The Brazilian Expeditionary Force ( pt, Força Expedicionária Brasileira, FEB), nicknamed Cobras Fumantes (literally "the Smoking Snakes"),
was a
military division
A division is a large military unit or formation, usually consisting of between 6,000 and 25,000 soldiers.
In most armies, a division is composed of several regiments or brigades; in turn, several divisions typically make up a corps. Historic ...
of the
Brazilian Army and
Air Force
An air force – in the broadest sense – is the national military branch that primarily conducts aerial warfare. More specifically, it is the branch of a nation's armed services that is responsible for aerial warfare as distinct from an a ...
that fought with
Allied
An alliance is a relationship among people, groups, or states that have joined together for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose, whether or not explicit agreement has been worked out among them. Members of an alliance are called ...
forces in the
Mediterranean Theatre of
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
. It numbered around 51,600 men, including a full
infantry
Infantry is a military specialization which engages in ground combat on foot. Infantry generally consists of light infantry, mountain infantry, motorized infantry & mechanized infantry, airborne infantry, air assault infantry, and marine i ...
division
Division or divider may refer to:
Mathematics
*Division (mathematics), the inverse of multiplication
*Division algorithm, a method for computing the result of mathematical division
Military
*Division (military), a formation typically consisting ...
,
liaison
Liaison means communication between two or more groups, or co-operation or working together.
Liaison or liaisons may refer to:
General usage
* Affair, an unfaithful sexual relationship
* Collaboration
* Co-operation
Arts and entertainment
* Li ...
flight
Flight or flying is the process by which an object moves through a space without contacting any planetary surface, either within an atmosphere (i.e. air flight or aviation) or through the vacuum of outer space (i.e. spaceflight). This can be a ...
, and
fighter squadron
Squadron may refer to:
* Squadron (army), a military unit of cavalry, tanks, or equivalent subdivided into troops or tank companies
* Squadron (aviation), a military unit that consists of three or four flights with a total of 12 to 24 aircraft, ...
.
[Ibidem Maximiano, Bonalume, Ricardo N. & Bujeiro, 2011.]
Placed under
United States command, Brazilian troops fought primarily in the
liberation of Italy from September 1944 to May 1945, while the
Brazilian Navy
)
, colors= Blue and white
, colors_label= Colors
, march= "Cisne Branco" ( en, "White Swan") (same name as training ship ''Cisne Branco''
, mascot=
, equipment= 1 multipurpose aircraft carrier7 submarines6 frigates2 corvettes4 amphibious warf ...
and Air Force participated in the
Battle of the Atlantic
The Battle of the Atlantic, the longest continuous military campaign in World War II, ran from 1939 to the defeat of Nazi Germany in 1945, covering a major part of the naval history of World War II. At its core was the Allied naval blockade ...
from mid-1942 until the end of the war.
The FEB operated mostly at the
platoon level, seeing heavy combat at the arduous
Gothic Line
The Gothic Line (german: Gotenstellung; it, Linea Gotica) was a German Defense line, defensive line of the Italian Campaign (World War II), Italian Campaign of World War II. It formed Generalfeldmarschall, Field Marshal Albert Kesselring's la ...
and during the
1945 final offensive. By the end of the war, it took 20,573 Axis
prisoners
A prisoner (also known as an inmate or detainee) is a person who is deprived of liberty against their will. This can be by confinement, captivity, or forcible restraint. The term applies particularly to serving a prison sentence in a prison.
...
, including two
generals
A general officer is an officer of high rank in the armies, and in some nations' air forces, space forces, and marines or naval infantry.
In some usages the term "general officer" refers to a rank above colonel."general, adj. and n.". OED O ...
and close to 900
officers
An officer is a person who has a position of authority in a hierarchical organization. The term derives from Old French ''oficier'' "officer, official" (early 14c., Modern French ''officier''), from Medieval Latin ''officiarius'' "an officer," f ...
. The division lost 948 men
killed in action across all three services.
Brazil was the only independent South American country to send combat troops overseas during the war.
Known for its tenacity and bravery, the FEB was well regarded by both allies and adversaries; it served with distinction in several battles, most notably at
Collecchio
Collecchio ( Parmigiano: ) is a town in the province of Parma, Emilia-Romagna, northern Italy. It is located by road southwest of the centre of Parma. A major food-producing area, it is home to multinational Italian dairy and food corporation Parm ...
, Camaiore, Monte Prano, and Serchio Valley.
Likewise, Brazil's navy and air force played important roles in protecting Allied shipping and crippling Axis maritime power, inflicting disproportionately high losses on enemy munitions, supplies, and infrastructure.
Overview
Brazil's participation in World War II on the
Allied
An alliance is a relationship among people, groups, or states that have joined together for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose, whether or not explicit agreement has been worked out among them. Members of an alliance are called ...
side was not a foregone conclusion. Although it had supported the
Triple Entente
The Triple Entente (from French '' entente'' meaning "friendship, understanding, agreement") describes the informal understanding between the Russian Empire, the French Third Republic, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland as well a ...
in
World War I
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
—as had now-Axis-aligned Japan and Romania—the country's
contribution to the war took place in its waning years and was primarily naval, although it also sent a small military mission to the
Western Front. In the years leading up to World War II, Brazil was the biggest non-European consumer of German products and ranked ninth among Germany's trading partners overall. It also hosted a large and influential German community that engendered closer ties to Germany.
As in 1914, Brazil in 1939 maintained a position of neutrality, initially trading with both Allied and
Axis countries
The Axis powers, ; it, Potenze dell'Asse ; ja, 枢軸国 ''Sūjikukoku'', group=nb originally called the Rome–Berlin Axis, was a military coalition that initiated World War II and fought against the Allies. Its principal members were ...
. As the war progressed, trade with the Axis became subject to British and U.S. diplomatic and economic pressure. These efforts included the creation of the
Joint Brazil-U.S. Defense Commission, chaired by
U.S. Army
The United States Army (USA) is the land service branch of the United States Armed Forces. It is one of the eight U.S. uniformed services, and is designated as the Army of the United States in the U.S. Constitution.Article II, section 2, cl ...
Major General
James Garesche Ord, which was broadly aimed at strengthening military ties between the countries; however, its central goal was to reduce the likelihood of Axis attacks on U.S. shipping across the Atlantic and minimize Axis influence in South America.
Although Brazil was officially neutral, it increasingly cooperated with the Allies, particularly the U.S., shortly after the latter entered
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
in December 1941. The
Pan American States Conference, which took place in
Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro ( , , ; literally 'River of January'), or simply Rio, is the capital of the state of the same name, Brazil's third-most populous state, and the second-most populous city in Brazil, after São Paulo. Listed by the GaWC as a b ...
from 15–28 January 1942, was convened in the wake of the U.S. declaration of war against the Axis powers. The meeting centered on U.S. offers of economic assistance to Latin America countries in return for security cooperation and the severing of diplomatic ties with
Axis members; Brazil consequently ended diplomatic relations with Germany, Japan, and Italy by the end of January.
Pursuant to the conference, Brazil permitted the U.S. to set up air bases on its territory in return for assistance in developing a domestic steel industry,
Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional
Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional (CSN) is the largest fully integrated steel producer in Brazil and one of the largest in Latin America in terms of crude steel production. , which would serve the American war effort and afterwards benefit the Brazilian economy. The bases were located in the north-central states of
Bahia
Bahia ( , , ; meaning "bay") is one of the 26 Federative units of Brazil, states of Brazil, located in the Northeast Region, Brazil, Northeast Region of the country. It is the fourth-largest Brazilian state by population (after São Paulo (sta ...
,
Pernambuco
Pernambuco () is a state of Brazil, located in the Northeast region of the country. With an estimated population of 9.6 million people as of 2020, making it seventh-most populous state of Brazil and with around 98,148 km², being the 19 ...
