''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of
Buddhist
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
traditions,
texts,
philosophies
Philosophical schools of thought and philosophical movements.
A
Absurdism -
Action, philosophy of -
Actual idealism -
Actualism -
Advaita Vedanta -
Aesthetic Realism -
Aesthetics -
African philosophy -
Afrocentrism -
Agential realism - ...
, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
(c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing branches of Buddhism (the other being
''Theravāda'' and
Vajrayana
Vajrayāna ( sa, वज्रयान, "thunderbolt vehicle", "diamond vehicle", or "indestructible vehicle"), along with Mantrayāna, Guhyamantrayāna, Tantrayāna, Secret Mantra, Tantric Buddhism, and Esoteric Buddhism, are names referring t ...
).
[Harvey (2013), p. 189.] Mahāyāna accepts the main scriptures and teachings of
early Buddhism The term Early Buddhism can refer to at least two distinct periods in the History of Buddhism, mostly in the History of Buddhism in India:
* Pre-sectarian Buddhism, which refers to the teachings and monastic organization and structure, founded by G ...
but also recognizes various doctrines and texts that are not accepted by Theravada Buddhism as original. These include the
Mahāyāna Sūtras and their emphasis on the ''bodhisattva'' path and
''Prajñāpāramitā''. ''
Vajrayāna
Vajrayāna ( sa, वज्रयान, "thunderbolt vehicle", "diamond vehicle", or "indestructible vehicle"), along with Mantrayāna, Guhyamantrayāna, Tantrayāna, Secret Mantra, Tantric Buddhism, and Esoteric Buddhism, are names referring t ...
'' or Mantra traditions are a subset of Mahāyāna, which make use of numerous
tantric methods considered to be faster and more powerful at achieving
Buddhahood
In Buddhism, Buddha (; Pali, Sanskrit: 𑀩𑀼𑀤𑁆𑀥, बुद्ध), "awakened one", is a title for those who are awake, and have attained nirvana and Buddhahood through their own efforts and insight, without a teacher to point out ...
by Vajrayānists.
"Mahāyāna" also refers to the path of the
bodhisattva
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood.
In the Early Buddhist schools ...
striving to become a fully awakened Buddha (''
samyaksaṃbuddha
In Buddhism, Buddha (; Pali, Sanskrit: 𑀩𑀼𑀤𑁆𑀥, बुद्ध), "awakened one", is a title for those who are awake, and have attained nirvana and Buddhahood through their own efforts and insight, without a teacher to point ou ...
'') for the benefit of all sentient beings, and is thus also called the "Bodhisattva Vehicle" (''Bodhisattvayāna'').
[ Damien Keown (2003), ]
A Dictionary of Buddhism
', Oxford University Press
Oxford University Press (OUP) is the university press of the University of Oxford. It is the largest university press in the world, and its printing history dates back to the 1480s. Having been officially granted the legal right to print books ...
, p. 38 Mahāyāna Buddhism generally sees the goal of becoming a Buddha through the bodhisattva path as being available to all and sees the state of the
arhat
In Buddhism, an ''arhat'' (Sanskrit: अर्हत्) or ''arahant'' (Pali: अरहन्त्, 𑀅𑀭𑀳𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁆) is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved ''Nirvana'' and liberated ...
as incomplete. Mahāyāna also includes numerous Buddhas and bodhisattvas that are not found in Theravada (such as ''
Amitābha
Amitābha ( sa, अमिताभ, IPA: ), also known as Amitāyus, is the primary Buddha of Pure Land Buddhism. In Vajrayana Buddhism, he is known for his longevity, discernment, pure perception, purification of aggregates, and deep awarene ...
'' and
Vairocana
Vairocana (also Mahāvairocana, sa, वैरोचन) is a cosmic buddha from Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism. Vairocana is often interpreted, in texts like the ''Avatamsaka Sutra'', as the dharmakāya of the historical Gautama Buddha. In East ...
).
Mahāyāna Buddhist philosophy also promotes unique theories, such as the
Madhyamaka
Mādhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as Śūnyavāda ("the emptiness doctrine") and Niḥsvabhāvavāda ("the no ''svabhāva'' doctrine"), refers to a tradition of Buddhist ...
theory of emptiness (''
śūnyatā
''Śūnyatā'' ( sa, शून्यता, śūnyatā; pi, suññatā; ), translated most often as ''emptiness'', ''vacuity'', and sometimes ''voidness'', is an Indian philosophical concept. Within Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and other p ...
''), the ''
Vijñānavāda'' doctrine, and the ''
Buddha-nature
Buddha-nature refers to several related Mahayana Buddhist terms, including '' tathata'' ("suchness") but most notably ''tathāgatagarbha'' and ''buddhadhātu''. ''Tathāgatagarbha'' means "the womb" or "embryo" (''garbha'') of the "thus-gone ...
'' teaching.
Although it was initially a small movement in India, Mahāyāna eventually grew to become an influential force in
Indian Buddhism
Buddhism is an ancient Indian religion, which arose in and around the ancient Kingdom of Magadha (now in Bihar, India), and is based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha who was deemed a "Buddha" ("Awakened One"), although Buddhist doctri ...
.
Large scholastic centers associated with Mahāyāna such as
Nalanda
Nalanda (, ) was a renowned ''mahavihara'' (Buddhist monastic university) in ancient Magadha (modern-day Bihar), India.[Vikramashila
Vikramashila (Sanskrit: विक्रमशिला, IAST: , Bengali:- বিক্রমশিলা, Romanisation:- Bikrômôśilā ) was one of the three most important Buddhist monasteries in India during the Pala Empire, along with N ...]
, thrived between the seventh and twelfth centuries.
In the course of its history, Mahāyāna Buddhism spread throughout
South Asia
South Asia is the southern subregion of Asia, which is defined in both geographical and ethno-cultural terms. The region consists of the countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.;;;;;;;; ...
,
Central Asia
Central Asia, also known as Middle Asia, is a subregion, region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes t ...
,
East Asia
East Asia is the eastern region of Asia, which is defined in both geographical and ethno-cultural terms. The modern states of East Asia include China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan. China, North Korea, South Korea and ...
, and
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, south-eastern region of Asia, consistin ...
. It remains influential today in
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
,
Mongolia
Mongolia; Mongolian script: , , ; lit. "Mongol Nation" or "State of Mongolia" () is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south. It covers an area of , with a population of just 3.3 million, ...
,
Hong Kong
Hong Kong ( (US) or (UK); , ), officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China ( abbr. Hong Kong SAR or HKSAR), is a city and special administrative region of China on the eastern Pearl River Delt ...
,
Korea
Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...
