance ...
languages against perceived French
linguistic imperialism
Linguistic imperialism or language imperialism is occasionally defined as "the transfer of a dominant language to other people". This language "transfer" (or rather unilateral imposition) comes about because of imperialism. The transfer is consid ...
. Breton nationalists have also been interested in the region's
Celtic culture, music and symbols and occasionally professed forms of
Pan-Celticism
Pan-Celticism ( ga, Pan-Cheilteachas, Scottish Gaelic: ''Pan-Cheilteachas'', Breton: ''Pan-Keltaidd'', Welsh: ''Pan-Geltaidd,'' Cornish: ''Pan-Keltaidd,'' Manx: ''Pan-Cheltaghys''), also known as Celticism or Celtic nationalism is a politica ...
.
Positioning within the Breton movement
The academic
Michel Nicolas describes this political tendency of the Breton movement as "a doctrine putting forward the nation, in the state and non-state framework". According to him, the people belonging to this tendency can choose to present themselves as separatists or independentists, that is to say claiming the right to "any nation to a state, and if necessary must be able to separate to create one".
He thus opposes it to
regionalism which aims at it for a "administrative redeployment granting autonomy at regional level" (that is to say autonomist), and at the Breton federalism which seeks it to set up a federal organization of the territory.
History
Background
Prior to the expansion of the
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post-Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings around the Mediterr ...
into the region,
Gallic tribes had occupied the
Armorica
Armorica or Aremorica (Gaulish: ; br, Arvorig, ) is the name given in ancient times to the part of Gaul between the Seine and the Loire that includes the Brittany Peninsula, extending inland to an indeterminate point and down the Atlantic Coast ...
n peninsula, dividing it into five regions that then formed the basis for the Roman administration of the area, and which survived into the period of the Duchy. These Gallic tribes (termed the ''Armorici'' in Latin), had close relationships with the
Britonnes tribes in Roman Britain. Between the late 4th and the early 7th centuries, many of these Britonnes migrated to the Armorican peninsula, blending with the local people to form the later Britons, who eventually became the
Bretons
The Bretons (; br, Bretoned or ''Vretoned,'' ) are a Celts, Celtic ethnic group native to Brittany. They trace much of their heritage to groups of Common Brittonic, Brittonic speakers who emigrated from Dumnonia, southwestern Great Britain, par ...
. These migrations from Britain contributed to Brittany's name, while also shaping its ethnic and linguistic identity. Brittany was divided into small, warring kingdoms, each competing for resources. The Frankish
Carolingian Empire
The Carolingian Empire (800–888) was a large Frankish-dominated empire in western and central Europe during the Early Middle Ages. It was ruled by the Carolingian dynasty, which had ruled as kings of the Franks since 751 and as kings of the Lom ...
conquered the region during the 8th century, starting around 748 and taking the whole of Brittany by 799. In 831,
Louis the Pious
Louis the Pious (german: Ludwig der Fromme; french: Louis le Pieux; 16 April 778 – 20 June 840), also called the Fair, and the Debonaire, was King of the Franks and co-emperor with his father, Charlemagne, from 813. He was also King of Aqui ...
appointed
Nominoe
Nominoe or Nomenoe (french: Nominoë; br, Nevenoe; c. 800, 7 March 851) was the first Duke of Brittany from 846 to his death. He is the Breton ''pater patriae'' and to Breton nationalists he is known as ' ("father of the country").
...
, the Count of Vannes, as imperial
missus dominicus
A ''missus dominicus'' (plural ''missi dominici''), Latin for "envoy of the lord uler or ''palace inspector'', also known in Dutch as Zendgraaf (German: ''Sendgraf''), meaning "sent Graf", was an official commissioned by the Frankish king or Hol ...
for Brittany. The death of Louis, in 840, sparked a civil war that fragmented the realm, enabling Nominoe to assert his authority over the former March of Brittany. In 846, the ruler of
West Francia
In medieval history, West Francia (Medieval Latin: ) or the Kingdom of the West Franks () refers to the western part of the Frankish Empire established by Charlemagne. It represents the earliest stage of the Kingdom of France, lasting from about ...
,
Charles the Bald
Charles the Bald (french: Charles le Chauve; 13 June 823 – 6 October 877), also known as Charles II, was a 9th-century king of West Francia (843–877), king of Italy (875–877) and emperor of the Carolingian Empire (875–877). After a ser ...
, signed a peace treaty with Nominoe, recognizing him as the first
duke of Brittany
This is a list of rulers of the Duchy of Brittany. In different epochs the sovereigns of Brittany were kings, princes, and dukes. The Breton ruler was sometimes elected, sometimes attained the position by conquest or intrigue, or by hereditary r ...
.