, and
Rio Grande do Norte
Rio Grande do Norte (, , ) is one of the states of Brazil. It is located in the northeastern region of the country, forming the northeasternmost tip of the South American continent. The name literally translates as "Great Northern River", ref ...
, where the city of
Natal
NATAL or Natal may refer to:
Places
* Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, a city in Brazil
* Natal, South Africa (disambiguation), a region in South Africa
** Natalia Republic, a former country (1839–1843)
** Colony of Natal, a former British colony ( ...
hosted part of the U.S. Navy's
VP-52
VPB-52 was a Patrol Bombing Squadron of the U.S. Navy. The squadron was established as Torpedo Squadron 3D15 (VT-3D15) on 12 July 1928, redesignated Patrol Squadron 3-S (VP-3S) on 21 January 1931, redesignated Patrol Squadron 3 Base Force (VP-3F) ...
bombing squadron, later becoming the largest overseas U.S. airbase. Brazil also hosted U.S. Task Force 3, which included a squadron equipped to attack submarines and merchant vessels attempting to trade with Japan.
Nevertheless,
unlike in 1917, the Brazilian government sought to avoid war and instead maintain economically beneficial ties with both sides. Notwithstanding its formal neutrality and reticence to declare war, Brazil's cooperation with the U.S. and break in diplomatic relations prompted immediate German reprisals. From the end of January to August 1942, German
U-boat
U-boats were naval submarines operated by Germany, particularly in the First and Second World Wars. Although at times they were efficient fleet weapons against enemy naval warships, they were most effectively used in an economic warfare role ...
s sank 18 Brazilian merchant vessels; the spate of attacks was especially severe after June 16, when Hitler personally called for a "submarine blitz" against Brazil, having considered its closer ties with the U.S. to be tantamount to an act of war. By mid-August, the Germans were targeting shipping closer to Brazil's coast; alone sank five Brazilian vessels in two days, causing more than 600 deaths:
:* On August 15, the ''
Baependi
Baependi is a Brazilian municipality located in the state of Minas Gerais.
Location
The population of Baependi as of 2020 was estimated to be 19,199 people living at an altitude of 893 meters. The area of the municipality is 751.748 km². ...
,'' traveling from
Salvador to
Recife
That it may shine on all ( Matthew 5:15)
, image_map = Brazil Pernambuco Recife location map.svg
, mapsize = 250px
, map_caption = Location in the state of Pernambuco
, pushpin_map = Brazil#South A ...
, was torpedoed at 19:12. Its 215 passengers and 55 crew members were lost.
:* Less than an hour later, ''U-507'' torpedoed the ''Araraquara'', also traveling from Salvador towards the north of the country. Of the 142 people on board, 131 died.
:* Seven hours after the second attack, the ''Anníbal Benévolo'' was attacked, killing all 83 passengers and all but four of its 71 crew.
:*On August 17, close to the city of
Vitória, the ''Itagiba'' was hit at 10:45, resulting in 36 deaths.
:*Another Brazilian ship, the ''Arará'', traveling from Salvador to
Santos, was targeted as it stopped to help the crippled ''Itagiba'', suffering 20 fatalities.
In all, 21 German and two Italian submarines sunk 36 Brazilian merchant ships, resulting in the deaths of nearly 2,000 people. The wave of August attacks proved to be a breaking point, especially since the victims included army soldiers and religious pilgrims. Brazil "erupted in a wave of revulsions" as anti-Axis demonstrations, some of them violent, spread across most major cities, including Rio de Janeiro. Protestors burned the flags of the Axis powers and chanted "We want war!"; in some cases, German communities were harassed. The passive position of the Vargas government proved untenable in the face of public opinion, and on August 22, within a week of the last U-boat attack, the Brazilian cabinet approved a declaration of war against the Axis nations.
Although Brazil continued to provide much needed supplies, war material, and strategic territory for foreign bases, the decision to contribute troops came several months later, at the
Potenji River Conference of 28 and 29 January 1943. Held in
Natal, Rio Grande do Norte aboard the , the meeting between U.S. President
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Franklin Delano Roosevelt (; ; January 30, 1882April 12, 1945), often referred to by his initials FDR, was an American politician and attorney who served as the 32nd president of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. As the ...
and
Getulio Vargas resulted in greater political, economic, and military cooperation between the U.S. and Brazil, including invitations for the latter to play a larger role in the postwar global order. Vargas and Foreign Minister
Oswaldo Aranha
Oswaldo Euclides de Sousa Aranha (, 15 February 1894 – 27 January 1960) was a Brazilian politician, diplomat and statesman, who came to national prominence in 1930 under Getúlio Vargas.
Considered a moderate by many in and outside of Brazil, ...
saw the commitment of soldiers as a means of solidifying the strategic partnership with the U.S., and of enhancing Brazilian prestige and influence on the global state.
Navy
The participation of the
Brazilian Navy
)
, colors= Blue and white
, colors_label= Colors
, march= "Cisne Branco" ( en, "White Swan") (same name as training ship ''Cisne Branco''
, mascot=
, equipment= 1 multipurpose aircraft carrier7 submarines6 frigates2 corvettes4 amphibious warf ...
in World War II was not directly connected to the FEB and the Italian Campaign, as it was largely engaged in the
Battle of the Atlantic
The Battle of the Atlantic, the longest continuous military campaign in World War II, ran from 1939 to the defeat of Nazi Germany in 1945, covering a major part of the naval history of World War II. At its core was the Allied naval blockade ...
. Axis naval attacks caused nearly 1,600 deaths, including almost 500 civilians, 470 sailors of the merchant marine, 570 sailors of the Navy; roughly one in seven Brazilian sailors would perish in the campaign. A total of 36 ships were sunk by the Germans, with an additional three lost (and 350 killed) in accidental sinkings.
The main task of the Brazilian Navy was, together with the Allies, to ensure the safety of ships sailing between the central and
south Atlantic
The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's five oceans, with an area of about . It covers approximately 20% of Earth's surface and about 29% of its water surface area. It is known to separate the " Old World" of Africa, Europe an ...
to
Gibraltar
)
, anthem = " God Save the King"
, song = " Gibraltar Anthem"
, image_map = Gibraltar location in Europe.svg
, map_alt = Location of Gibraltar in Europe
, map_caption = United Kingdom shown in pale green
, mapsize =
, image_map2 = Gib ...
. Alone or in coordination with Allied forces, it escorted 614
convoys
A convoy is a group of vehicles, typically motor vehicles or ships, traveling together for mutual support and protection. Often, a convoy is organized with armed defensive support and can help maintain cohesion within a unit. It may also be used ...
that protected 3,164 merchant and transport troop ship. In the battle against German submarines, Brazilian
frigates
A frigate () is a type of warship. In different eras, the roles and capabilities of ships classified as frigates have varied somewhat.
The name frigate in the 17th to early 18th centuries was given to any full-rigged ship built for speed and ...
and
submarines used
mines and
depth charges
A depth charge is an anti-submarine warfare (ASW) weapon. It is intended to destroy a submarine by being dropped into the water nearby and detonating, subjecting the target to a powerful and destructive hydraulic shock. Most depth charges use h ...
. According to German documents, the Brazilian Navy attacked German submarines a total of 66 times.
The Brazilian Navy is confirmed to have destroyed twelve Axis submarines along its coasts: the and the German
''U-128'',
''U-161'',
''U-164'',
''U-199'', ''U-507'',
''U-513'',
''U-590'',
''U-591'',
''U-598'',
''U-604'' and
''U-662''.
Among the warships lost by the Brazilian Navy were the
minelayer
A minelayer is any warship, submarine or military aircraft deploying explosive mines. Since World War I the term "minelayer" refers specifically to a naval ship used for deploying naval mines. "Mine planting" was the term for installing controll ...
