The Braconidae are a family of

parasitoid In evolutionary ecology, a parasitoid is an organism that lives in close association with its host (biology), host at the host's expense, eventually resulting in the death of the host. Parasitoidism is one of six major evolutionarily stable str ...

wasp A wasp is any insect of the narrow-waisted suborder Apocrita of the order Hymenoptera which is neither a bee nor an ant; this excludes the broad-waisted sawflies (Symphyta), which look somewhat like wasps, but are in a separate suborder. Th ...

s. After the closely related Ichneumonidae, braconids make up the second-largest family in the order

Hymenoptera Hymenoptera is a large order (biology), order of insects, comprising the sawfly, sawflies, wasps, bees, and ants. Over 150,000 living species of Hymenoptera have been described, in addition to over 2,000 extinct ones. Many of the species are Par ...

, with about 17,000 recognized species and many thousands more undescribed. One analysis estimated a total between 30,000 and 50,000, and another provided a narrower estimate between 42,000 and 43,000 species.

Classification

The Braconidae are currently divided into about 47 subfamilies and over 1000 genera, which include '' Aerophilus'', '' Aleiodes'', ''

Apanteles ''Apanteles'' is a very large genus of Braconidae, braconid wasps, containing more than 600 described species found worldwide. There are no native species in New Zealand, and none have been recorded in the high arctic. See also * List of Apantel ...

'', '' Asobara'', '' Bracon'', ''

Cenocoelius ''Cenocoelius'' is a genus of hymenopteran insects belonging to the family Braconidae. Those species whose life history has been studied are all koinobiont parasitoids on wood-boring beetle larvae (mainly Cerambycidae and Curculionidae but somet ...

'', '' Chaenusa'', '' Chorebus'', ''

Cotesia ''Cotesia'' is a genus of braconid wasps first described by Peter Cameron in 1891. Some species parasitize caterpillars of species considered pests, and are used as biocontrol agents. ''Cotesia congregata'' parasitizes the tomato and the tobac ...

'', '' Dacnusa'', ''

Diachasma ''Diachasma'' is a genus of the Opiinae subfamily of insects and is characterized by the lack of a carapace-like metasoma and clypeal structures that other opiines share. Species Species include: *''Diachasma alloeum ''Diachasma alloeum'' i ...

'', ''

Microgaster ''Microgaster'' is a genus of braconid wasps in the family Braconidae. There are more than 100 described species in ''Microgaster'', found throughout most of the world. See also * List of Microgaster species These 104 species belong to the ge ...

'', ''

Opius ''Opius'' is a genus of wasps in the family Braconidae The Braconidae are a family of parasitoid wasps. After the closely related Ichneumonidae, braconids make up the second-largest family in the order Hymenoptera, with about 17,000 recognize ...

'', '' Parapanteles'', '' Phaenocarpa'', ''

Spathius ''Spathius'' is a genus of doryctine wasps. The larvae of this genus of wasps feed on beetle larvae. They act as controllers of the parasitic ''Hylurgopinus rufipes ''Hylurgopinus rufipes'', known as the native elm bark beetle, is a species o ...

'', and '' Syntretus.'' These fall into two major groups, informally called the cyclostomes and noncyclostomes. In cyclostome braconids, the labrum and the lower part of the clypeus are concave with respect to the upper clypeus and the dorsal margin of the mandibles. These groups may be

clade A clade (), also known as a monophyletic group or natural group, is a group of organisms that are monophyletic – that is, composed of a common ancestor and all its lineal descendants – on a phylogenetic tree. Rather than the English term, ...

s that diverged early in the evolution of braconids. Cyclostomes are

monophyletic In cladistics for a group of organisms, monophyly is the condition of being a clade—that is, a group of taxa composed only of a common ancestor (or more precisely an ancestral population) and all of its lineal descendants. Monophyletic gro ...

whereas noncyclostomes can be divided formally into microgastroids, sigalphoids, helconoids, and euphoroids.

Subfamilies

Acampsohelconinae The Acampsohelconinae are a subfamily of braconid parasitoid wasps. Extant members of this subfamily were previously included in the Helconinae, Blacinae, or Sigalphinae. The four genera included are †'' Acampsohelcon'', '' Afrocampsis'', ' ...

Agathidinae Agathidinae is a subfamily of braconid parasitoid wasps. Some species have been used in biological control programs. Description and distribution Agathidines are among the larger and more colorful braconids. Diurnal members of this subfamily ...