,
Japan
Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
,
Singapore
Singapore (), officially the Republic of Singapore, is a sovereign island country and city-state in maritime Southeast Asia. It lies about one degree of latitude () north of the equator, off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, borde ...
,
Vietnam
Vietnam or Viet Nam ( vi, Việt Nam, ), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam,., group="n" is a country in Southeast Asia, at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of and population of 96 million, making i ...
, the
Philippines
The Philippines (; fil, Pilipinas, links=no), officially the Republic of the Philippines ( fil, Republika ng Pilipinas, links=no),
* bik, Republika kan Filipinas
* ceb, Republika sa Pilipinas
* cbk, República de Filipinas
* hil, Republ ...
,
Nepal
Nepal (; ne, नेपाल ), formerly the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal ( ne,
सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल ), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is mai ...
,
Malaysia
Malaysia ( ; ) is a country in Southeast Asia. The federation, federal constitutional monarchy consists of States and federal territories of Malaysia, thirteen states and three federal territories, separated by the South China Sea into two r ...
,
Taiwan
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the nort ...
, and
Bhutan
Bhutan (; dz, འབྲུག་ཡུལ་, Druk Yul ), officially the Kingdom of Bhutan,), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is situated in the Eastern Himalayas, between China in the north and India in the south. A mountainous ...
.
The Mahāyāna tradition is the largest major tradition of Buddhism existing today (with 53% of Buddhists belonging to
East Asian Mahāyāna and 6% to Vajrayāna), compared to 36% for Theravada (survey from 2010).
Etymology
Original Sanskrit
According to
Jan Nattier
Jan Nattier is an American scholar of Mahāyana Buddhism.
Early life and education
She earned her PhD in Inner Asian and Altaic Studies from Harvard University (1988), and subsequently taught at the University of Hawaii (1988-1990), Stanford Unive ...
, the term ''Mahāyāna'' ("Great Vehicle") was originally an honorary synonym for ''Bodhisattvayāna'' ("
Bodhisattva
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood.
In the Early Buddhist schools ...
Vehicle"),
[Nattier, Jan (2003), ''A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra'': p. 174] the vehicle of a bodhisattva seeking
buddhahood
In Buddhism, Buddha (; Pali, Sanskrit: 𑀩𑀼𑀤𑁆𑀥, बुद्ध), "awakened one", is a title for those who are awake, and have attained nirvana and Buddhahood through their own efforts and insight, without a teacher to point out ...
for the benefit of all sentient beings.
The term ''Mahāyāna'' (which had earlier been used simply as an epithet for Buddhism itself) was therefore adopted at an early date as a synonym for the path and the teachings of the bodhisattvas. Since it was simply an honorary term for ''Bodhisattvayāna'', the adoption of the term ''Mahāyāna'' and its application to Bodhisattvayāna did not represent a significant turning point in the development of a Mahāyāna tradition.
The earliest Mahāyāna texts, such as the ''
Lotus Sūtra
The ''Lotus Sūtra'' ( zh, 妙法蓮華經; sa, सद्धर्मपुण्डरीकसूत्रम्, translit=Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtram, lit=Sūtra on the White Lotus of the True Dharma, italic=) is one of the most influ ...
'', often use the term ''Mahāyāna'' as a synonym for ''Bodhisattvayāna'', but the term ''
Hīnayāna'' is comparatively rare in the earliest sources. The presumed dichotomy between ''Mahāyāna'' and ''Hīnayāna'' can be deceptive, as the two terms were not actually formed in relation to one another in the same era.
Among the earliest and most important references to ''Mahāyāna'' are those that occur in the ''
Lotus Sūtra
The ''Lotus Sūtra'' ( zh, 妙法蓮華經; sa, सद्धर्मपुण्डरीकसूत्रम्, translit=Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtram, lit=Sūtra on the White Lotus of the True Dharma, italic=) is one of the most influ ...
'' (Skt. ''Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra'') dating between the 1st century BCE and the 1st century CE. Seishi Karashima has suggested that the term first used in an earlier
Gandhāri Prakrit
The Prakrits (; sa, prākṛta; psu, 𑀧𑀸𑀉𑀤, ; pka, ) are a group of vernacular Middle Indo-Aryan languages that were used in the Indian subcontinent from around the 3rd century BCE to the 8th century CE. The term Prakrit is usu ...
version of the ''Lotus Sūtra'' was not the term ''mahāyāna'' but the Prakrit word ''mahājāna'' in the sense of ''mahājñāna'' (great knowing).
[Williams, Paul. ''Buddhism. Vol. 3. The origins and nature of Mahāyāna Buddhism.'' Routledge. 2004. p. 50.] At a later stage when the early Prakrit word was converted into Sanskrit, this ''mahājāna'', being phonetically ambivalent, may have been converted into ''mahāyāna'', possibly because of what may have been a double meaning in the famous
Parable of the Burning House, which talks of three vehicles or carts (Skt: ''yāna'').
[
]
Chinese translation
In Chinese
Chinese can refer to:
* Something related to China
* Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity
**''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation
** List of ethnic groups in China, people of ...
, Mahāyāna is called (''dacheng''), which is a calque
In linguistics, a calque () or loan translation is a word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal word-for-word or root-for-root translation. When used as a verb, "to calque" means to borrow a word or phrase from another language wh ...
of ''maha'' (great ) ''yana'' (vehicle ). There is also the transliteration . The term appeared in some of the earliest Mahāyāna texts, including Emperor Ling of Han
Emperor Ling of Han (156 – 13 May 189), personal name Liu Hong, was the 12th and last powerful emperor of the Eastern Han dynasty. Born the son of a lesser marquis who descended directly from Emperor Zhang (the third Eastern Han emperor), L ...
's translation of the Lotus Sutra.[Nattier, Jan (2003), ''A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra'': pp. 193–194] It also appears in the Chinese Āgamas, though scholars like Yin Shun argue that this is a later addition. Some Chinese scholars also argue that the meaning of the term in these earlier texts is different than later ideas of Mahāyāna Buddhism.
History
Origin
The origins of Mahāyāna are still not completely understood and there are numerous competing theories.[Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993. ''A History of Indian Buddhism''. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass: p. 260.] The earliest Western views of Mahāyāna assumed that it existed as a separate school in competition with the so-called " Hīnayāna" schools. Some of the major theories about the origins of Mahāyāna include the following:
The lay origins theory was first proposed by Jean Przyluski
Jean Przyluski (17 August 1885 – 28 October 1944) was a French linguist and scholar of religion and Buddhism of Polish descent. His interests ranged widely through the structure of the Vietnamese language, the development of Buddhist myths ...
and then defended by Étienne Lamotte
Étienne Paul Marie Lamotte (21 November 1903 – 5 May 1983) was a Belgian priest and Professor of Greek at the Catholic University of Louvain, but was better known as an Indologist and the greatest authority on Buddhism in the West in his time. H ...
and Akira Hirakawa. This view states that laypersons were particularly important in the development of Mahāyāna and is partly based on some texts like the ''Vimalakirti Sūtra'', which praise lay figures at the expense of monastics. This theory is no longer widely accepted since numerous early Mahāyāna works promote monasticism and asceticism.