BZ ''Camaqua'', which capsized during a storm while escorting a convoy in July 1944, and the light cruiser
BZ ''Bahia'' due to a gunnery accident; the majority of the latter's crew were lost. Of the three Brazilian military ships lost during the war, only the
freighter-
troopship
A troopship (also troop ship or troop transport or trooper) is a ship used to carry soldiers, either in peacetime or wartime. Troopships were often drafted from commercial shipping fleets, and were unable land troops directly on shore, typicall ...
''Vital de Oliveira'' was due to the action of an enemy submarine, being sunk by the
''U-861'' on July 20, 1944.
Brazilian fleet during World War II
Command
![Mascarenhas e Eisenhower](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Mascarenhas_e_Eisenhower.jpg)
The Brazilian 1st Division of the FEB was subordinate to the
Allied 15th Army Group under Field Marshal
Harold Alexander
Harold Rupert Leofric George Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis, (10 December 1891 – 16 June 1969) was a senior British Army officer who served with distinction in both the First and the Second World War and, afterwards, as Governor Ge ...
(later succeeded by General
Mark Clark), via the
US Fifth Army
The United States Army North (ARNORTH) is a formation of the United States Army. An Army Service Component Command (ASCC) subordinate to United States Northern Command (NORTHCOM), ARNORTH is the joint force land component of NORTHCOM. of Lieutenant General Mark Clark (later succeeded by Lieutenant General
Lucian Truscott
General Lucian King Truscott Jr. (January 9, 1895 – September 12, 1965) was a highly decorated senior United States Army officer, who saw distinguished active service during World War II. Between 1943–1945, he successively commanded the 3rd ...
) and the
US IV Corps
IV Corps was a corps-sized formation of the United States Army that saw service in both World War I and World War II.
World War I
The corps was first organized on 20 June 1918, during World War I as part of the American Expeditionary Forces. Un ...
of Major General
Willis D. Crittenberger. The entry for the
Gothic Line order of battle
Gothic Line order of battle is a listing of the significant formations that were involved in Operation Olive, the Allied offensive on the Gothic Line in northern Italy, August–September 1944, and in the subsequent fighting in the central Apennin ...
provides the layout for the Allied and German armies in Italy.
FEB headquarters functioned as an administrative headquarters and link to the Brazilian
high command under the secretary of war, General
Eurico Gaspar Dutra
Eurico Gaspar Dutra (; 18 May 1883 – 11 June 1974) was a Brazilian military leader and politician who served as the 16th president of Brazil from 1946 to 1951. He was the first President of the Fourth Brazilian Republic, which followed the ...
in Rio de Janeiro. General
Mascarenhas de Morais Mascarenhas may refer to:
* Mascarenhas (surname), people named Mascarenhas
* Mascarenhas (footballer), Domingos António da Silva (1937–2015), Angolan footballer
*Mascarenhas, a civil parish of Mirandela
Mirandela () is a city and a municipal ...
(later marshal) was the commander of the FEB, with General Zenóbio da Costa as chief of the 6th
Regimental Combat Team (RCT) of
Caçapava
Caçapava is a municipality in the state of São Paulo in Brazil. It is part of the Metropolitan Region of Vale do Paraíba e Litoral Norte.
Is between São José dos Campos 24 km and Taubaté 19 km.
The distance from Caçapava to Sã ...
(the first FEB RCT to land in Italy), and General Cordeiro de Farias as commander of artillery.
Theoretically, the FEB was organized as a standard U.S. infantry division of that time, complete in all aspects, down to its
logistical tail (including postal and banking services), although some of these, like its
health services, were found to be deficient and had to be complemented, and in many cases controlled or managed by Americans. Its combat units were, besides the aforementioned 6th RCT, the 1st RCT based in Rio de Janeiro, and the 11th from
São João del Rey
SAO or Sao may refer to:
Places
* Sao civilisation, in Middle Africa from 6th century BC to 16th century AD
* Sao, a town in Boussé Department, Burkina Faso
* Saco Transportation Center (station code SAO), a train station in Saco, Maine, U.S. ...
. Each RCT had about 5,000 men (corresponding in size to today
brigade
A brigade is a major tactical military formation that typically comprises three to six battalions plus supporting elements. It is roughly equivalent to an enlarged or reinforced regiment. Two or more brigades may constitute a division.
Br ...
s), divided in three then called "battalions" consisting of four
companies
A company, abbreviated as co., is a legal entity representing an association of people, whether natural, legal or a mixture of both, with a specific objective. Company members share a common purpose and unite to achieve specific, declared go ...
each, including
supporting units for combat, and
other army branches, like
artillery
Artillery is a class of heavy military ranged weapons that launch munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry firearms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach defensive walls and fortifications during siege ...
,
engineering
Engineering is the use of scientific method, scientific principles to design and build machines, structures, and other items, including bridges, tunnels, roads, vehicles, and buildings. The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad rang ...
, and
cavalry
Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from "cheval" meaning "horse") are soldiers or warriors who fight mounted on horseback. Cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms, operating as light cavalry ...
. The Brazilian Air Force Fighter squadron was itself under the Mediterranean Allied Tactical Air Force.
Campaign
Preparations
Soon after Brazil declared war on the Axis, it began a popular
mobilization
Mobilization is the act of assembling and readying military troops and supplies for war. The word ''mobilization'' was first used in a military context in the 1850s to describe the preparation of the Prussian Army. Mobilization theories and ...
for an expeditionary force to fight in Europe. At that time, Brazil was a country with a traditionally isolationist foreign policy. Its population was largely rural and illiterate, its economy focused on
export
An export in international trade is a good produced in one country that is sold into another country or a service provided in one country for a national or resident of another country. The seller of such goods or the service provider is an ...
ing
commodities
In economics, a commodity is an economic good, usually a resource, that has full or substantial fungibility: that is, the market treats instances of the good as equivalent or nearly so with no regard to who produced them.
The price of a comm ...
, and it lacked
infrastructure
Infrastructure is the set of facilities and systems that serve a country, city, or other area, and encompasses the services and facilities necessary for its economy, households and firms to function. Infrastructure is composed of public and priv ...
in
industry
Industry may refer to:
Economics
* Industry (economics), a generally categorized branch of economic activity
* Industry (manufacturing), a specific branch of economic activity, typically in factories with machinery
* The wider industrial sector ...
,
health care
Health care or healthcare is the improvement of health via the prevention, diagnosis, treatment, amelioration or cure of disease, illness, injury, and other physical and mental impairments in people. Health care is delivered by health profe ...
, and
education
Education is a purposeful activity directed at achieving certain aims, such as transmitting knowledge or fostering skills and character traits. These aims may include the development of understanding, rationality, kindness, and honesty. Va ...
, which was needed to support the
war effort
In politics and military planning, a war effort is a coordinated mobilization of society's resources—both industrial and human—towards the support of a military force. Depending on the militarization of the culture, the relative size ...
with material and human resources. Further, an action plan to circumvent these limitations (like the
Calogeras Plan of the previous World War) was out of the question because many Brazilian military officers believed that a Nazi-Fascist defeat in Europe would increase demands for democracy within Brazil. At the time, Brazil had a military regime. It had been openly authoritarian from 1937 and sympathetic to Nazi-fascist regimes until 1941. Brazil was thus precluded from pursuing a line of autonomous action in the conflict, and found it difficult to take even a modest role in it.
Faced with the government's passivity and unwillingness,
Assis Chateaubriand
Francisco de Assis Chateaubriand Bandeira de Melo (pronounced ), also nicknamed Chatô (October 4, 1892 – April 4, 1968), was a Brazilian lawyer, journalist, politician and diplomat. He was founder and director of the then main press chain o ...