* Alysiinae * Amicrocentrinae *

Aphidiinae The Aphidiinae are a subfamily of tiny parasitoid wasps that use aphids as their hosts. Several species have been used in biological control programs of various aphids. Biology and distribution Aphidiines are koinobiont endoparasitoids of ad ...

Apozyginae ''Apozyx'' is a genus of braconid parasitic wasps with only one species, ''Apozyx penyai''. It is the only genus in the subfamily Apozyginae. This subfamily was originally proposed as a separate family by Mason in 1978. Description and distrib ...

* Betylobraconinae * Blacinae *

Brachistinae Brachistinae is a subfamily of braconid wasps in the family Braconidae. The genera of Brachistinae were formerly classified under the subfamily Blacinae, which became the tribe Blacini, and tribes Diospilini, Brulleiini and Brachistini of the s ...

Braconinae The Braconinae are a large subfamily of braconid parasitoid wasps with more than 2,000 described species.Wharton, Robert A.; Marsh, Paul M.; Sharkey, Michael J. (1997)''Manual of the New World Genera of the Family Braconidae (Hymenoptera)''(PDF) ...

* Cardiochilinae *

Cenocoeliinae The Cenocoeliinae are a subfamily of braconid parasitoid wasps. Description and distribution Cenocoeliines are medium-sized braconids (3-11 mm long) with relatively large heads. The metasoma is attached high above the hind legs on the propodeu ...

* Charmontinae *

Cheloninae The Cheloninae are a cosmopolitan subfamily of braconid parasitoid wasps. Description Most Cheloninae are small and uniformly colored. They have a characteristic metasomal carapace formed from the fusion of the first three tergites. Biology ...

Dirrhopinae ''Dirrhope'' is the only extant genus in the subfamily Dirrhopinae of braconid parasitoid wasps. ''Dirrope'' was included in the Microgastrinae until 1984. Specimens of this genus have been found fossilsed in amber dating from the Cretaceous pe ...

Doryctinae The Doryctinae or doryctine wasps are a large subfamily of braconid parasitic wasps (Braconidae). Numerous genera and species formerly unknown to science are being described every year. This subfamily is presumably part of a clade containing o ...

* Ecnomiinae *

Euphorinae The Euphorinae are a large subfamily of Braconidae parasitoid wasps. Some species have been used for biological pest control. They are sister group to the Meteorinae. Description and distribution Euphorines are small, usually dark colored ...

* Exothecinae * Gnamptodontinae *

Helconinae Helconinae is a subfamily of braconid wasps in the family Braconidae. This is a large subfamily with many changes to classification and included groups over the years. There are about 40 genera worldwide in this subfamily. Genera These three ge ...

* Histeromerinae *

Homolobinae The Homolobinae are a subfamily of braconid parasitoid wasps. The subfamily Charmontinae was previously included within Homolobinae as the tribe Charmontini. Description and distribution Homolobines are relatively large braconids, often rese ...

* Hormiinae *

Ichneutinae The Ichneutinae are a subfamily of braconid parasitoid wasps. Description and distribution Ichneutines are small to medium-sized, non-cyclostome braconids. They lack an occipital carina (ridge on the back of the head). They have a cosmopoli ...

* Khoikhoiiinae * Lysiterminae *

Macrocentrinae The Macrocentrinae are a subfamily of braconid parasitic wasps. Several species have been used in biological control programs. Description and distribution Macrocentrines are relatively large braconids, recognizable by the presence of small ...

* Masoninae * Maxfischeriinae * Mendesellinae *

Mesostoinae The Mesostoinae is a subfamily of wasps endemic to Australia.It contains four genera: * '' Andesipolis'' * '' Hydrangeocola'' * '' Mesostoa'' * '' Proavga'' The members of this family display sexual dimorphism, males are brachypterous, ...

* Meteorideinae *

Meteorinae Meteorinae is a subfamily of braconid parasitoid wasps. Several species have been used in biological control programs. The name for this group comes from the pupal stage, which, in species attacking Lepidopteran hosts, hangs suspended from a long ...

* Microgastrinae * Microtypinae * Miracinae * Neoneurinae *

Opiinae The Opiinae are a subfamily of braconid parasitoid wasps with over 1300 described species. Several species have been used in biocontrol programs against fruit flies and Agromyzidae flies. They are closely related to the Alysiinae. Description a ...

* Orgilinae * Pambolinae * Pselaphaninae *† Protorhyssalinae * Rhysipolinae * Rhyssalinae *

Rogadinae The Rogadinae are a large subfamily of braconid parasitoid wasps. Several Rogadinae species parasitize pest caterpillars and are important for naturally occurring biological control. Description and distribution Rogadinae are small wasps, us ...