Following his marriage to
Claude Claude may refer to:
__NOTOC__ People and fictional characters
* Claude (given name), a list of people and fictional characters
* Claude (surname), a list of people
* Claude Lorrain (c. 1600–1682), French landscape painter, draughtsman and etcher ...
, the Duchess of Brittany,
Francis I of France
Francis I (french: François Ier; frm, Francoys; 12 September 1494 – 31 March 1547) was King of France from 1515 until his death in 1547. He was the son of Charles, Count of Angoulême, and Louise of Savoy. He succeeded his first cousin once ...
secured the
Union of Brittany and France
The union of Brittany and France was a critical step in the formation of modern-day France. Brittany had been a semi-independent component of the Kingdom of France since Clovis I was given authority over the Gallo-Roman domain during the 5th c ...
. On 13 August 1532, the
Estates of Brittany
The Estates of Brittany was the States Provincial for the province of Brittany. It gathered members of the high clergy, a large number of nobles and delegates from the 42 towns and cities of Brittany. In 1788 it included nearly 1,000 nobles as opp ...
confirmed the arrangement by signing the Edict of Union. Upon the death of
Francis III, Duke of Brittany
Francis III ( br, Frañsez; french: François; 28 February 1518 – 10 August 1536) was Duke of Brittany and Dauphin of Viennois. He was the first son of King Francis I of France and Duchess Claude of Brittany.
Life
Francis I said of his son at ...
in 1536, the
Duchy of Brittany
The Duchy of Brittany ( br, Dugelezh Breizh, ; french: Duché de Bretagne) was a medieval feudal state that existed between approximately 939 and 1547. Its territory covered the northwestern peninsula of Europe, bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to ...
passed to
Dauphin Henry - later Henry II of France. Henry's status from 1547 as
king of France
France was ruled by monarchs from the establishment of the Kingdom of West Francia in 843 until the end of the Second French Empire in 1870, with several interruptions.
Classical French historiography usually regards Clovis I () as the first ...
meant that the duchy became merely a French province. Institutions such as the Breton Estates and
Parlement of Brittany
The Parliament of Brittany (, ) was one of the , a court of justice under the French , with its seat at Rennes. The last building to house the Parliament still stands and now houses the Rennes Court of Appeal, the natural successor of the Parlia ...
continued to resist Paris in matters of taxation until their dissolution at the end of the 18th century. Breton nationalism saw a revival following the 1839 publication of
Barzaz Breiz
''Barzaz Breiz'' (in modern spelling ''Barzhaz Breizh'', meaning "Ballads of Brittany": ''barzh'' is the equivalent of "bard" and ''Breizh'' means "Brittany") is a collection of Breton popular songs collected by Théodore Hersart de la Villemar ...
, a collection of traditional Breton folktales, songs and music.
Pitre-Chevalier's 1844 ''Histoire de la Bretagne'', followed in the same footsteps by highlighting a number of historical events as manifestations of Breton nationalism and aspirations of independence. Chevalier did not hesitate to distort the causes of revolts, such as the
Revolt of the papier timbré
The Revolt of the papier timbré was an anti-fiscal revolt in the west of Ancien Régime France, during the reign of Louis XIV from April to September 1675. It was fiercest in Lower Brittany, where it took on an anti-lordly tone and became know ...
, in order to promote his agenda. The end of the 19th century was marked by the disintegration of archaic Breton social and economic structures with a parallel drive for compulsory primary education. During the course of the latter, primary teachers were specifically instructed with the phasing out of minority languages. Early Breton nationalist organizations, such as
Association Brettone (founded in 1829), focused on issues such as the preservation of the
Breton language
Breton (, ; or in Morbihan) is a Southwestern Brittonic language of the Celtic language family spoken in Brittany, part of modern-day France. It is the only Celtic language still widely in use on the European mainland, albeit as a member of t ...
and administrative autonomy. By 1914, the Breton language had been embraced by the region's intellectuals through a literary revival; however, it failed to reach the masses.
Beginnings in the early 1910s
D'Ar Bobl to the Breton nationalist party
![Rennes; Cesson 042a](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Rennes%3B_Cesson_042a.jpg)
Several authors, cultural groups, or regionalist political groups, use the expression of "Breton nation" as from 19th century but without this one falls under
nationalist dimension. It is only at the beginning of the 20th century that a nationalist current in Brittany began to be constituted. Imitating the
French nationalism
French nationalism () usually manifests as cultural nationalism, promoting the cultural unity of France.
History
French nationalism emerged from its numerous wars with England, which involved the reconquest of the territories that made up Fra ...
of the time, they focused their speech on the defense of
Breton language
Breton (, ; or in Morbihan) is a Southwestern Brittonic language of the Celtic language family spoken in Brittany, part of modern-day France. It is the only Celtic language still widely in use on the European mainland, albeit as a member of t ...
and valorization of the
history of Brittany
The history of Brittany may refer to the entire history of the Armorican peninsula or only to the creation and development of a specifically Brythonic culture and state in the Early Middle Ages and the subsequent history of that state.