, a mass media magnate, negotiated with US officials stationed in Brazil, for the creation of an expeditionary army division, composed of volunteers from all of
Latin America
Latin America or
* french: Amérique Latine, link=no
* ht, Amerik Latin, link=no
* pt, América Latina, link=no, name=a, sometimes referred to as LatAm is a large cultural region in the Americas where Romance languages — languages derived f ...
. This division would be financed by him, led by a Brazilian general, and trained by American officials. This initiative was curtailed by the Brazilian government in early 1943.
Almost two years later, Brazil officially entered the war and sent troops to the
European Theater of Operations
The European Theater of Operations, United States Army (ETOUSA) was a Theater of Operations responsible for directing United States Army operations throughout the European theatre of World War II, from 1942 to 1945. It commanded Army Ground For ...
. For comparison, the gap between the US's entrance and
Operation Torch
Operation Torch (8 November 1942 – Run for Tunis, 16 November 1942) was an Allies of World War II, Allied invasion of French North Africa during the Second World War. Torch was a compromise operation that met the British objective of secu ...
was almost one year. Several reasons contributed to the delay: political distrust between the Brazilian and American authorities, disagreements over the target size of the Brazilian Expeditionary Force, differences between Brazilian aspirations and American preferences for controlling the force, and disagreements on whether it should be fully trained and armed before boarding or get stationed behind the
Italian Front and train there;
In the end, the Brazilian government gathered a force of one
Army
An army (from Old French ''armee'', itself derived from the Latin verb ''armāre'', meaning "to arm", and related to the Latin noun ''arma'', meaning "arms" or "weapons"), ground force or land force is a fighting force that fights primarily on ...
Division
Division or divider may refer to:
Mathematics
*Division (mathematics), the inverse of multiplication
*Division algorithm, a method for computing the result of mathematical division
Military
*Division (military), a formation typically consisting ...
of 25,000 men (replacements included), compared with an initial declared goal of a whole Army
Corps
Corps (; plural ''corps'' ; from French , from the Latin "body") is a term used for several different kinds of organization. A military innovation by Napoleon I, the formation was first named as such in 1805. The size of a corps varies great ...
of 100,000, to join the Allies in the
Italian Campaign.
Arrival in Italy
![Massarosaw](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Massarosaw.jpg)
On July 2, 1944, the first 5,000 FEB soldiers, the 6th RCT, left Brazil for Europe aboard the
USS ''General Mann'', reaching
Naples, Italy
Naples (; it, Napoli ; nap, Napule ), from grc, Νεάπολις, Neápolis, lit=new city. is the regional capital of Campania and the third-largest city of Italy, after Rome and Milan, with a population of 909,048 within the city's adminis ...
on July 16. Lacking weapons, equipment, and even an arrangement for
barracks
Barracks are usually a group of long buildings built to house military personnel or laborers. The English word originates from the 17th century via French and Italian from an old Spanish word "barraca" ("soldier's tent"), but today barracks are u ...
, they remained on the docks while waiting to join the U.S. Task Force 45 on the docks. The poor planning and subsequent embarrassment aroused controversy in Brazilian media. In late July, two more
transport
Transport (in British English), or transportation (in American English), is the intentional movement of humans, animals, and goods from one location to another. Modes of transport include air, land (rail and road), water, cable, pipeline, an ...
s with Brazilian troops reached Italy, with three more following in September and November 1944, and February 1945. One notable unit deployed was Brazil's
Mountain Infantry Battalion.
The FEB dedicated its first weeks in Italy to acquiring the proper equipment to fight on Italian terrain, and to training under American command. The preparation in Brazil, despite the two years' interval since the declaration of war, had proved almost worthless. Among the veterans of that campaign, there was a consensus that only
combat
Combat ( French for ''fight'') is a purposeful violent conflict meant to physically harm or kill the opposition. Combat may be armed (using weapons) or unarmed ( not using weapons). Combat is sometimes resorted to as a method of self-defense, or ...
could adequately prepare the soldier, regardless of the quality of training received earlier. In August, the troops moved to
Tarquinia
Tarquinia (), formerly Corneto, is an old city in the province of Viterbo, Lazio, Central Italy, known chiefly for its ancient Etruscan tombs in the widespread necropoleis, or cemeteries, for which it was awarded UNESCO World Heritage status. ...
, 350 km north of
Naples
Naples (; it, Napoli ; nap, Napule ), from grc, Νεάπολις, Neápolis, lit=new city. is the regional capital of Campania and the third-largest city of Italy, after Rome and Milan, with a population of 909,048 within the city's adminis ...
, where Clark's army was based. In November, the FEB joined
General Crittenberger's
US IV Corps
IV Corps was a corps-sized formation of the United States Army that saw service in both World War I and World War II.
World War I
The corps was first organized on 20 June 1918, during World War I as part of the American Expeditionary Forces. Un ...
.
The Brazilians joined a
multinational hodgepodge of soldiers. American forces included the segregated African-American
92nd Infantry Division and the Japanese-American
442nd Infantry Regiment. British forces drew from across the empire, including
New Zealand
New Zealand ( mi, Aotearoa ) is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and over 700 smaller islands. It is the sixth-largest island count ...
,
Canada
Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...
,
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
,
Nepal
Nepal (; ne, नेपाल ), formerly the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal ( ne,
सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल ), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is mai ...
,
Mandatory Palestine
Mandatory Palestine ( ar, فلسطين الانتدابية '; he, פָּלֶשְׂתִּינָה (א״י) ', where "E.Y." indicates ''’Eretz Yiśrā’ēl'', the Land of Israel) was a geopolitical entity established between 1920 and 1948 ...
,
South Africa, Rhodesia, and various African colonies. Also under British command were soldiers from occupied countries such as
Poland
Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It is divided into 16 administrative provinces called voivodeships, covering an area of . Poland has a population of over 38 million and is the fifth-most populous ...
,
Greece
Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders with ...
, and Czechoslovakia, as well as anti-fascist Italians.
Free French forces
__NOTOC__
The French Liberation Army (french: Armée française de la Libération or AFL) was the reunified French Army that arose from the merging of the Armée d'Afrique with the prior Free French Forces (french: Forces françaises libres, l ...
included Senegalese,
Moroccans
Moroccans (, ) are the citizens and nationals of the Kingdom of Morocco. The country's population is predominantly composed of Arabs and Berbers (Amazigh). The term also applies more broadly to any people who are of Moroccan nationality, s ...
and
Algerians.
The Germans made much of the political aspect of Brazil's presence in Italy; propaganda was targeted specifically at Brazilians, in the form of leaflets and a Portuguese-language, hour-long daily radio broadcast from Berlin Radio called ''Hora AuriVerde'' (GoldenGreen Hour).
Combat
![Soldati brasiliani a Montese](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Soldati_brasiliani_a_Montese.jpg)
The FEB achieved battlefield successes at
Massarosa
Massarosa is a city and ''comune'' in the province of Lucca, Tuscany, Italy. The city is near Lucca and Pisa.
The city hosts Massarosa International Piano Competition.
Sister cities
Massarosa is twinned with:
* Gmina Łużna, Poland
* Tei ...
,
Camaiore
Camaiore is a city and ''comune'' of 32,513 inhabitants within the province of Lucca, Tuscany, central-western Italy. It stretches from the Apuan Alps to the east, to the plains and the coast of Versilia to the west.
History
Camaiore has Roman ori ...
, Mount Prano, Monte Acuto, San Quirico,
Gallicano
Gallicano is a ''comune'' (municipality) in the Province of Lucca in the Italian region Tuscany, located about northwest of Florence and about northwest of Lucca.
The municipality is located in Serchio Valley, on the right bank of the Serchio ...
,
Barga Barga may refer to:
People
* Barga Mongols in the early 20th century
Places
* Barga (department), Burkina Faso
* Barga, Tuscany
Barga is a medieval town and ''comune'' of the province of Lucca in Tuscany, central Italy. It is home to around 10, ...