*† Seneciobraconinae * Sigalphinae * Telengaiinae *

Trachypetinae Trachypetinae is a subfamily of the parasitic wasp family Braconidae. The family Trachypetidae was erected in 2020 for three rare Australian genera of large parasitoid In evolutionary ecology, a parasitoid is an organism that lives in close ...

* Vaepellinae * Xiphozelinae * Ypsistocerinae Aleiodes shakirae head

Morphology

The morphological variation among braconids is notable. They are often black-brown (sometimes with reddish markings), though some species exhibit striking coloration and patterns, being parts of Müllerian mimicry complexes. They have one or no recurrent veins, unlike other members of the other family in Ichneumonoidea ( Ichneumonidae), which usually have two. Wing venation patterns are otherwise highly variable. The antennae typically have 16 segments or more; the trochanters have two segments. Females often have long

ovipositor The ovipositor is a tube-like organ used by some animals, especially insects, for the laying of eggs. In insects, an ovipositor consists of a maximum of three pairs of appendages. The details and morphology of the ovipositor vary, but typical ...

s, an organ that largely varies interspecifically. This variation is closely related to the host species upon which the wasp deposits its egg. Species that parasitize microlepidopterans, for instance, have longer ovipositors, presumably to reach the caterpillar through layers of plant tissue. Some wasps also have long ovipositors to bypass caterpillar defense mechanisms such as spines or hairs, or to reach deeply-burrowed

Coleoptera Beetles are insects that form the order Coleoptera (), in the superorder Endopterygota. Their front pair of wings are hardened into wing-cases, elytra, distinguishing them from most other insects. The Coleoptera, with about 400,000 describ ...

larvae in tree trunks.

Life history

The larvae of most braconids are internal or external primary parasitoids of other

insect Insects (from Latin ') are pancrustacean hexapod invertebrates of the class Insecta. They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body ( head, thorax and abdomen), three pairs ...

s, especially the larval stages of

Diptera Flies are insects of the order Diptera, the name being derived from the Greek δι- ''di-'' "two", and πτερόν ''pteron'' "wing". Insects of this order use only a single pair of wings to fly, the hindwings having evolved into advanced ...

, and

Lepidoptera Lepidoptera ( ) is an order (biology), order of insects that includes butterfly, butterflies and moths (both are called lepidopterans). About 180,000 species of the Lepidoptera are described, in 126 Family (biology), families and 46 Taxonomic r ...

, but also some

hemimetabolous Hemimetabolism or hemimetaboly, also called incomplete metamorphosis and paurometabolism,McGavin, George C. ''Essential Entomology: An Order-by-Order Introduction''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. pp. 20. is the mode of development of certa ...

insects such as aphids,

Heteroptera The Heteroptera are a group of about 40,000 species of insects in the order Hemiptera. They are sometimes called "true bugs", though that name more commonly refers to the Hemiptera as a whole. "Typical bugs" might be used as a more unequivocal al ...

, or

Embiidina The order Embioptera, commonly known as webspinners or footspinners, are a small group of mostly tropical and subtropical insects, classified under the subclass Pterygota. The order has also been called Embiodea or Embiidina. More than 400 sp ...

. Most species kill their hosts, though some cause the hosts to become

sterile Sterile or sterility may refer to: *Asepsis, a state of being free from biological contaminants * Sterile (archaeology), a sediment deposit which contains no evidence of human activity *Sterilization (microbiology), any process that eliminates or ...

and less active. Parasitoidy on adult insects (particularly on Hemiptera and Coleoptera) also occurs. Members of two subfamilies, the

and

are known to form

gall Galls (from the Latin , 'oak-apple') or ''cecidia'' (from the Greek , anything gushing out) are a kind of swelling growth on the external tissues of plants, fungi, or animals. Plant galls are abnormal outgrowths of plant tissues, similar to be ...

s on plants. Braconids are often used as

biological pest control Biological control or biocontrol is a method of controlling pests, such as insects, mites, weeds, and plant diseases, using other organisms. It relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms, but typically also invo ...

agents, especially against aphids.

Examples of hosts

Thousands of species of insects are used as hosts by braconid wasps. A few notable examples are detailed here. Some species of braconids are parasitoids of ''

Ostrinia furnacalis ''Ostrinia furnacalis'' is a species of moth in the family Crambidae, the grass moths. It was described by Achille Guenée in 1854 and is known by the common name Asian corn borer since this species is found in Asia and feeds mainly on corn crop ...