Pre ...
; however, it distinguished itself by seeking to legitimize its action by comparing themselves with those of other European minorities,
"Celts" in particular, like those of
Wales
Wales ( cy, Cymru ) is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It is bordered by England to the Wales–England border, east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, the Celtic Sea to the south west and the ...
and especially of
Ireland
Ireland ( ; ga, Éire ; Ulster Scots dialect, Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean, in Northwestern Europe, north-western Europe. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel (Grea ...
.
By the end of the 1900s, the journal ''
Ar Bobl'' of
Frañsez Jaffrennou began to spread ideas close to this ideology,
but 1911 is a key date for this current. The inauguration of a work by
Jean Boucher in a niche of the City Hall of Rennes, depicted the
Duchess
Duke is a male title either of a monarch ruling over a duchy, or of a member of royalty, or nobility. As rulers, dukes are ranked below emperors, kings, grand princes, grand dukes, and sovereign princes. As royalty or nobility, they are ranked ...
Anne of Brittany
Anne of Brittany (; 25/26 January 1477 – 9 January 1514) was reigning Duchess of Brittany from 1488 until her death, and Queen of France from 1491 to 1498 and from 1499 to her death. She is the only woman to have been queen consort of France ...
kneeling before the
King of France
France was ruled by monarchs from the establishment of the Kingdom of West Francia in 843 until the end of the Second French Empire in 1870, with several interruptions.
Classical French historiography usually regards Clovis I () as the first ...
Charles VIII, causing an opposition movement in the regionalist movements. An activist,
Camille Le Mercier d'Erm Camille Le Mercier d'Erm (1888 in Rennes - 1978 in Dinard) was a French poet, historian and Breton nationalist. He later adopted the neo-Bardic name Kammermor. He is also known as Kamil Ar Merser 'Erm, the Breton language form of his name. His wor ...
, disrupted the inauguration, and used her trial as a platform. This was the first public expression of a Breton nationalism. Following this event, a group of students in
Rennes
Rennes (; br, Roazhon ; Gallo: ''Resnn''; ) is a city in the east of Brittany in northwestern France at the confluence of the Ille and the Vilaine. Rennes is the prefecture of the region of Brittany, as well as the Ille-et-Vilaine department ...
founded the
Breton Nationalist Party
The Breton Nationalist Party (''Parti nationaliste breton'', or PNB) was a French political party that advocated independence for Brittany. It existed from 1911 to 1914.
Origins
It was founded in October 1911 under the patronage of a committee of ...
, which began with several members of the
Regionalist Federation of Brittany, with the aim of to break with the
regionalist ideas of this group. Among its first members were
Louis Napoleon Le Roux,
Aogust Bôcher, Pol Suliac, Joseph du Chauchix, Joseph Le Bras, Job Loyant,
but their numbers hardly went beyond the 13 members of the editorial board of ''
Breiz Dishual Breiz may refer to
Places
*Brittany, the English name for the French region called in the Breton language ''Breiz''
Publications
*'' Breiz Atao'' (Brittany for Ever), a Breton nationalist journal of the mid-twentieth century
*'' Breiz da Zont'' ( ...
''.
First strategic positioning
![Parti nationaliste breton - Breiz d'ar Vreiziz](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Parti_nationaliste_breton_-_Breiz_d%27ar_Vreiziz.jpg)
The group was at odds with
Breton regionalism, which it accused of ratifying a foreign influence, that of France, in Brittany. Seeking to apply the
principle of subsidiarity
Subsidiarity is a principle of social organization that holds that social and political issues should be dealt with at the most immediate or local level that is consistent with their resolution. The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' defines subsidi ...
, that is claiming a
decentralization
Decentralization or decentralisation is the process by which the activities of an organization, particularly those regarding planning and decision making, are distributed or delegated away from a central, authoritative location or group.
Conce ...
with a redistribution of powers, would be equivalent, according to the nationalists, to legitimizing a French domination. They opposed as much to
monarchists
Monarchism is the advocacy of the system of monarchy or monarchical rule. A monarchist is an individual who supports this form of government independently of any specific monarch, whereas one who supports a particular monarch is a royalist. ...
(in particular by maintaining controversy with the members of the
French Action), than to the Republicans by targeting
"black hussars of the republic", accused of pursuing a policy of linguistic repression. In 1912, ''
Breiz Dishual Breiz may refer to
Places
*Brittany, the English name for the French region called in the Breton language ''Breiz''
Publications
*'' Breiz Atao'' (Brittany for Ever), a Breton nationalist journal of the mid-twentieth century
*'' Breiz da Zont'' ( ...