,
Monte Castello, La Serra, Castelnuovo di
Vergato
Vergato (Bolognese dialect, Medial Mountain Bolognese: or ) is a ''comune'' (municipality) in the Metropolitan City of Bologna in the Italy, Italian region Emilia-Romagna, located about southwest of Bologna.
Vergato borders the following municip ...
, Soprassasso,
Montese
Montese ( Frignanese: ) is a town in the province of Modena, Emilia-Romagna, Italy.
During World War II, the town was liberated by Brazilian forces on 17 April 1945, after three days of battle against German forces.
There are neighborhoods in th ...
, Paravento,
Zocca
Zocca ( Frignanese: ) is a ''comune'' (municipality) in the Province of Modena in the Italian region Emilia-Romagna, located about southwest of Bologna and about south of Modena.
Zocca borders the following municipalities: Castel d'Aiano, ...
,
Marano sul Panaro
Marano sul Panaro ( Modenese: ) is a ''comune'' (municipality) in the Province of Modena in the Italian region Emilia-Romagna, located about west of Bologna and about south of Modena.
Marano sul Panaro borders the following municipalities: Cas ...
,
Collecchio
Collecchio ( Parmigiano: ) is a town in the province of Parma, Emilia-Romagna, northern Italy. It is located by road southwest of the centre of Parma. A major food-producing area, it is home to multinational Italian dairy and food corporation Parm ...
and
Fornovo di Taro
Fornovo di Taro ( egl, label=Parmigiano, Fornóv) is a ''comune'' (municipality) in the province of Parma, in the Italian region Emilia-Romagna, located about west of Bologna and about southwest of Parma. The town lies on the east bank of the Ta ...
.
![Roteiro da FEB na Campanha da Itália](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Roteiro_da_FEB_na_Campanha_da_It%C3%A1lia.jpg)
The first missions the Brazilians undertook in close connection with the
US 370th RCT, were
reconnaissance
In military operations, reconnaissance or scouting is the exploration of an area by military forces to obtain information about enemy forces, terrain, and other activities.
Examples of reconnaissance include patrolling by troops (skirmisher ...
operations to the end of August. Brazilian troops helped to partially fill the gap left by divisions of the
US VI Corps and
French Expeditionary Corps There have been several French Expeditionary Corps (French ''Corps expéditionnaire'' 'français'':
* Expeditionary Corps of the Orient 'Corps expéditionnaire d'Orient'', CEO(1915), during World War I
* Expeditionary Corps of the Dardanelles 'Co ...
that left Italy for
Operation Dragoon
Operation Dragoon (initially Operation Anvil) was the code name for the landing operation of the Allied invasion of Provence (Southern France) on 15August 1944. Despite initially designed to be executed in conjunction with Operation Overlord, th ...
, the invasion of southern France. On September 16, the 6th RCT took Massarosa. Two days later it also took Camaiore and other small towns on the way north. By then, the FEB had already conquered Monte Prano, and taken control of the
Serchio
The Serchio (; la, Auser) is the third longest river in the Italian region of Tuscany at , coming after the Arno at and the Ombrone, . By mean rate of flow, it is the second largest, smaller than Arno but larger than Ombrone.
The principal sou ...
valley without any major casualties. After having suffered its first reverses around
Barga Barga may refer to:
People
* Barga Mongols in the early 20th century
Places
* Barga (department), Burkina Faso
* Barga, Tuscany
Barga is a medieval town and ''comune'' of the province of Lucca in Tuscany, central Italy. It is home to around 10, ...
city, and after the arrival of the 1st RCT at the end of October, the FEB was directed to the base of the
northern Apennines, on the border between
Tuscany
Tuscany ( ; it, Toscana ) is a Regions of Italy, region in central Italy with an area of about and a population of about 3.8 million inhabitants. The regional capital is Florence (''Firenze'').
Tuscany is known for its landscapes, history, art ...
and
Emilia-Romagna
egl, Emigliàn (man) egl, Emiglièna (woman) rgn, Rumagnòl (man) rgn, Rumagnòla (woman) it, Emiliano (man) it, Emiliana (woman) or it, Romagnolo (man) it, Romagnola (woman)
, population_note =
, population_blank1_title ...
regions, where it would spend the next months facing the harsh winter and the resistance of the
Gothic Line
The Gothic Line (german: Gotenstellung; it, Linea Gotica) was a German Defense line, defensive line of the Italian Campaign (World War II), Italian Campaign of World War II. It formed Generalfeldmarschall, Field Marshal Albert Kesselring's la ...
. Allied forces were unable to break through the mountains over the winter and
an offensive by German and Italian divisions to the left of the FEB sector, against the US 92nd Infantry Division, required the assistance of the
8th Indian Infantry Division
The 8th Mountain Division was raised as the 8th Indian Infantry division of the British Indian Army. It is now part of the Indian Army and specialises in mountain warfare.
The 8th Indian Infantry Division was formed as an infantry division in ...
before it was repelled.
Between the end of February and the beginning of March 1945, in preparation for the
Spring offensive, the Brazilian Division and the
U.S. 10th Mountain Division were able to capture important positions in the northern Apennines (noteworthy in the Brazilian sector, for Monte Castello and Castelnuovo), which deprived the Germans of key artillery positions in the mountains, whose effective fire had since the fall of 1944 blocked the Allied path to
Bologna
Bologna (, , ; egl, label= Emilian, Bulåggna ; lat, Bononia) is the capital and largest city of the Emilia-Romagna region in Northern Italy. It is the seventh most populous city in Italy with about 400,000 inhabitants and 150 different nat ...
.
''Frankly, you Brazilians are either crazy or very brave. I never saw anyone advance against machine-guns and well-defended positions with such disregard for life ... You are devils'' — A German captain to a captured FEB lieutenant.
In the US Fifth Army's sector, the final offensive on the Italian Front began on 14 April, after a bombardment of 2,000 artillery pieces; an attack carried out by the troops of US IV Corps led by the Brazilian Division took Montese. After the first day of the Allied offensive, the Germans, without much effort, had stopped the main attack of IV Corps led by the US 10th Mountain Division, causing significant casualties among the troops of that formation. The Germans were misled into thinking that the FEB's raid over Montese, using
M8 armoured cars and
Sherman Tanks, could be the real main Allied objective in that sector, which led them to shell the Brazilians with 1,800 artillery rounds from the total of 2,800 used against all four Allied divisions in that sector during the days of the battle for Montese, when they tried unsuccessfully to take Montese back from the Brazilians. After that, the breaking of the Germans' lines to the north by forces of IV Corps became unavoidable. On the right, the
Polish Division, from the
British 8th Army
The Eighth Army was an Allied field army formation of the British Army during the Second World War, fighting in the North African and Italian campaigns. Units came from Australia, British India, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Free French Forces ...
, and the US
34th Infantry Division, from Fifth Army, entered Bologna on 21 April.
On 25 April the
Italian resistance movement
The Italian resistance movement (the ''Resistenza italiana'' and ''la Resistenza'') is an umbrella term for the Italian resistance groups who fought the occupying forces of Nazi Germany and the fascist collaborationists of the Italian Social ...
started a general partisan insurrection at the same time as Brazilian troops arrived at
Parma
Parma (; egl, Pärma, ) is a city in the northern Italian region of Emilia-Romagna known for its architecture, Giuseppe Verdi, music, art, prosciutto (ham), Parmigiano-Reggiano, cheese and surrounding countryside. With a population of 198,292 ...
and the Americans at
Modena
Modena (, , ; egl, label=Emilian language#Dialects, Modenese, Mòdna ; ett, Mutna; la, Mutina) is a city and ''comune'' (municipality) on the south side of the Po Valley, in the Province of Modena in the Emilia-Romagna region of northern I ...
and
Genoa
Genoa ( ; it, Genova ; lij, Zêna ). is the capital of the Italian region of Liguria and the List of cities in Italy, sixth-largest city in Italy. In 2015, 594,733 people lived within the city's administrative limits. As of the 2011 Italian ce ...