'' (the Asian corn borer, a lepidopteran moth known for being a pest of

maize Maize ( ; ''Zea mays'' subsp. ''mays'', from es, maíz after tnq, mahiz), also known as corn (North American and Australian English), is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago. Th ...

in East Asia), the African sugarcane borer (a moth commonly found in sub-Saharan Africa), the butterfly '' Danaus chrysippus'' in

Ghana Ghana (; tw, Gaana, ee, Gana), officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It abuts the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, sharing borders with Ivory Coast in the west, Burkina Faso in the north, and To ...

, and '' Liriomyza trifolii'' (the American serpentine leafminer) and ''

Manduca quinquemaculata ''Manduca quinquemaculata'', the five-spotted hawkmoth, is a brown and gray hawk moth of the family Sphingidae. The caterpillar, often referred to as the tomato hornworm, can be a major pest in gardens; they get their name from a dark projection ...

'' (the tomato hornworm) in North America. Braconids often will prey on fruit fly larvae like ''

Anastrepha suspensa ''Anastrepha suspensa'', known as the Caribbean fruit fly, the Greater Antillean fruit fly, guava fruit fly, or the Caribfly, is a species of tephritid fruit fly. As the names suggest, these flies feed on and develop in a variety of fruits, prim ...

'' as well.

Polydnaviruses

Endoparasitoid In evolutionary ecology, a parasitoid is an organism that lives in close association with its host at the host's expense, eventually resulting in the death of the host. Parasitoidism is one of six major evolutionary strategies within parasitis ...

species often display elaborate physiological adaptations to enhance larval survival within the host, such as the co-option of

endosymbiotic virus An ''endosymbiont'' or ''endobiont'' is any organism that lives within the body or cells of another organism most often, though not always, in a mutualistic relationship. (The term endosymbiosis is from the Greek: ἔνδον ''endon'' "within ...

es for compromising host immune defenses. These

bracovirus ''Bracovirus'' is a genus of viruses, in the family ''Polydnaviridae''. Bracoviruses are an ancient symbiotic virus contained in parasitic braconid wasps that evolved off of the ''nudivirus'' about 190 million years ago and has been evolving at ...

es are often used by the wasps instead of, or in addition to, a venom cocktail. The DNA of the wasp actually contains portions that are the templates for the components of the viral particles and they are assembled in an organ in the female's abdomen known as the calyx. A 2009 study has traced the origins of these templates to a 100-million-year-old viral infection whose alterations to its host DNA provided the necessary basis for these virus-like "templates". These viruses suppress the immune system and allow the parasitoid to grow inside the host undetected. The exact function and evolutionary history of these viruses are unknown. Sequences of polydnavirus genes show the possibility that venom-like proteins are expressed inside the host caterpillar. Through the evolutionary history of being used by the wasps, these viruses apparently have become so modified, they appear unlike any other known viruses today. Because of this highly modified system of host immunosuppression, a high level of parasitoid-host specificity is not surprising.

Evolutionary history

The family seems to date from early

Cretaceous The Cretaceous ( ) is a geological period that lasted from about 145 to 66 million years ago (Mya). It is the third and final period of the Mesozoic Era, as well as the longest. At around 79 million years, it is the longest geological period of th ...

(provided that '' Eobracon'' is properly assigned to this family). It underwent extensive diversification from mid or late

to early

Cenozoic The Cenozoic ( ; ) is Earth's current geological era, representing the last 66million years of Earth's history. It is characterised by the dominance of mammals, birds and flowering plants, a cooling and drying climate, and the current configura ...

, correlating with the radiation of flowering plants and associated insect

herbivore A herbivore is an animal anatomically and physiologically adapted to eating plant material, for example foliage or marine algae, for the main component of its diet. As a result of their plant diet, herbivorous animals typically have mouthpart ...

s, the main hosts of braconids.

Differentiation from Ichneumonidae

Braconids are distinguished from their

sister group In phylogenetics, a sister group or sister taxon, also called an adelphotaxon, comprises the closest relative(s) of another given unit in an evolutionary tree. Definition The expression is most easily illustrated by a cladogram: Taxon A and t ...