'', the newspaper of the BNP, thus formulated for the first time this opposition towards the royalists and the republicans with the expression ''na ru na gwenn, Breizhad hepken'' (''"neither
red
Red is the color at the long wavelength end of the visible spectrum of light, next to orange and opposite violet. It has a dominant wavelength of approximately 625–740 nanometres. It is a primary color in the RGB color model and a secondar ...
nor
white
White is the lightest color and is achromatic (having no hue). It is the color of objects such as snow, chalk, and milk, and is the opposite of black. White objects fully reflect and scatter all the visible wavelengths of light. White on ...
, Breton only"''), picked up in the following decades by different trends. The nationalists thus refused to support certain circles such as the landed aristocracy or the urban bourgeoisie, considered to be compromised. It was also within this first group that the first Federalist ideas appeared from April 1914 in
Breiz Dishual Breiz may refer to
Places
*Brittany, the English name for the French region called in the Breton language ''Breiz''
Publications
*'' Breiz Atao'' (Brittany for Ever), a Breton nationalist journal of the mid-twentieth century
*'' Breiz da Zont'' ( ...
.
This current was also positioned face to face with events and international actors, especially in the
Pan-Celtic
Pan-Celticism ( ga, Pan-Cheilteachas, Scottish Gaelic: ''Pan-Cheilteachas'', Breton: ''Pan-Keltaidd'', Welsh: ''Pan-Geltaidd,'' Cornish: ''Pan-Keltaidd,'' Manx: ''Pan-Cheltaghys''), also known as Celticism or Celtic nationalism is a political ...
current. ''
Breiz Dishual Breiz may refer to
Places
*Brittany, the English name for the French region called in the Breton language ''Breiz''
Publications
*'' Breiz Atao'' (Brittany for Ever), a Breton nationalist journal of the mid-twentieth century
*'' Breiz da Zont'' ( ...
'', indicated from its first issue of July 1912 to want to take an example of the
Irish nationalists
Irish nationalism is a nationalist political movement which, in its broadest sense, asserts that the people of Ireland should govern Ireland as a sovereign state. Since the mid-19th century, Irish nationalism has largely taken the form of cu ...
methods. This comparison between the Breton and Irish situations of the time is not peculiar to the Breton nationalist movement, and is also found among outside observers, such as
Simon Südfeld for the liberal German newspaper ''
Vossische Zeitung
The (''Voss's Newspaper'') was a nationally-known Berlin newspaper that represented the interests of the liberal middle class. It was also generally regarded as Germany's national newspaper of record. In the Berlin press it held a special role d ...
'' in 1913. The Breton Nationalist Party as its newspaper
Breiz Dishual Breiz may refer to
Places
*Brittany, the English name for the French region called in the Breton language ''Breiz''
Publications
*'' Breiz Atao'' (Brittany for Ever), a Breton nationalist journal of the mid-twentieth century
*'' Breiz da Zont'' ( ...
, however, have only limited echoes in the Breton movement of the time, and his nationalism can only find a weak resonance. One of its founders, Louis Napoleon Le Roux, would play a role later to make the link between Breton nationalist currents and Irish. It was also inspired by other European examples such as
Hungary
Hungary ( hu, Magyarország ) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning of the Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Croatia a ...
,
Catalonia
Catalonia (; ca, Catalunya ; Aranese Occitan: ''Catalonha'' ; es, Cataluña ) is an autonomous community of Spain, designated as a ''nationality'' by its Statute of Autonomy.
Most of the territory (except the Val d'Aran) lies on the north ...
,
Norway
Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe, the mainland territory of which comprises the western and northernmost portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula. The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and t ...
, and the
Balkan States, and inscribed its reflection on a European scale.
The Breton Nationalist Party ceased to exist in 1914 on the outbreak of
World War I
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
in August that year. Its journal
Breiz Dishual Breiz may refer to
Places
*Brittany, the English name for the French region called in the Breton language ''Breiz''
Publications
*'' Breiz Atao'' (Brittany for Ever), a Breton nationalist journal of the mid-twentieth century
*'' Breiz da Zont'' ( ...
ceased publication at the same time.
Dynamism of the 1920s
Breton regional group at the Unvaniez Yaouankiz Vreiz
After the
World War I
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
, the nationalist current continued its existence, becoming one of the most dynamic components of the
Breton movement in the 1920s. The
Breton Regionalist Group was the first party created (September 1918) taking up this ideology, mixing elders of the Breton Nationalist Party as
Kamil Ar Merser 'Erm, and newcomers like
Olier Mordrel
Olier Mordrel (29 April 1901 – 25 October 1985) is the Breton language version of Olivier Mordrelle, a Breton nationalist and wartime collaborator with the Third Reich who founded the separatist Breton National Party. Before the war, he worked a ...
,
Frañsez Debauvais,
Yann Bricler
Yann is a French male given name, specifically, the Breton form of "Jean" (French for "John").