The Mahāsāṃghika origin theory, which argues that Mahāyāna developed within the Mahāsāṃghika
The Mahāsāṃghika (Brahmi: 𑀫𑀳𑀸𑀲𑀸𑀁𑀖𑀺𑀓, "of the Great Sangha", ) was one of the early Buddhist schools. Interest in the origins of the Mahāsāṃghika school lies in the fact that their Vinaya recension appears in se ...
tradition.[Drewes, David, ''Early Indian Mahayana Buddhism I: Recent Scholarship'', Religion Compass 4/2 (2010): 55–65, ] This is defended by scholars such as Hendrik Kern, A.K. Warder
Anthony Kennedy Warder (8 September 1924 – 8 January 2013) was a British Indologist. His best-known works are ''Introduction to Pali'' (1963), ''Indian Buddhism'' (1970), and the eight-volume ''Indian Kāvya Literature'' (1972–2011).
Life
Wa ...
and Paul Williams who argue that at least some Mahāyāna elements developed among Mahāsāṃghika communities (from the 1st century BCE onwards), possibly in the area along the Kṛṣṇa River in the Āndhra region of southern India.[Guang Xing. ''The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikaya Theory.'' 2004. pp. 65–66 "Several scholars have suggested that the Prajñāpāramitā probably developed among the Mahasamghikas in Southern India, in the Andhra country, on the Krishna River."][Williams, Paul. ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations 2nd edition.'' Routledge, 2009, p. 47.][Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993. ''A History of Indian Buddhism''. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass: pp. 253, 263, 268]["The south (of India) was then vigorously creative in producing Mahayana Sutras" – Warder, A.K. (3rd edn. 1999). ''Indian Buddhism'': p. 335.] The Mahāsāṃghika doctrine of the supramundane ( ''lokottara'') nature of the Buddha is sometimes seen as a precursor to Mahāyāna views of the Buddha. Some scholars also see Mahāyāna figures like Nāgārjuna
Nāgārjuna . 150 – c. 250 CE (disputed)was an Indian Mahāyāna Buddhist thinker, scholar-saint and philosopher. He is widely considered one of the most important Buddhist philosophers.Garfield, Jay L. (1995), ''The Fundamental Wisdom of ...
, Dignaga, Candrakīrti
Chandrakirti (; ; , meaning "glory of the moon" in Sanskrit) or "Chandra" was a Buddhist scholar of the madhyamaka school and a noted commentator on the works of Nagarjuna () and those of his main disciple, Aryadeva. He wrote two influential w ...
, Āryadeva
Āryadeva (fl. 3rd century CE) (; , Chinese: ''Tipo pusa'' 婆 菩薩 = Deva Bodhisattva, was a Mahayana Buddhist monk, a disciple of Nagarjuna and a Madhyamaka philosopher.Silk, Jonathan A. (ed.) (2019). ''Brill’s Encyclopedia of Budd ...
, and Bhavaviveka as having ties to the Mahāsāṃghika tradition of Āndhra. However, other scholars have also pointed to different regions as being important, such as Gandhara
Gandhāra is the name of an ancient region located in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, more precisely in present-day north-west Pakistan and parts of south-east Afghanistan. The region centered around the Peshawar Vall ...
and northwest India.[Karashima, 2013.]
The Mahāsāṃghika origins theory has also slowly been shown to be problematic by scholarship that revealed how certain Mahāyāna sutras show traces of having developed among other '' nikāyas'' or monastic orders (such as the Dharmaguptaka). Because of such evidence, scholars like Paul Harrison and Paul Williams argue that the movement was not sectarian and was possibly pan-buddhist. There is no evidence that Mahāyāna ever referred to a separate formal school or sect of Buddhism, but rather that it existed as a certain set of ideals, and later doctrines, for aspiring bodhisattvas.
The "forest hypothesis" meanwhile states that Mahāyāna arose mainly among "hard-core ascetics, members of the forest dwelling (''aranyavasin'') wing of the Buddhist Order", who were attempting to imitate the Buddha's forest living. This has been defended by Paul Harrison, Jan Nattier
Jan Nattier is an American scholar of Mahāyana Buddhism.
Early life and education
She earned her PhD in Inner Asian and Altaic Studies from Harvard University (1988), and subsequently taught at the University of Hawaii (1988-1990), Stanford Unive ...
and Reginald Ray
Reginald Ray (born 1942) is an American Buddhist academic and teacher.
Ray studied Tibetan Buddhism, traditional shamanic wisdom, and yogic-contemplative practices with the Tibetan refugee and recognized Vajrayana traditional-wisdom holder Chög ...
. This theory is based on certain sutras like the ''Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra
The ''Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra'' (''The inquiry of Ugra'') is an early Indian sutra which is particularly important for understanding the beginnings of Mahayana Buddhism. It contains positive references to both the path of the bodhisattva and the p ...
'' and the ''Mahāyāna Rāṣṭrapālapaṛiprcchā'' which promote ascetic practice in the wilderness as a superior and elite path. These texts criticize monks who live in cities and denigrate the forest life.
Jan Nattier's study of the ''Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra, A few good men'' (2003) argues that this sutra represents the earliest form of Mahāyāna, which presents the bodhisattva
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood.
In the Early Buddhist schools ...
path as a 'supremely difficult enterprise' of elite monastic forest asceticism. Boucher's study on the ''Rāṣṭrapālaparipṛcchā-sūtra'' (2008) is another recent work on this subject.
The cult of the book theory, defended by Gregory Schopen
Gregory Schopen is Professor of Buddhist Studies at University of California, Los Angeles. He received his B.A. majoring in American literature from Black Hills State College, M.A. in history of religions from McMaster University in Ontario, Cana ...
, states that Mahāyāna arose among a number of loosely connected book worshiping groups of monastics, who studied, memorized, copied and revered particular Mahāyāna sūtras. Schopen thinks they were inspired by cult shrines where Mahāyāna sutras were kept. Schopen also argued that these groups mostly rejected stupa
A stupa ( sa, स्तूप, lit=heap, ) is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing relics (such as ''śarīra'' – typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns) that is used as a place of meditation.