. The British 8th Army advanced towards
Venice
Venice ( ; it, Venezia ; vec, Venesia or ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto Regions of Italy, region. It is built on a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by over 400 ...
and
Trieste
Trieste ( , ; sl, Trst ; german: Triest ) is a city and seaport in northeastern Italy. It is the capital city, and largest city, of the autonomous region of Friuli Venezia Giulia, one of two autonomous regions which are not subdivided into provi ...
.
At the
Battle of Collecchio
The Battle of Collecchio-Fornovo (26–29 April 1945) was a battle of the Second World War between the Brazilian Expeditionary Force (''Força Expedicionária Brasileira'' – FEB), along with Italian partisans and units from the American 1st Ar ...
, Brazilian forces were preparing to face fierce resistance at the
Taro river
The Taro (Latin ''Tarus'') is a river in Emilia-Romagna, in northern Italy. It is a tributary of the Po and is long. It flows almost entirely in the province of Parma, west of the city Parma. The Taro flows into the Po near Gramignazzo, a fraz ...
region from the retreating German-Italian forces in the region of Genoa/La Spezia that had been set free by troops of the 92nd US Division. These Axis troops were
enveloped near
Fornovo and after some fighting
surrendered. On April 28, the Brazilians captured more than 13,000 men, including the entire
148th Infantry Division, elements of the
90th Panzergrenadier and the Italian
1st Bersaglieri "Italia" Division.
![General German Brazil](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/General_German_Brazil.png)
This took the German Command by surprise as it had planned for these troops to join forces with the German-Italian Army of Liguria to counterattack against the Fifth Army. Fifth Army had advanced, as is inevitable in these situations, in a fast but diffuse and disarranged way uncoordinated with air support, and had left some gaps on its left flank and to the rear. The Axis forces had left many bridges intact along the
Po River
The Po ( , ; la, Padus or ; Ligurian language (ancient), Ancient Ligurian: or ) is the longest river in Italy. It flows eastward across northern Italy starting from the Cottian Alps. The river's length is either or , if the Maira (river), Mair ...
to facilitate a counter-attack. German Army Command was already negotiating a truce in
Caserta
Caserta () is the capital of the province of Caserta in the Campania region of Italy. It is an important agricultural, commercial, and industrial ''comune'' and city. Caserta is located on the edge of the Campanian plain at the foot of the Camp ...
, and hoped that a counterattack would improve the conditions for surrender. The events in Fornovo disrupted the German plan, as much by the disarray of their troops as by the delay it caused. This, added to the news of
Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler (; 20 April 188930 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician who was dictator of Nazi Germany, Germany from 1933 until Death of Adolf Hitler, his death in 1945. Adolf Hitler's rise to power, He rose to power as the le ...
's death and the
taking of Berlin by the
Red Army
The Workers' and Peasants' Red Army (Russian: Рабо́че-крестья́нская Кра́сная армия),) often shortened to the Red Army, was the army and air force of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic and, after ...
, left the German Command in Italy with no option but to accept the demand for the unconditional surrender of its troops.
In their final advance, the Brazilians reached
Turin
Turin ( , Piedmontese language, Piedmontese: ; it, Torino ) is a city and an important business and cultural centre in Northern Italy. It is the capital city of Piedmont and of the Metropolitan City of Turin, and was the first Italian capital ...
and then on 2 May they joined up with French troops at
the border in
Susa
Susa ( ; Middle elx, 𒀸𒋗𒊺𒂗, translit=Šušen; Middle and Neo- elx, 𒋢𒋢𒌦, translit=Šušun; Neo-Elamite and Achaemenid elx, 𒀸𒋗𒐼𒀭, translit=Šušán; Achaemenid elx, 𒀸𒋗𒐼, translit=Šušá; fa, شوش ...
. That same day brought the announcement of the end of hostilities in Italy.
Air force
1st Fighter Squadron
![GAC P-47s of Brazil](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/GAC_P-47s_of_Brazil.jpg)
The
1st Fighter Aviation Group (1
oGAVCA, 1st Fighter Squadron/1º Grupo de Aviação de Caça) was formed on December 18, 1943. Its commanding Officer was Ten.-Cel.-Av. (Aviation Lieutenant Colonel) Nero Moura. The Squadron had 350 men, including 48
pilots
An aircraft pilot or aviator is a person who controls the flight of an aircraft by operating its directional flight controls. Some other aircrew members, such as navigators or flight engineers, are also considered aviators, because they a ...
. It was divided into four flights: Red ("A"), Yellow ("B"), Blue ("C"), and Green ("D"). Unlike the FEB's Army component, the 1
oGAVCA had personnel who were experienced
Brazilian Air Force
"Wings that protect the country"
, colours =
, colours_label =
, march = Hino dos Aviadores
, mascot =
, anniversaries = 22 May (anniver ...
(Portuguese: Força Aérea Brasileira, or FAB) pilots. One of them was Alberto M. Torres, who commanded the
PBY-5A Catalina
The Consolidated PBY Catalina is a flying boat and amphibious aircraft that was produced in the 1930s and 1940s. In Canadian service it was known as the Canso. It was one of the most widely used seaplanes of World War II. Catalinas served w ...
that had sunk (which had been operating off the Brazilian coast).
Among the 48 pilots of the Brazilian Unit who carried out war missions, there was a total of 22 losses; five of the pilots were killed by anti-aircraft fire, eight had their planes shot down and bailed out over enemy territory, six had to give up flying operations on medical orders and three died in flying accidents.
The squadron trained for combat at
U.S. bases in
Panama
Panama ( , ; es, link=no, Panamá ), officially the Republic of Panama ( es, República de Panamá), is a transcontinental country spanning the southern part of North America and the northern part of South America. It is bordered by Cos ...
, where 2
o Ten.-Av. (Aviation Second Lieutenant) Dante Isidoro Gastaldoni was killed in a training accident. On May 11, 1944, the squadron was declared operational and became active in the air defense of the Panama Canal Zone. On June 22, the 1
oGAVCA traveled to the US to convert to the
Republic P-47D Thunderbolt
The P-47 Thunderbolt was a World War II fighter aircraft built by Republic Aviation from 1941 to 1945.
Early designs
XP-47 (AP-10)
In response to a USAAC requirement for a new fighter aircraft, Republic Aviation engineer Alexander Kartveli p ...
.
![Distintivo da FEB 1 GC](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Distintivo_da_FEB_1_GC.PNG)
On September 19, 1944 the 1
oGAVCA left for Italy, arriving at Livorno on October 6.
Since the "Group" arrived at the front with the ''Minimum Limit Number'' of pilots for an
Air Group
A group is a military unit or a military formation that is most often associated with military aviation.
Air and aviation groups
The terms group and wing differ significantly from one country to another, as well as between different branches ...
, and there was no prediction of replacements arrival in a forthcoming future, it was attached as a Squadron at the
350th Fighter Group of the
USAAF
The United States Army Air Forces (USAAF or AAF) was the major land-based aerial warfare service component of the United States Army and ''de facto'' aerial warfare service branch of the United States during and immediately after World War II ...
, which in turn was part of the
62nd Fighter Wing of the
12th Air Force, into the
XXII Tactical Air Command
The XXII Tactical Air Command is an inactive United States Air Force unit. Its last assignment was with Twelfth Air Force, at Pomigliano Airfield, Italy, where it was inactivated on 4 October 1945.
The command was formed in the southeast Unite ...
.
[Ibidem Maximiano, Bonalume & Bujeiro 2011.]