Notable persons with the name Yann include:
__NOTOC__
In arts and entertainment
*Yann Martel (born 1963), Canadian author
*Yann Moix (born 1968), Fre ...
, and
Morvan Marchal
Morvan Marchal (31 July 1900, Vitré, Ille-et-Vilaine – 13 August 1963, Paris), is the Breton name of Maurice Marchal, an architect and a militant Breton nationalist. He is best known for having designed the national flag of Brittany.
Bio ...
;
it was endowed as soon as January 1919 of a newspaper, ''
Breiz Atao'', to spread their ideas.
The adjective "regionalist" was preferred to that of "nationalist", on the one hand because the
French State of the time tolerated little separatist ideas, and secondly because it made it possible to forge links with the Breton bourgeoisie of the
Regionalist Federation of Brittany.
The ideology of the group was initially
and partially
in a "
Maurrasian movement",
but quickly moved into a nationalism more and more affirmed.
The
Breton Regionalist Group took the name of Unvaniez Yaouankiz Vreiz in May 1920, whose status indicated that it aimed at a "''return to national independent life''". ''Breiz Atao'' also evolved by taking as subtitle ''"monthly magazine of Breton nationalism"'' in January 1921, then that of "the Breton nation" in July of the same year.
Attempt, from Breton regionalism, to Alsatian autonomy, to Irish nationalism
The nationalists aimed at first not to support the Breton population, but on their economic circles. They intended to become the thinking head in this elitist process.
Frañsez Debauvais cites
René Johannet in this way in the ''Breiz Atao'' of April 1921.
They thus came into competition with the regionalism of the
Regionalist Federation of Brittany, and the relations between the two groups were therefore strained.
Antagonism was reinforced in 1920 when the BRF claimed the creation of a large western region encompassing
Poitou
Poitou (, , ; ; Poitevin: ''Poetou'') was a province of west-central France whose capital city was Poitiers. Both Poitou and Poitiers are named after the Pictones Gallic tribe.
Geography
The main historical cities are Poitiers (historical c ...
,
Anjou Anjou may refer to:
Geography and titles France
* County of Anjou, a historical county in France and predecessor of the Duchy of Anjou
**Count of Anjou, title of nobility
*Duchy of Anjou, a historical duchy and later a province of France
**Duk ...
,
Maine
Maine () is a state in the New England and Northeastern regions of the United States. It borders New Hampshire to the west, the Gulf of Maine to the southeast, and the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Quebec to the northeast and north ...
,
Cotentin
The Cotentin Peninsula (, ; nrf, Cotentîn ), also known as the Cherbourg Peninsula, is a peninsula in Normandy that forms part of the northwest coast of France. It extends north-westward into the English Channel, towards Great Britain. To its w ...
and
Brittany
Brittany (; french: link=no, Bretagne ; br, Breizh, or ; Gallo language, Gallo: ''Bertaèyn'' ) is a peninsula, Historical region, historical country and cultural area in the west of modern France, covering the western part of what was known ...
, provoked a unanimous rejection of other regionalist groups, as well as nationalists. From then on, the nationalists' discourse became profoundly anti-regionalist, accusing them of falling into "biniousery" and "bretonnerie".
![Colmar-Procès des autonomistes alsaciens-1928](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Colmar-Proc%C3%A8s_des_autonomistes_alsaciens-1928.jpg)
The nationalists also sought to get out of the French political markers of the time, left and right, and take up the slogan "na ru na gwenn, Breiziz hepken" already used by the first nationalists.
This positioning was reinforced by the fact that no French political party paid attention to the demands expressed by the regions. They also sought to emancipate themselves from the
Church
Church may refer to:
Religion
* Church (building), a building for Christian religious activities
* Church (congregation), a local congregation of a Christian denomination
* Church service, a formalized period of Christian communal worship
* Chris ...
and the clerical milieus from which the regionalists come, claiming a Celtic heritage, the Catholic religion was alienating to the
Bretons
The Bretons (; br, Bretoned or ''Vretoned,'' ) are a Celts, Celtic ethnic group native to Brittany. They trace much of their heritage to groups of Common Brittonic, Brittonic speakers who emigrated from Dumnonia, southwestern Great Britain, par ...
.
The Alsatian affair in 1926, during which the
Cartel des Gauches
The Cartel of the Left (french: Cartel des gauches, ) was the name of the governmental alliance between the Radical-Socialist Party, the socialist French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO), and other smaller left-republican parties that ...
tried to return to the
Concordat in Alsace-Moselle
The Concordat in Alsace-Moselle is the part of the local law in Alsace-Moselle relating to the official status accorded to certain religions in these territories.
This Concordat is a remnant of the Napoleonic Concordat of 1801. The 1801 Concordat ...
, caused an autonomist agitation in this region, and the Breton nationalists took support on this example to decide to form a political party.
The examples also came from abroad.