In Buddhism, circumamb ...
worship, or worshiping holy relics.
David Drewes has recently argued against all of the major theories outlined above. He points out that there is no actual evidence for the existence of book shrines, that the practice of sutra veneration was pan-Buddhist and not distinctly Mahāyāna. Furthermore, Drewes argues that "Mahāyāna sutras advocate mnemic/oral/aural practices more frequently than they do written ones." Regarding the forest hypothesis, he points out that only a few Mahāyāna sutras directly advocate forest dwelling, while the others either do not mention it or see it as unhelpful, promoting easier practices such as "merely listening to the sutra, or thinking of particular Buddhas, that they claim can enable one to be reborn in special, luxurious 'pure lands
A pure land is the celestial realm of a buddha or bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism. The term "pure land" is particular to East Asian Buddhism () and related traditions; in Sanskrit the equivalent concept is called a buddha-field (Sanskrit ). T ...
' where one will be able to make easy and rapid progress on the bodhisattva path and attain Buddhahood after as little as one lifetime."
Drewes states that the evidence merely shows that "Mahāyāna was primarily a textual movement, focused on the revelation, preaching, and dissemination of Mahāyāna sutras, that developed within, and never really departed from, traditional Buddhist social and institutional structures."[Drewes, David, Early Indian Mahayana Buddhism II: New Perspectives, ''Religion Compass'' 4/2 (2010): 66–74, ] Drewes points out the importance of ''dharmabhanakas'' (preachers, reciters of these sutras) in the early Mahāyāna sutras. This figure is widely praised as someone who should be respected, obeyed ('as a slave serves his lord'), and donated to, and it is thus possible these people were the primary agents of the Mahāyāna movement.
Early Mahāyāna
The earliest textual evidence of "Mahāyāna" comes from sūtras
''Sutra'' ( sa, सूत्र, translit=sūtra, translit-std=IAST, translation=string, thread)Monier Williams, ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, Entry fo''sutra'' page 1241 in Indian literary traditions refers to an aph ...
("discourses", scriptures) originating around the beginning of the common era. Jan Nattier has noted that some of the earliest Mahāyāna texts, such as the '' Ugraparipṛccha Sūtra'' use the term "Mahāyāna", yet there is no doctrinal difference between Mahāyāna in this context and the early schools. Instead, Nattier writes that in the earliest sources, "Mahāyāna" referred to the rigorous emulation of Gautama Buddha
Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism.
According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in Lu ...
's path to Buddhahood.
Some important evidence for early Mahāyāna Buddhism comes from the texts translated by the Indoscythian monk Lokakṣema in the 2nd century CE, who came to China from the kingdom of Gandhāra
Gandhāra is the name of an ancient region located in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, more precisely in present-day north-west Pakistan and parts of south-east Afghanistan. The region centered around the Peshawar Val ...
. These are some of the earliest known Mahāyāna texts. Study of these texts by Paul Harrison and others show that they strongly promote monasticism
Monasticism (from Ancient Greek , , from , , 'alone'), also referred to as monachism, or monkhood, is a religious way of life in which one renounces worldly pursuits to devote oneself fully to spiritual work. Monastic life plays an important role ...
(contra the lay origin theory), acknowledge the legitimacy of arhat
In Buddhism, an ''arhat'' (Sanskrit: अर्हत्) or ''arahant'' (Pali: अरहन्त्, 𑀅𑀭𑀳𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁆) is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved ''Nirvana'' and liberated ...
ship, do not recommend devotion towards 'celestial' bodhisattva
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood.
In the Early Buddhist schools ...
s and do not show any attempt to establish a new sect or order. A few of these texts often emphasize ascetic
Asceticism (; from the el, ἄσκησις, áskesis, exercise', 'training) is a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from sensual pleasures, often for the purpose of pursuing spiritual goals. Ascetics may withdraw from the world for their p ...
practices, forest dwelling, and deep states of meditative concentration (''samadhi
''Samadhi'' (Pali and sa, समाधि), in Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and yogic schools, is a state of meditative consciousness. In Buddhism, it is the last of the eight elements of the Noble Eightfold Path. In the Ashtanga Yoga ...
'').
Indian Mahāyāna never had nor ever attempted to have a separate Vinaya
The Vinaya (Pali & Sanskrit: विनय) is the division of the Buddhist canon ('' Tripitaka'') containing the rules and procedures that govern the Buddhist Sangha (community of like-minded ''sramanas''). Three parallel Vinaya traditions remai ...
or ordination lineage from the early schools of Buddhism, and therefore each bhikṣu or bhikṣuṇī adhering to the Mahāyāna formally belonged to one of the early Buddhist schools. Membership in these ''nikāyas'', or monastic orders, continues today, with the Dharmaguptaka nikāya being used in East Asia, and the Mūlasarvāstivāda
The Mūlasarvāstivāda (Sanskrit: मूलसर्वास्तिवाद; ) was one of the early Buddhist schools of India. The origins of the Mūlasarvāstivāda and their relationship to the Sarvāstivāda sect still remain largely unk ...
nikāya being used in Tibetan Buddhism
Tibetan Buddhism (also referred to as Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Lamaism, Lamaistic Buddhism, Himalayan Buddhism, and Northern Buddhism) is the form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet and Bhutan, where it is the dominant religion. It is also in majo ...
. Therefore, Mahāyāna was never a separate monastic sect outside of the early schools.
Paul Harrison clarifies that while monastic Mahāyānists belonged to a nikāya, not all members of a nikāya were Mahāyānists. From Chinese monks visiting India, we now know that both Mahāyāna and non-Mahāyāna monks in India often lived in the same monasteries side by side. It is also possible that, formally, Mahāyāna would have been understood as a group of monks or nuns within a larger monastery taking a vow together (known as a "''kriyākarma''") to memorize and study a Mahāyāna text or texts.
The earliest stone inscription containing a recognizably Mahāyāna formulation and a mention of the Buddha Amitābha
Amitābha ( sa, अमिताभ, IPA: ), also known as Amitāyus, is the primary Buddha of Pure Land Buddhism. In Vajrayana Buddhism, he is known for his longevity, discernment, pure perception, purification of aggregates, and deep awarene ...
(an important Mahāyāna figure) was found in the Indian subcontinent in Mathura
Mathura () is a city and the administrative headquarters of Mathura district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located approximately north of Agra, and south-east of Delhi; about from the town of Vrindavan, and from Govardhan. ...