The Brazilian pilots initially flew from 31 October 1944, as individual elements of flights attached to 350th FG squadrons, at first in affiliation flights and progressively taking part in more dangerous missions. Less than two weeks later, on November 11, the Brazilian ''Squadron'' started its own operations flying from its base at
Tarquinia
Tarquinia (), formerly Corneto, is an old city in the province of Viterbo, Lazio, Central Italy, known chiefly for its ancient Etruscan tombs in the widespread necropoleis, or cemeteries, for which it was awarded UNESCO World Heritage status. ...
, using its tactical
callsign
In broadcasting and radio communications, a call sign (also known as a call name or call letters—and historically as a call signal—or abbreviated as a call) is a unique identifier for a transmitter station. A call sign can be formally assigne ...
''Jambock''. Brazilian Air Force stars replaced the white U.S. star in the roundel on the FAB Thunderbolts. The 1
oGAVCA started its fighting career as a fighter-bomber unit, its missions being armed reconnaissance and
interdiction Interdiction is a military term for the act of delaying, disrupting, or destroying enemy forces or supplies en route to the battle area. A distinction is often made between strategic and tactical interdiction. The former refers to operations whose ...
, in support of the U.S. Fifth Army, to which the FEB was attached. On April 16, 1945, the
U.S. Fifth Army started its offensive along the
Po Valley
The Po Valley, Po Plain, Plain of the Po, or Padan Plain ( it, Pianura Padana , or ''Val Padana'') is a major geographical feature of Northern Italy. It extends approximately in an east-west direction, with an area of including its Venetic ex ...
. By then, the strength of the "Group" had fallen to the standard size of an air squadron: 23 pilots, since some had been killed, others shot down and captured, while others had been relieved from their duties on medical grounds due to wounds or combat fatigue.
On 22 April 1945, the three remaining flights took off at five-minute intervals, starting at 8:30 AM, to destroy bridges, barges, and motorized vehicles in the San Benedetto region. At 10:00 AM, a flight took off for an armed reconnaissance mission south of
Mantua
Mantua ( ; it, Mantova ; Lombard language, Lombard and la, Mantua) is a city and ''comune'' in Lombardy, Italy, and capital of the Province of Mantua, province of the same name.
In 2016, Mantua was designated as the Italian Capital of Culture ...
. They destroyed more than 80 German military vehicles, including tanks. By the end of the day, the Brazilian Squadron had flown 44 individual missions and destroyed a high number of vehicles and barges. On this day Brazilians flew the most sorties of the war; consequently, Brazil commemorates April 22 as 'Brazilian Fighter Arm' Day. The 1st Brazilian Fighter Squadron accomplished 445 missions, with a total of 2,546 flights and 5,465 hours of flight on active service. It destroyed 1,304 motor-vehicles, 13 railway wagons, 8 armoured cars, 25 railway and highway bridges and 31 fuel tanks and munition depots.
In all, the 1
oGAVCA flew a total of 445 missions, 2,550 individual sorties, and 5,465 combat flight hours, from November 11, 1944 to May 6, 1945. The XXII Tactical Air Command acknowledged the efficiency of the Brazilian Squadron by noting that although it flew only 5% of the total of missions carried out by all squadrons under its control, it accomplished a much higher percentage of the total destruction wrought:
* 85% of the ammunition depots
* 36% of the fuel depots
* 28% of the bridges (19% damaged)
* 15% of motor vehicles (13% damaged)
* 10% of horse-drawn vehicles (10% damaged)
Total of operations of the First Brazilian Fighter Squadron in the Italy Campaign:
On April 22, 1986, the 1st Fighter "Group" of the Brazilian Air Force was awarded the United States
Presidential Unit Citation for its actions in the Po Valley region of Italy in World War II.
1st Liaison & Observer Flight
In contrast to the 1st Fight Squadron, which was an Air Force unit that operated in support of the army, the 1st "Liaison & Observer Flight" (Portuguese acronym: ''E.L.O.'') was directly under the command of the FEB. Formed in late July 1944, the 1st ''E.L.O.'' consisted of reservist officers, namely Air Force pilots and Army
artillery observer
An artillery observer, artillery spotter or forward observer (FO) is responsible for directing artillery and mortar fire onto a target. It may be a ''forward air controller'' (FAC) for close air support (CAS) and spotter for naval gunfire su ...
s, who flew together aboard
Piper L-4H Cubs. This air unit accompanied the Brazilian division throughout its Italian campaign.
Aftermath
The FEB participated in the post-war occupation of
Piacenza
Piacenza (; egl, label= Piacentino, Piaṡëinsa ; ) is a city and in the Emilia-Romagna region of northern Italy, and the capital of the eponymous province. As of 2022, Piacenza is the ninth largest city in the region by population, with over ...
,
Lodi, and
Alessandria
Alessandria (; pms, Lissandria ) is a city and ''comune'' in Piedmont, Italy, and the capital of the Province of Alessandria. The city is sited on the alluvial plain between the Tanaro and the Bormida rivers, about east of Turin.
Alessandria ...
. U.S. leaders wished for Brazilian troops to take part in the Allied occupation of Europe, but in early June 1945, Brazil's secretary of war ordered that the unit be subordinate to the commander of the first military region in Rio de Janeiro; it was recalled to Brazil by the end of 1945 and, amid U.S. objections, was dissolved as a distinct military formation.
Hundreds of Brazilians who perished in the final offensive were buried in the
FEB cemetery in Pistoia. At the urging of Marshal
Mascarenhas de Moraes Mascarenhas may refer to:
*Mascarenhas (surname), people named Mascarenhas
*Mascarenhas (footballer), Domingos António da Silva (1937–2015), Angolan footballer
*Mascarenhas, a civil parish of Mirandela, Portugal
*Mascarenhas Islands
The Masc ...
, a new mausoleum was constructed in Rio de Janeiro for all military deaths in the war; in 1960, the cemetery was closed and the remains were officially interred with other Brazilian war dead in the new
National Monument to the Dead of World War II. Shortly afterward, a body was found remaining in the former cemetery, and the Brazilian government inaugurated a new
Tomb of the Unknown Soldier
A Tomb of the Unknown Soldier or Tomb of the Unknown Warrior is a monument dedicated to the services of an unknown soldier and to the common memories of all soldiers killed in war. Such tombs can be found in many nations and are usually high-prof ...
on the site in 1967.
Brazil's participation in World War II was more extensive than in any foreign conflict outside its region. Its main contribution was to the south Atlantic campaign, which was described by U.S. rear admiral
Samuel E. Morison
Samuel Eliot Morison (July 9, 1887 – May 15, 1976) was an American historian noted for his works of maritime history and American history that were both authoritative and popular. He received his Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1912, and tau ...
as decisive to Allied victory. However, sending a ground force overseas had more political and social visibility, elevating the country's global stature and evoking national pride. The FEB was one of about 30 Allied military formations (20 divisions and 10 brigades) on the Italian Front at that time. Although it played an important part in the sectors were it operated, Brazil's role was largely tactical, and it never had a major impact on a strategic level. Furthermore, the Italian Front became secondary for both sides after
the Normandy landings in June 1944 and the
invasion of southern France that August. Nevertheless, the FEB was viewed by contemporaries as a largely effective fighting force, which "completed all the missions confided to it and compared favorably with the American divisions of the Fourth Corps."
Nickname
![Pracinhas e Dilma](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Pracinhas_e_Dilma.jpg)
Due to the Brazilian regime's unwillingness to get more deeply involved in the Allied war effort, by early 1943 a popular saying was: "Mais provável uma cobra fumar um cachimbo, do que a FEB ir para a frente da luta" (literally: "It's more likely for a snake to smoke a pipe than for the FEB to go the front and fight").