Ireland
Ireland ( ; ga, Éire ; Ulster Scots dialect, Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean, in Northwestern Europe, north-western Europe. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel (Grea ...
was the main center of attention since the end of the 1910s: ''
Home Rule movement
Home rule is government of a colony, dependent country, or region by its own citizens. It is thus the power of a part (administrative division) of a State (polity), state or an external dependent country to exercise such of the state's powers o ...
'',
then the
Irish declaration of independence
The Declaration of Independence ( ga, Forógra na Saoirse, french: link=no, Déclaration d'Indépendance) was a document adopted by Dáil Éireann, the revolutionary parliament of the Irish Republic, at its first meeting in the Mansion House, D ...
of 1919, and finally its
independence in 1921 strengthened the nationalists in the path of secession.
The attempt to establish a certain form of autonomy in
Wales
Wales ( cy, Cymru ) is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It is bordered by England to the Wales–England border, east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, the Celtic Sea to the south west and the ...
in 1922 was another landmark for this trend.
Marginalization and radicalization in the 1930s
Grouping within the Breton National Party
The
Breton National Party
The Breton National Party (French ''Parti National Breton'', Breton ''Strollad Broadel Breizh'') was a nationalist party in Brittany that existed from 1931 to 1944. The party was disbanded after the liberation of France in World War II, because o ...
was created in 1931 and recovered from the name ''Breiz Atao'' for its new magazine, after the
Breton Autonomist Party The Breton Autonomist Party (french: Parti Autonomiste Breton or PAB, br, Strollad Emrenerien Vreiz) was a political party which existed in Brittany from 1927 to 1931.
Origin
The party was created at the first congress of the nationalist journal ' ...
chose to rename its publication in
La Bretagne Fédérale.
Bringing together the nationalist current from the
Breton Autonomist Party The Breton Autonomist Party (french: Parti Autonomiste Breton or PAB, br, Strollad Emrenerien Vreiz) was a political party which existed in Brittany from 1927 to 1931.
Origin
The party was created at the first congress of the nationalist journal ' ...
, it counted at its first congress in
Landerneau
Landerneau (; br, Landerne, ) is a commune in the Finistère department of Brittany in north-western France.
It lies at the mouth of the Elorn River which divides the Breton provinces of Cornouaille and Léon, east of Brest. The name is from ...
on December 27, 1931 only 25 members.
It had only limited activity in its early years, although the
August 7, 1932 attacks in Rennes brought it some publicity, even some credibility in the media.
Its numbers are however limited, and in 1940 it could only count on about 300 militants.
Politically, it asserted the existence of a Breton
nation
A nation is a community of people formed on the basis of a combination of shared features such as language, history, ethnicity, culture and/or society. A nation is thus the collective identity of a group of people understood as defined by those ...
, and thus claimed the independence of this one. Claiming to be apolitical,
claiming "the sacred union of all Britons", it nevertheless expressed an
anti-communism
Anti-communism is political and ideological opposition to communism. Organized anti-communism developed after the 1917 October Revolution in the Russian Empire, and it reached global dimensions during the Cold War, when the United States and the ...
and a marked
anti-socialism
Criticism of socialism (also known as anti-socialism) is any critique of socialist models of economic organization and their feasibility as well as the political and social implications of adopting such a system. Some critiques are not directed ...
. The French political evolution of the time marginalized this trend. Leftist political groups showed great hostility towards it, and no support could be found within the
French Popular Front. The
French far-right
French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to France
** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents
** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with France ...
also fought any form of autonomism, and no alliance could be tied.
The year 1936 also marked a turning point in the attitude of the French authorities towards the autonomist movements which then become less conciliatory, and
Daladier's rise to power in 1938 strengthened the fight against these groups.
Daladier's decree-law of May 25, 1938 which reinstated the offense of opinion regarding national integrity affected several BNP militants, including its director
Debauvais who spent seven months in prison. On October 20, 1939, the BNP like other parties was banned and dissolved. Two of its executives,
Debeauvais and
Mordrel fled into Germany while other activists let themselves be mobilized. At the regional level, it was opposed from its inception to the War Sao party,
and federalists of the
Breton Federalist League
The Breton Federalist League (french: Ligue fédéraliste de Bretagne) was a short-lived Breton political party
A political party is an organization that coordinates candidates to compete in a particular country's elections. It is common f ...
mocked the SAGA program published by
Mordrel in 1933.
The geopolitical situation of the time offered to the Breton nationalist current an opening with the setting up in 1933 of
Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany (lit. "National Socialist State"), ' (lit. "Nazi State") for short; also ' (lit. "National Socialist Germany") (officially known as the German Reich from 1933 until 1943, and the Greater German Reich from 1943 to 1945) was ...
besides the
Rhine
), Surselva, Graubünden, Switzerland
, source1_coordinates=
, source1_elevation =
, source2 = Rein Posteriur/Hinterrhein
, source2_location = Paradies Glacier, Graubünden, Switzerland
, source2_coordinates=
, so ...