, and dated to around 180 CE. Remains of a statue of a Buddha bear the Brāhmī
Brahmi (; ; ISO 15919, ISO: ''Brāhmī'') is a writing system of ancient South Asia. "Until the late nineteenth century, the script of the Aśokan (non-Kharosthi) inscriptions and its immediate derivatives was referred to by various names such ...
inscription: "Made in the year 28 of the reign of King Huviṣka, ... for the Blessed One, the Buddha Amitābha." There is also some evidence that the Kushan Emperor Huviṣka himself was a follower of Mahāyāna. A Sanskrit manuscript fragment in the Schøyen Collection
__NOTOC__
The Schøyen Collection is one of the largest private manuscript collections in the world, mostly located in Oslo and London. Formed in the 20th century by Martin Schøyen, it comprises manuscripts of global provenance, spanning 5,000 y ...
describes Huviṣka as having "set forth in the Mahāyāna." Evidence of the name "Mahāyāna" in Indian inscriptions in the period before the 5th century is very limited in comparison to the multiplicity of Mahāyāna writings transmitted from Central Asia
Central Asia, also known as Middle Asia, is a subregion, region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes t ...
to China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
at that time.
Based on archeological
Archaeology or archeology is the scientific study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, sites, and cultural landscape ...
evidence, Gregory Schopen argues that Indian Mahāyāna remained "an extremely limited minority movement – if it remained at all – that attracted absolutely no documented public or popular support for at least two more centuries." Likewise, Joseph Walser speaks of Mahāyāna's "virtual invisibility in the archaeological record until the fifth century." Schopen also sees this movement as being in tension with other Buddhists, "struggling for recognition and acceptance".[Walser, Joseph, ''Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture,'' Columbia University Press, 2005, p. 18.] Their "embattled mentality" may have led to certain elements found in Mahāyāna texts like Lotus sutra
The ''Lotus Sūtra'' ( zh, 妙法蓮華經; sa, सद्धर्मपुण्डरीकसूत्रम्, translit=Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtram, lit=Sūtra on the White Lotus of the True Dharma, italic=) is one of the most influ ...
, such as a concern with preserving texts.
Schopen, Harrison and Nattier also argue that these communities were probably not a single unified movement, but scattered groups based on different practices and sutras. One reason for this view is that Mahāyāna sources are extremely diverse, advocating many different, often conflicting doctrines and positions, as Jan Nattier writes:Thus we find one scripture (the ''Aksobhya
Akshobhya ( sa, अक्षोभ्य, ''Akṣobhya'', "Immovable One"; ) is one of the Five Wisdom Buddhas, a product of the Adibuddha, who represents consciousness as an aspect of reality. By convention he is located in the east of the ...
-vyuha'') that advocates both srávaka and bodhisattva
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood.
In the Early Buddhist schools ...
practices, propounds the possibility of rebirth in a pure land, and enthusiastically recommends the cult of the book, yet seems to know nothing of emptiness theory, the ten bhumis, or the trikaya
The Trikāya doctrine ( sa, त्रिकाय, lit. "three bodies"; , ) is a Mahayana Buddhist teaching on both the nature of reality and the nature of Buddhahood. The doctrine says that Buddha has three ''kāyas'' or ''bodies'', the '' Dharm ...
, while another (the ''P’u-sa pen-yeh ching'') propounds the ten bhumis and focuses exclusively on the path of the bodhisattva, but never discusses the paramitas. A Madhyamika
Mādhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as Śūnyavāda ("the emptiness doctrine") and Niḥsvabhāvavāda ("the no ''svabhāva'' doctrine"), refers to a tradition of Buddhist ...
treatise ( Nagarjuna's '' Mulamadhyamika-karikas'') may enthusiastically deploy the rhetoric of emptiness
Emptiness as a human condition is a sense of generalized boredom, social alienation and apathy. Feelings of emptiness often accompany dysthymia, depression, loneliness, anhedonia,
despair, or other mental/emotional disorders, including schizoid ...
without ever mentioning the bodhisattva path, while a Yogacara
Yogachara ( sa, योगाचार, IAST: '; literally "yoga practice"; "one whose practice is yoga") is an influential tradition of Buddhist philosophy and psychology emphasizing the study of cognition, perception, and consciousness through t ...
treatise ( Vasubandhu's '' Madhyanta-vibhaga-bhasya'') may delve into the particulars of the trikaya doctrine while eschewing the doctrine of ekayana. We must be prepared, in other words, to encounter a multiplicity of Mahayanas flourishing even in India, not to mention those that developed in East Asia and Tibet.
In spite of being a minority in India, Indian Mahāyāna was an intellectually vibrant movement, which developed various schools of thought during what Jan Westerhoff has been called "The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy" (from the beginning of the first millennium CE up to the 7th century). Some major Mahāyāna traditions are Prajñāpāramitā, Mādhyamaka
Mādhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as Śūnyavāda ("the emptiness doctrine") and Niḥsvabhāvavāda ("the no ''svabhāva'' doctrine"), refers to a tradition of Buddhist ...
, Yogācāra
Yogachara ( sa, योगाचार, IAST: '; literally "yoga practice"; "one whose practice is yoga") is an influential tradition of Buddhist philosophy and psychology emphasizing the study of cognition, perception, and consciousness through t ...
, Buddha-nature
Buddha-nature refers to several related Mahayana Buddhist terms, including '' tathata'' ("suchness") but most notably ''tathāgatagarbha'' and ''buddhadhātu''. ''Tathāgatagarbha'' means "the womb" or "embryo" (''garbha'') of the "thus-gone ...
(''Tathāgatagarbha''), and the school of Dignaga and Dharmakirti as the last and most recent. Major early figures include Nagarjuna
Nāgārjuna . 150 – c. 250 CE (disputed)was an Indian Mahāyāna Buddhist thinker, scholar-saint and philosopher. He is widely considered one of the most important Buddhist philosophers.Garfield, Jay L. (1995), ''The Fundamental Wisdom of ...
, Āryadeva
Āryadeva (fl. 3rd century CE) (; , Chinese: ''Tipo pusa'' 婆 菩薩 = Deva Bodhisattva, was a Mahayana Buddhist monk, a disciple of Nagarjuna and a Madhyamaka philosopher.Silk, Jonathan A. (ed.) (2019). ''Brill’s Encyclopedia of Budd ...
, Aśvaghoṣa
, also transliterated Ashvaghosha, (, अश्वघोष; lit. "Having a Horse-Voice"; ; Chinese 馬鳴菩薩 pinyin: Mǎmíng púsà, litt.: 'Bodhisattva with a Horse-Voice') CE) was a Sarvāstivāda or Mahasanghika Buddhist philosopher, ...
, Asanga
Asaṅga (, ; Romaji: ''Mujaku'') ( fl. 4th century C.E.) was "one of the most important spiritual figures" of Mahayana Buddhism and the "founder of the Yogachara school".Engle, Artemus (translator), Asanga, ''The Bodhisattva Path to Unsurpassed ...