Ichneumonidae by these character combinations. In Braconidae, vein 2m-cu of the forewing is absent except in the Chilean species '' Apozyx penyai'' – this vein is present in 95% of Ichneumonidae. Vein 1/Rs+M of the forewing is 85% present in Braconidae, but absent in all Ichneumonidae. Vein 1r-m of the hind wing is in 95% of Braconidae basal to the separation of R1 and Rs (it is opposite or apical in Ichneumonidae). In Braconidae, metasomal tergum 2 is fused with tergum 3, (secondarily flexible in Aphidiinae) – 90% of Ichneumonidae have a flexible suture.

Other characteristics

The species ''

Microplitis croceipes ''Microplitis croceipes'' is a braconid wasp native to the US state of Georgia. It is an important parasitoid of caterpillars, including those of major agricultural pests ''Helicoverpa zea'' (formerly called ''Heliothis zea'') and ''Heliothis vi ...

'' possesses an extremely accurate sense of smell and can be trained for use in

narcotics The term narcotic (, from ancient Greek ναρκῶ ''narkō'', "to make numb") originally referred medically to any psychoactive compound with numbing or paralyzing properties. In the United States, it has since become associated with opiates ...

and

explosives detection Explosive detection is a non-destructive inspection process to determine whether a container contains explosive material. Explosive detection is commonly used at airports, ports and for border control. Detection tools Colorimetrics & automated c ...

. At least some braconids appear to be very resistant to

ionizing radiation Ionizing radiation (or ionising radiation), including nuclear radiation, consists of subatomic particles or electromagnetic waves that have sufficient energy to ionize atoms or molecules by detaching electrons from them. Some particles can travel ...

. While a dose of 400 to 1000

rads RAD or Rad may refer to: People * Robert Anthony Rad Dougall (born 1951), South African former racing driver * Rad Hourani, Canadian fashion designer and artist * Nickname of Leonardus Rad Kortenhorst (1886–1963), Dutch politician * Radley Rad ...

can kill an average human, a dose of 180,000 rads was required to kill a braconid of genus '' Habrobracon'' in an experiment.Cockroaches and radiation.
ABC Science. February 23, 2006.

Gallery

File: Cotesia.melanoscela.-.lindsey.jpg, '' Cotesia melanoscela '' File: Aleiodes indiscretus wasp parasitizing gypsy moth caterpillar.jpg, '' Aleiodes indiscretus'' ovipositing in its host, a gypsy moth caterpillar File: Braconid parasitoid wasp Apanteles sp eggs & Lime Butterfly (Papilio demoleus) cat W IMG 2862.jpg, ''

'' sp. cocoons on ''

Papilio demoleus ''Papilio demoleus'' is a common and widespread swallowtail butterfly. The butterfly is also known as the lime butterfly, lemon butterfly, lime swallowtail, and chequered swallowtail. These common names refer to their host plants, which are usu ...

'' File: Braconidae - Microgastrinae wasp empty cocoons.JPG, Braconid wasp empty cocoons File:Aphis nerii parasitized.jpg, ''

Aphis nerii ''Aphis nerii'' is an aphid of the Family (biology), family Aphididae. Its common names include oleander aphid, milkweed aphid, sweet pepper aphid, and nerium aphid. Distribution The oleander aphid is widespread in regions with tropical and Med ...

'' parasitized by

, possibly ''

Lysiphlebus ''Lysiphlebus'' is a genus of wasps belonging to the family Braconidae. The genus has almost cosmopolitan distribution In biogeography, cosmopolitan distribution is the term for the range of a taxon that extends across all or most of the wor ...

''. File:Cotesia adult.jpg, ''

'' adult

References

External links

Braconidae.
Tree of Life.
Braconidae.
Encyclopedia of Life. * Sharkey, M. J. (2004)
Synopsis of the Agathidinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) of America north of Mexico.
''Proceedings of the Russian Entomological Society'' 75(1), 134–52. * Ghahari, H., et al
Bibliography of the family Braconidae (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonoidea) (1964–2003).
NNM Technical Bulletin 8. 2006. ISSN 1387-0211 * van Achterberg, C. and C. O'Toole. (1993)
Annotated catalogue of the types of Braconidae (Hymenoptera) in the Oxford University Museum.
'' Zoologische Verhandelingen'' 287(1) 1–43. * Species profiles from the

University of Florida The University of Florida (Florida or UF) is a public land-grant research university in Gainesville, Florida. It is a senior member of the State University System of Florida, traces its origins to 1853, and has operated continuously on its ...

Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences The University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (UF/IFAS) is a teaching, research and Extension scientific organization focused on agriculture and natural resources. It is a partnership of federal, state, and county governmen ...

: *
''Cotesia marginiventris''
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