. Betting on a victory of
Germany
Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...
in case of war with
France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
,
it then developed an interested pacifist propaganda, calling for the neutrality of the Bretons in case of war involving France, or to refuse a "war for the
Czechs
The Czechs ( cs, Češi, ; singular Czech, masculine: ''Čech'' , singular feminine: ''Češka'' ), or the Czech people (), are a West Slavic ethnic group and a nation native to the Czech Republic in Central Europe, who share a common ancestry, c ...
". They sought to attract the goodwill of the German secret services, while some members of the BNP as Mordrel were already in contact with them.
From Pan-Celticism to racialism
Ideologically, the
Breton National Party
The Breton National Party (French ''Parti National Breton'', Breton ''Strollad Broadel Breizh'') was a nationalist party in Brittany that existed from 1931 to 1944. The party was disbanded after the liberation of France in World War II, because o ...
put the Breton national question before the social question, believing that it would be solved once independence was obtained.
Reactionary and right-wing in orientation, but capable of attracting left-wing personalities such as
Yann Sohier, it was dominated by a militant base from small Breton towns.
The "na gwenn na ruz" orientation continued to be used by the nationalist movement, and initially rejected the fascist/anti-fascist divide that was expressed at the time.
Pan-Celticism
Pan-Celticism ( ga, Pan-Cheilteachas, Scottish Gaelic: ''Pan-Cheilteachas'', Breton: ''Pan-Keltaidd'', Welsh: ''Pan-Geltaidd,'' Cornish: ''Pan-Keltaidd,'' Manx: ''Pan-Cheltaghys''), also known as Celticism or Celtic nationalism is a politica ...
continued to be used by nationalists, while the federalists abandoned this idea.
They stood out, however, from the regionalists who were also active in this area via the
Goursez Vreizh
Goursez Vreizh (officially Breudeuriezh Drouized, Barzhed hag Ovizion Breizh) is the national gorsedd of Brittany ("Breizh" in Breton). It often has delegates from the Welsh gorsedd and Gorsedh Kernow in Cornwall. The Breton organisation is itsel ...
, but whose actions the nationalists mocked. The Irish example continued to be celebrated by the Breton nationalists during the 1930s, notably in 1936 to mark the 20th anniversary of the
Easter Rising
The Easter Rising ( ga, Éirí Amach na Cásca), also known as the Easter Rebellion, was an armed insurrection in Ireland during Easter Week in April 1916. The Rising was launched by Irish republicans against British rule in Ireland with the a ...
. It served as an example for the creation of the armed group
Gwenn ha Du, modeled on the
Irish Republican Army
The Irish Republican Army (IRA) is a name used by various paramilitary organisations in Ireland throughout the 20th and 21st centuries. Organisations by this name have been dedicated to irredentism through Irish republicanism, the belief tha ...
.
In contrast, the actions of the Welsh nationalists led by
Saunders Lewis
Saunders Lewis (born John Saunders Lewis) (15 October 1893 – 1 September 1985) was a Welsh politician, poet, dramatist, Medievalist, and literary critic. He was a prominent Welsh nationalist, supporter of Welsh independence and was a co-found ...
, although welcomed, were considered too non-violent,
like those of the Scottish nationalists of the
Scottish National Party
The Scottish National Party (SNP; sco, Scots National Pairty, gd, Pàrtaidh Nàiseanta na h-Alba ) is a Scottish nationalist and social democratic political party in Scotland. The SNP supports and campaigns for Scottish independence from ...
. However, from 1937 this
Pan-Celticism
Pan-Celticism ( ga, Pan-Cheilteachas, Scottish Gaelic: ''Pan-Cheilteachas'', Breton: ''Pan-Keltaidd'', Welsh: ''Pan-Geltaidd,'' Cornish: ''Pan-Keltaidd,'' Manx: ''Pan-Cheltaghys''), also known as Celticism or Celtic nationalism is a politica ...
dimension among the nationalists seemed to fade against other international issues,
and these displayed orientations that were increasingly pro-Nazi.
An ultranationalist and overtly racist trend was also beginning to gain influence within the nationalist movement during this decade, on the sidelines of the
Breton National Party
The Breton National Party (French ''Parti National Breton'', Breton ''Strollad Broadel Breizh'') was a nationalist party in Brittany that existed from 1931 to 1944. The party was disbanded after the liberation of France in World War II, because o ...
, and sometimes outside it.
Olier Mordrel
Olier Mordrel (29 April 1901 – 25 October 1985) is the Breton language version of Olivier Mordrelle, a Breton nationalist and wartime collaborator with the Third Reich who founded the separatist Breton National Party. Before the war, he worked a ...
published in 1933 the "SAGA program" in the
Breiz Atao, advocating strong state and
corporate capitalism
In social science and economics, corporate capitalism is a capitalist marketplace characterized by the dominance of hierarchical and bureaucratic corporations.