, Vasubandhu
Vasubandhu (; Tibetan: དབྱིག་གཉེན་ ; floruit, fl. 4th to 5th century CE) was an influential bhikkhu, Buddhist monk and scholar from ''Puruṣapura'' in ancient India, modern day Peshawar, Pakistan. He was a philosopher who ...
, and Dignaga. Mahāyāna Buddhists seem to have been active in the Kushan Empire
The Kushan Empire ( grc, Βασιλεία Κοσσανῶν; xbc, Κυϸανο, ; sa, कुषाण वंश; Brahmi: , '; BHS: ; xpr, 𐭊𐭅𐭔𐭍 𐭇𐭔𐭕𐭓, ; zh, 貴霜 ) was a syncretic empire, formed by the Yuezhi, i ...
(30–375 CE), a period that saw great missionary and literary activities by Buddhists. This is supported by the works of the historian Taranatha
Tāranātha (1575–1634) was a Lama of the Jonang school of Tibetan Buddhism. He is widely considered its most remarkable scholar and exponent.
Taranatha was born in Tibet, supposedly on the birthday of Padmasambhava. His original name was Kun ...
.[Dutt, Nalinaksha (1978). ''Mahāyāna Buddhism'', pp. 16-27. Delhi.]
Growth
The Mahāyāna movement (or movements) remained quite small until it experienced much growth in the fifth century
''The Fifth Century'' is a classical and choral studio album by Gavin Bryars, conducted by Donald Nally, and performed by The Crossing choir with the saxophone quartet PRISM. This album was released in the label ECM New Series in November 201 ...
. Very few manuscripts have been found before the fifth century (the exceptions are from Bamiyan). According to Walser, "the fifth and sixth centuries appear to have been a watershed for the production of Mahāyāna manuscripts." Likewise it is only in the 4th and 5th centuries CE that epigraphic evidence shows some kind of popular support for Mahāyāna, including some possible royal support at the kingdom of Shan shan
Shanshan (; ug, پىچان, Pichan, Piqan) was a kingdom located at the north-eastern end of the Taklamakan Desert near the great, but now mostly dry, salt lake known as Lop Nur.
The kingdom was originally an independent city-state, known in t ...
as well as in Bamiyan and Mathura
Mathura () is a city and the administrative headquarters of Mathura district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located approximately north of Agra, and south-east of Delhi; about from the town of Vrindavan, and from Govardhan. ...
.[Walser, Joseph, ''Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture,'' Columbia University Press, 2005, p. 34.]
Still, even after the 5th century, the epigraphic evidence which uses the term Mahāyāna is still quite small and is notably mainly monastic, not lay. By this time, Chinese pilgrims, such as Faxian
Faxian (法顯 ; 337 CE – c. 422 CE), also referred to as Fa-Hien, Fa-hsien and Sehi, was a Chinese Buddhist monk and translator who traveled by foot from China to India to acquire Buddhist texts. Starting his arduous journey about age 60, h ...
(337–422 CE), Xuanzang
Xuanzang (, ; 602–664), born Chen Hui / Chen Yi (), also known as Hiuen Tsang, was a 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making contributions to Chinese Buddhism, the travelogue of ...
(602–664), Yijing
The ''I Ching'' or ''Yi Jing'' (, ), usually translated ''Book of Changes'' or ''Classic of Changes'', is an ancient Chinese divination text that is among the oldest of the Chinese classics. Originally a divination manual in the Western Zhou ...
(635–713 CE) were traveling to India, and their writings do describe monasteries which they label 'Mahāyāna' as well as monasteries where both Mahāyāna monks and non-Mahāyāna monks lived together.
After the fifth century, Mahāyāna Buddhism and its institutions slowly grew in influence. Some of the most influential institutions became massive monastic university complexes such as Nalanda
Nalanda (, ) was a renowned ''mahavihara'' (Buddhist monastic university) in ancient Magadha (modern-day Bihar), India.[Gupta
Gupta () is a common surname or last name of Indian origin. It is based on the Sanskrit word गोप्तृ ''goptṛ'', which means 'guardian' or 'protector'. According to historian R. C. Majumdar, the surname ''Gupta'' was adopted by se ...]
emperor, Kumaragupta I
Kumaragupta I ( Gupta script: ''Ku-ma-ra-gu-pta'', r. c. 415–455 CE) was an emperor of the Gupta Empire of Ancient India. A son of the Gupta emperor Chandragupta II and queen Dhruvadevi, he seems to have maintained control of his inherited t ...
) and Vikramashila
Vikramashila (Sanskrit: विक्रमशिला, IAST: , Bengali:- বিক্রমশিলা, Romanisation:- Bikrômôśilā ) was one of the three most important Buddhist monasteries in India during the Pala Empire, along with N ...
(established under Dharmapala
A ''dharmapāla'' (, , ja, 達磨波羅, 護法善神, 護法神, 諸天善神, 諸天鬼神, 諸天善神諸大眷屬) is a type of wrathful god in Buddhism. The name means "''dharma'' protector" in Sanskrit, and the ''dharmapālas'' are als ...
c. 783 to 820) which were centers of various branches of scholarship, including Mahāyāna philosophy. The Nalanda complex eventually became the largest and most influential Buddhist center in India for centuries. Even so, as noted by Paul Williams, "it seems that fewer than 50 percent of the monks encountered by Xuanzang (Hsüan-tsang; c. 600–664) on his visit to India actually were Mahāyānists."
Expansion outside of India
Over time Indian Mahāyāna texts and philosophy reached Central Asia
Central Asia, also known as Middle Asia, is a subregion, region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes t ...
and China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
through trade routes like the Silk Road
The Silk Road () was a network of Eurasian trade routes active from the second century BCE until the mid-15th century. Spanning over 6,400 kilometers (4,000 miles), it played a central role in facilitating economic, cultural, political, and reli ...
, later spreading throughout East Asia
East Asia is the eastern region of Asia, which is defined in both geographical and ethno-cultural terms. The modern states of East Asia include China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan. China, North Korea, South Korea and ...
. Over time, Central Asian Buddhism
Buddhism in Central Asia refers to the forms of Buddhism (mainly Mahayana) that existed in Central Asia, which were historically especially prevalent along the Silk Road. The history of Buddhism in Central Asia is closely related to the Silk ...
became heavily influenced by Mahāyāna and it was a major source for Chinese Buddhism. Mahāyāna works have also been found in Gandhāra
Gandhāra is the name of an ancient region located in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, more precisely in present-day north-west Pakistan and parts of south-east Afghanistan. The region centered around the Peshawar Val ...