[FEB's participation in World War II]
. Brazilian Army Retrieved July 31, 2007[Portuguese: ''Mais fácil uma cobra fumar um cachimbo, do que a FEB embarcar para o combate.''] Before the FEB entered combat, the expression "a cobra vai fumar" ("the snake will smoke") was often used in Brazil in a context similar to "
when pigs fly
The phrase "when pigs fly" (alternatively, "pigs might fly") is an adynaton—a figure of speech so hyperbolic that it describes an impossibility. The implication of such a phrase is that the circumstances in question (the adynaton, and the circ ...
"; soldiers in the division subsequently called themselves ''Cobras Fumantes'' (literally, ''Smoking Snakes'') and wore a shoulder patch depicting a green snake smoking a pipe. It was also common for Brazilian soldiers to write on their mortars, "A Cobra Está Fumando..." (literally: "The Snake Is Smoking..."). After the war the meaning was reversed, signifying that something will definitively happen and in a furious and aggressive way. With that second meaning the use of the expression "A Cobra Vai Fumar!" (literally: "The Snake Will Smoke!") has been retained in Brazilian Portuguese until the present.
See also
*
Atlantic naval campaign (World War II)
* ''
Brazil at War
''Brazil at War'' is a 1943 propaganda short documentary film produced by the Office of War Information and the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs.
The 9-minute-long film starts by showing Brazil's comparisons with the United St ...
'' – American propaganda film about the Brazilian contribution.
*
Battle of Monte Castello
The Battle of Monte Castello ( it, Battaglia del Monte Castello; german: Schlacht von Monte Castello; pt, Batalha de Monte Castello; part of Operation Encore) was an engagement that took place from 25 November 1944 to 21 February 1945 dur ...
*
Battle of Collecchio
The Battle of Collecchio-Fornovo (26–29 April 1945) was a battle of the Second World War between the Brazilian Expeditionary Force (''Força Expedicionária Brasileira'' – FEB), along with Italian partisans and units from the American 1st Ar ...
*
Brazil during World War I
During World War I (1914–1918), Brazil initially adopted a neutral position, in accordance with the Hague Convention, in an attempt to maintain the markets for its export products, mainly coffee, latex and industrial manufactured items. Howev ...
*
Elza Medeiros
Elza Cansanção Medeiros, popularly known as Major Elza (October 21, 1921 – December 8, 2009), was a Brazilian Army officer and World War II veteran. She was the highest-ranking female officer in the Brazilian Army with the rank of Major, ...
– a Brazilian major, she was the highest-ranking female officer in the FEB.
*
Max Wolff – A Brazilian war hero from the FEB.
Footnotes
Notes
Bibliography
* Barone, João. ''1942: O Brasil e sua guerra quase desconhecida (1942: Brazil and its almost forgotten war)'' (in Portuguese), Rio de Janeiro, 2013.
* Baumgardner, Randy W. ''10th Mountain Division''. Turner Publishing Company,
*
* Brooks, Thomas R. ''The War North of Rome (June 1944 – May 1945)''. Da Capo Press, 2003. .
* Buyers, John. ''História dos 350th fighter group da Força Aérea Americana'' (in Portuguese). UFAL-Universidade Federal de Alagoas, 2004. .
* Calikevstz, Viviane Regina. "'Categoria especial da sociedade': estudo do patrimônio cultural e da representatividade social da Força Expedicionária Brasileira – FEB" ('Special category of the society': a study of cultural heritage and social representativeness of the Brazilian Expeditionary Force - FEB) (in Portuguese) PhD thesis in Geography - State University of Ponta Grossa, PR, 2017
* Castro, Celso with Vitor Izecksohn and Hendrik Kraay. ''Nova História Militar Brasileira''. Chapters 13 & 14 (in Portuguese). FGV-Fundação Getúlio Vargas, 2004. .
* Clark, Mark Wayne
''Calculated Risk''
New York: Enigma Books, 1950, republished 2007. .
* Crittenberger, Willis D. ''The final campaign across Italy''; year of edition 1952. of 1997 reprint
* Edwards, Paul M. ''"Between the Lines of World War II: Twenty-One Remarkable People and Events"'' McFarland & Co. Inc. Publishers 2010 . Chapter 9 "The Smoking Cobras".
* Giannasi, Andrea. ''"Il Brasile in guerra; La partecipazione della Força Expedicionaria Brasileira alla Campagna d'Italia (1944–1945)"'' Prospettiva editrice (Civitavecchia-Roma) 2004.
* Heden, Karl E. ''Sunken Ships, World War II'' Branden Books, 2006.
* Maximiano, Cesar Campiani. ''Barbudos, Sujos & Fatigados; Soldados Brasileiros na II Guerra Mundial'' (Bearded, Dirty & Tired; Brazilian soldiers in World War II) (in Portuguese); Grua Livros, 2010. .
* Maximiano, Cesar. with Bonalume, Ricardo N. & Bujeiro, Ramiro
''Brazilian Expeditionary Force in World War II''
Osprey Publishing Ltd., 2011. (Print version).
* Moraes, Mascarenhas de., ''The Brazilian Expeditionary Force, By Its Commander'' US Government Printing Office, 1966. ASIN B000PIBXCG.
* Morais, Fernando. ''Chatô, o Rei do Brasil'' ('Chatô, The King of Brazil') (in Portuguese). Cia das Letras, 1994. .
* Morison, Samuel Eliot "History of United States Naval Operations in World War II: The Battle of the Atlantic; September 1939-May 1943" Little Brown, 1947.
* Lochery, Neill. ''Brazil: The Fortunes of War, War II and the Making of Modern Brazil'' Basic Books, 2014
* Neto, Ricardo Bonalume. ''A nossa Segunda Guerra: os brasileiros em combate, 1942-1945'' Expressão e Cultura, 1995.
* Ready, J. Lee. ''Forgotten Allies: The European Theatre, Volume I''. McFarland & Company, 1985. .
* Ready, J. Lee. ''Forgotten Allies: The Military Contribution of the Colonies, Exiled Governments and Lesser Powers to the Allied Victory in World War II''. McFarland & Company, 1985. .
* Rohwer, Jürgen. ''Axis submarine successes of World War Two: German, Italian, and Japanese submarine successes, 1939-1945'' Greenhill Books, 1999.
* Several authors; ''Depoimento de Oficiais da Reserva sobre a F.E.B.'' ("Testimony of Reserve Officers on Brazilian Expeditionary Division"), Editora Cobraci, 1949
* Several, James Lewis
''World War II: Battle of the Atlantic''
Kreactiva Editorial,
* Silva, Hélio. ''1942 Guerra no Continente'' (in Portuguese). Civilização Brasileira, 1972.
* Silva, Hélio. ''1944 o Brasil na Guerra'' (in Portuguese). Civilização Brasileira, 1974.
* ''The 350th Fighter Group in the Mediterranean Campaign, 2 November 1942 to 2 May 1945'' Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 2004. .
* Votaw, Homer C. (1950–51), ''The Brazilian Navy in World War II'' Published by U.S. Government Printing Office, 1950 on ''Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of US Congress, Volume 96, Part 8. Senate.'' And by ''Military Review, Volume XXX, Number X'', in 1951.
External links
An article about the formation and the contribution of the Brazil on Allied ''war effort''.
Portal da FEB
Website with histories, biographies, photos, videos, testimonials from veterans.
"Senta Pua!"
Official Blog of the'' 'FAB (Brazilian Air Force) about the participation of its ''1st Fighter Group'' in World War II.
{{Getúlio Vargas
Brazil in World War II
Expeditionary units and formations
Military history of Brazil
Military units and formations of World War II
Military units and formations of Brazil
Military units and formations established in 1943
Wars involving Brazil
Articles containing video clips
Expatriate military units and formations
Vargas Era
Military units and formations disestablished in 1945