Overview
A large proportion of the economy of the United States and its labour marke ...
, as well as exclusion of foreigners from public posts.
It published, from July 1934, the journal
Stur in which it elaborated a doctrine which served as an ideological base for the nationalists. It was openly racist, prefiguring a collaboration with the Nazi regime. Mordrel praised the
Italian fascist regime in 1935, leased the
Nazi German regime in 1936, and there advocated the purity of the race of "Nordic Breton type" in 1937. The same year at the congress of
Carhaix
Carhaix-Plouguer (; br, Karaez-Plougêr ), commonly known as just Carhaix (), is a Communes of France, commune in the Departments of France, French department of Finistère, region of Brittany (administrative region), Brittany, France. , the
BNP endorsed this ideological evolution.
In this perspective,
Pan-Celticism
Pan-Celticism ( ga, Pan-Cheilteachas, Scottish Gaelic: ''Pan-Cheilteachas'', Breton: ''Pan-Keltaidd'', Welsh: ''Pan-Geltaidd,'' Cornish: ''Pan-Keltaidd,'' Manx: ''Pan-Cheltaghys''), also known as Celticism or Celtic nationalism is a politica ...
continued to be used to make the link between "Celts" and "Germans" within the same "Nordic" community.
However these ideas at the time, only gathered a minority of militants.
World War II
During
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
, the organized political movement as a whole collapsed in the collaboration with the Nazi occupier and/or with the
Vichy regime
Vichy France (french: Régime de Vichy; 10 July 1940 – 9 August 1944), officially the French State ('), was the fascist French state headed by Marshal Philippe Pétain during World War II. Officially independent, but with half of its terr ...
The behavior of each other is the object of a
selective omission of war which always feeds polemics more than seventy years later: "In reality, at the Liberation, within the Breton movement, we minimize the collaboration, we create the myth of the wild
épuration"
The behavior of the Breton nationalists, which for some historians, harmed Breton culture:
Contemporary parties
*Contemporary political parties or movements holding Breton nationalist views are the
Unvaniezh Demokratel Breizh
Breton Democratic Union (french: Union démocratique bretonne, br, Unvaniezh Demokratel Breizh, UDB) is a Breton nationalism, Breton nationalist, autonomism, autonomist, and Regionalism (politics), regionalist political party in Brittany (admin ...
,
Breton Party,
Emgann
Emgann is a left-wing Breton nationalist movement in Brittany, France. Founded in 1982, it soon became one of the principal groups agitating for Breton independence. They describe themselves as a "Left-wing independentist movement" which "fights fo ...
,
Adsav,
Breizh Yaouank and
Breizhistance.
Opinion polling
According to an opinion poll conducted in 2013, 18% of Bretons support Breton independence. The poll also found that 37% would describe themselves as Breton first, while 48% would describe themselves as French first.
See also
*
Breton Revolutionary Army
The Breton Revolutionary Army (french: Armée Révolutionnaire Bretonne, ARB) is an illegal armed organization that is part of the Breton nationalism movement in the Brittany region of France.
History
Origins of the conflict
Until the end of th ...
*
Breton Liberation Front
The Breton Liberation Front ( br, Talbenn Dieubiñ Breizh, french: Front de Libération de la Bretagne or FLB) was a paramilitary organisation founded in 1963 whose aims were to seek greater autonomy for the region of Brittany (Breton language Brei ...
*
Bleimor (Scouting)
Bleimor ( Breton language for ''Seawolf''), more fully ''Urz Skaouted Bleimor'', was a Breton Scouting organization, taken from the pseudonym used by Breton poet Jean-Pierre Calloc'h, who died during World War I.
History
Bleimor was founded ...
*
Bonnets Rouges
*
Corsican nationalism
Corsican nationalism is a nationalist movement in Corsica that advocates more autonomy for the island, if not outright independence from France.
Political support
The main separatist party, Corsica Libera, achieved 9.85% of votes in the 2 ...
*
Occitan nationalism
Occitan nationalism is a social and political movement in Occitania. Nationalists seek self-determination, greater autonomy or the creation of a sovereign state of Occitania. The basis of nationalism is linguistic and cultural although curren ...
*
Pan-Celtism
Pan-Celticism ( ga, Pan-Cheilteachas, Scottish Gaelic: ''Pan-Cheilteachas'', Breton: ''Pan-Keltaidd'', Welsh: ''Pan-Geltaidd,'' Cornish: ''Pan-Keltaidd,'' Manx: ''Pan-Cheltaghys''), also known as Celticism or Celtic nationalism is a political ...
References
Bibliography
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
{{DEFAULTSORT:Breton Nationalism