, indicating the importance of this region for the spread of Mahāyāna. Central Asian Mahāyāna scholars were very important in the Silk Road Transmission of Buddhism
Buddhism entered Han China via the Silk Road, beginning in the 1st or 2nd century CE. The first documented translation efforts by Buddhist monks in China were in the 2nd century CE via the Kushan Empire into the Chinese territory bordering the ...
. They include translators like Lokakṣema (c. 167–186), Dharmarakṣa
(, J. Jiku Hōgo; K. Ch’uk Pǒphom c. 233-310) was one of the most important early translators of Mahayana sutras into Chinese. Several of his translations had profound effects on East Asian Buddhism. He is described in scriptural catalogue ...
(c. 265–313), Kumārajīva
Kumārajīva (Sanskrit: कुमारजीव; , 344–413 CE) was a Buddhist monk, scholar, missionary and translator from the Kingdom of Kucha (present-day Aksu Prefecture, Xinjiang, China). Kumārajīva is seen as one of the greatest ...
(c. 401), and Dharmakṣema (धर्मक्षेम, transliterated 曇無讖 (), translated 竺法豐 (); 385–433 CE) was a Buddhist monk, originally from Magadha in India, who went to China after studying and teaching in Kashmir and Kucha. He had been residing in ...
(385–433). The site of Dunhuang
Dunhuang () is a county-level city in Northwestern Gansu Province, Western China. According to the 2010 Chinese census, the city has a population of 186,027, though 2019 estimates put the city's population at about 191,800. Dunhuang was a major ...
seems to have been a particularly important place for the study of Mahāyāna Buddhism.
By the fourth century, Chinese monks like Faxian
Faxian (法顯 ; 337 CE – c. 422 CE), also referred to as Fa-Hien, Fa-hsien and Sehi, was a Chinese Buddhist monk and translator who traveled by foot from China to India to acquire Buddhist texts. Starting his arduous journey about age 60, h ...
(c. 337–422 CE) had also begun to travel to India (now dominated by the Guptas) to bring back Buddhist teachings, especially Mahāyāna works. These figures also wrote about their experiences in India and their work remains invaluable for understanding Indian Buddhism. In some cases Indian Mahāyāna traditions were directly transplanted, as with the case of the East Asian Madhymaka (by Kumārajīva
Kumārajīva (Sanskrit: कुमारजीव; , 344–413 CE) was a Buddhist monk, scholar, missionary and translator from the Kingdom of Kucha (present-day Aksu Prefecture, Xinjiang, China). Kumārajīva is seen as one of the greatest ...
) and East Asian Yogacara (especially by Xuanzang
Xuanzang (, ; 602–664), born Chen Hui / Chen Yi (), also known as Hiuen Tsang, was a 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making contributions to Chinese Buddhism, the travelogue of ...
). Later, new developments in Chinese Mahāyāna led to new Chinese Buddhist traditions like Tiantai
Tiantai or T'ien-t'ai () is an East Asian Buddhist school of Mahāyāna Buddhism that developed in 6th-century China. The school emphasizes the ''Lotus Sutra's'' doctrine of the "One Vehicle" (''Ekayāna'') as well as Mādhyamaka philosophy, ...
, Huayen
The Huayan or Flower Garland school of Buddhism (, from sa, अवतंसक, Avataṃsaka) is a tradition of Mahayana Buddhist philosophy that first flourished in China during the Tang dynasty (618-907). The Huayan worldview is based prima ...
, Pure Land
A pure land is the celestial realm of a buddha or bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism. The term "pure land" is particular to East Asian Buddhism () and related traditions; in Sanskrit the equivalent concept is called a buddha-field (Sanskrit ). Th ...
and Chan Buddhism
Chan (; of ), from Sanskrit '' dhyāna'' (meaning "meditation" or "meditative state"), is a Chinese school of Mahāyāna Buddhism. It developed in China from the 6th century CE onwards, becoming especially popular during the Tang and So ...
(Zen). These traditions would then spread to Korea
Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...
, Vietnam
Vietnam or Viet Nam ( vi, Việt Nam, ), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam,., group="n" is a country in Southeast Asia, at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of and population of 96 million, making i ...
and Japan
Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
.
Forms of Mahāyāna Buddhism which are mainly based on the doctrines of Indian Mahāyāna sutras are still popular in East Asian Buddhism
East Asian Buddhism or East Asian Mahayana is a collective term for the schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism that developed across East Asia which follow the Chinese Buddhist canon. These include the various forms of Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vi ...
, which is mostly dominated by various branches of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Paul Williams has noted that in this tradition in the Far East, primacy has always been given to the study of the Mahāyāna sūtras.[Williams, Paul (1989). ''Mahayana Buddhism'': p. 103]
Later developments
Beginning during the Gupta
Gupta () is a common surname or last name of Indian origin. It is based on the Sanskrit word गोप्तृ ''goptṛ'', which means 'guardian' or 'protector'. According to historian R. C. Majumdar, the surname ''Gupta'' was adopted by se ...
(c. 3rd century CE–575 CE) period a new movement began to develop which drew on previous Mahāyāna doctrine as well as new Pan-Indian tantric ideas. This came to be known by various names such as Vajrayāna
Vajrayāna ( sa, वज्रयान, "thunderbolt vehicle", "diamond vehicle", or "indestructible vehicle"), along with Mantrayāna, Guhyamantrayāna, Tantrayāna, Secret Mantra, Tantric Buddhism, and Esoteric Buddhism, are names referring t ...
(Tibetan: ''rdo rje theg pa''), Mantrayāna, and Esoteric Buddhism or "Secret Mantra" (''Guhyamantra''). This new movement continued into the Pala era (8th century–12th century CE), during which it grew to dominate Indian Buddhism. Possibly led by groups of wandering tantric yogis named mahasiddha
Mahasiddha (Sanskrit: ''mahāsiddha'' "great adept; ) is a term for someone who embodies and cultivates the " siddhi of perfection". A siddha is an individual who, through the practice of sādhanā, attains the realization of siddhis, psychic ...
s, this movement developed new tantric spiritual practices and also promoted new texts called the Buddhist Tantras
The Buddhist Tantras are a varied group of Indian and Tibetan texts which outline unique views and practices of the Buddhist tantra religious systems.
Overview
Buddhist Tantric texts began appearing in the Gupta Empire period, though there are ...
. Philosophically, Vajrayāna Buddhist thought remained grounded in the Mahāyāna Buddhist ideas of Madhyamaka, Yogacara
Yogachara ( sa, योगाचार, IAST: '; literally "yoga practice"; "one whose practice is yoga") is an influential tradition of Buddhist philosophy and psychology emphasizing the study of cognition, perception, and consciousness through t ...
and Buddha-nature. Tantric Buddhism generally deals with new forms of meditation and ritual which often makes use of the visualization of Buddhist deities (including Buddhas, bodhisattvas, dakini
A ḍākinī ( sa, डाकिनी; ; mn, хандарма; ; alternatively 荼枳尼, ; 荼吉尼, ; or 吒枳尼, ; Japanese: 荼枳尼 / 吒枳尼 / 荼吉尼, ''dakini'') is a type of female spirit, goddess, or demon in Hinduism and Bud ...
s, and fierce deities
In Buddhism, wrathful deities or fierce deities are the fierce, wrathful or forceful (Tibetan: ''trowo'', Sanskrit: ''krodha'') forms (or "aspects", "manifestations") of enlightened Buddhas, Bodhisattvas or Devas (divine beings); normally the sam ...
) and the use of mantras. Most of these practices are esoteric and require ritual initiation or introduction by a tantric master (''vajracarya'') or guru
Guru ( sa, गुरु, IAST: ''guru;'' Pali'': garu'') is a Sanskrit term for a "mentor, guide, expert, or master" of certain knowledge or field. In pan-Indian traditions, a guru is more than a teacher: traditionally, the guru is a reverentia ...
.
The source and early origins of Vajrayāna
Vajrayāna ( sa, वज्रयान, "thunderbolt vehicle", "diamond vehicle", or "indestructible vehicle"), along with Mantrayāna, Guhyamantrayāna, Tantrayāna, Secret Mantra, Tantric Buddhism, and Esoteric Buddhism, are names referring t ...
remain a subject of debate among scholars. Some scholars like Alexis Sanderson
Alexis G. J. S. Sanderson (born 1948) is an indologist and Emeritus Fellow of All Souls College at the University of Oxford.
Early life
After taking undergraduate degrees in Classics and Sanskrit at Balliol College from 1968 to 1971, Alexis Sande ...
argue that Vajrayāna derives its tantric content from Shaivism
Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangi ...
and that it developed as a result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism and Saivism
Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangin ...
. Sanderson argues that Vajrayāna works like the Samvara
''Samvara'' (''saṃvara'') is one of the '' tattva'' or the fundamental reality of the world as per the Jain philosophy. It means stoppage—the stoppage of the influx of the material karmas into the soul consciousness. The karmic process in ...
and Guhyasamaja texts show direct borrowing from Shaiva tantric literature. However, other scholars such as Ronald M. Davidson question the idea that Indian tantrism
Tantra (; sa, तन्त्र, lit=loom, weave, warp) are the esoteric traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism that developed on the Indian subcontinent from the middle of the 1st millennium CE onwards. The term ''tantra'', in the Indian ...
developed in Shaivism first and that it was then adopted into Buddhism. Davidson points to the difficulties of establishing a chronology for the Shaiva tantric literature and argues that both traditions developed side by side, drawing on each other as well as on local Indian tribal religion.
Whatever the case, this new tantric form of Mahāyāna Buddhism became extremely influential in India, especially in Kashmir
Kashmir () is the northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term "Kashmir" denoted only the Kashmir Valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal Range. Today, the term encompas ...
and in the lands of the Pala Empire
The Pāla Empire (r. 750-1161 CE) was an imperial power during the post-classical period in the Indian subcontinent, which originated in the region of Bengal. It is named after its ruling dynasty, whose rulers bore names ending with the suffi ...
. It eventually also spread north into Central Asia
Central Asia, also known as Middle Asia, is a subregion, region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes t ...
, the Tibetan plateau
The Tibetan Plateau (, also known as the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau or the Qing–Zang Plateau () or as the Himalayan Plateau in India, is a vast elevated plateau located at the intersection of Central, South and East Asia covering most of the Ti ...
and to East Asia. Vajrayāna remains the dominant form of Buddhism in Tibet
Tibetan Buddhism (also referred to as Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Lamaism, Lamaistic Buddhism, Himalayan Buddhism, and Northern Buddhism) is the form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet and Bhutan, where it is the dominant religion. It is also in majo ...
, in surrounding regions like Bhutan
Bhutan (; dz, འབྲུག་ཡུལ་, Druk Yul ), officially the Kingdom of Bhutan,), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is situated in the Eastern Himalayas, between China in the north and India in the south. A mountainous ...
and in Mongolia
Mongolia; Mongolian script: , , ; lit. "Mongol Nation" or "State of Mongolia" () is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south. It covers an area of , with a population of just 3.3 million, ...
. Esoteric elements are also an important part of East Asian Buddhism where it is referred to by various terms. These include: '' Zhēnyán'' (Chinese
Chinese can refer to:
* Something related to China
* Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity
**''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation
** List of ethnic groups in China, people of ...
: 真言, literally "true word", referring to mantra), ''Mìjiao'' (Chinese: 密教; Esoteric Teaching), ''Mìzōng'' (密宗; "Esoteric Tradition") or ''Tángmì'' (唐密; "Tang (Dynasty) Esoterica") in Chinese and Shingon
file:Koyasan (Mount Koya) monks.jpg, Shingon monks at Mount Koya
is one of the major schools of Buddhism in Japan and one of the few surviving Vajrayana lineages in East Asia, originally spread from India to China through traveling monks suc ...
, Tomitsu, Mikkyo, and Taimitsu in Japanese.
Worldview
Few things can be said with certainty about Mahāyāna Buddhism in general other than that the Buddhism practiced in China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
, Indonesia
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guine ...
, Vietnam
Vietnam or Viet Nam ( vi, Việt Nam, ), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam,., group="n" is a country in Southeast Asia, at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of and population of 96 million, making i ...
, Korea
Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...
, Tibet
Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa people, ...
, Mongolia
Mongolia; Mongolian script: , , ; lit. "Mongol Nation" or "State of Mongolia" () is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south. It covers an area of , with a population of just 3.3 million, ...
and Japan
Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
is Mahāyāna Buddhism. Mahāyāna can be described as a loosely bound collection of many teachings and practices (some of which are seemingly contradictory). Mahāyāna constitutes an inclusive and broad set of traditions characterized by plurality and the adoption of a vast number of new sutras
''Sutra'' ( sa, सूत्र, translit=sūtra, translit-std=IAST, translation=string, thread)Monier Williams, ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, Entry fo''sutra'' page 1241 in Indian literary traditions refers to an aph ...
, ideas and philosophical treatises in addition to the earlier Buddhist texts.
Broadly speaking, Mahāyāna Buddhists accept the classic Buddhist doctrines found in early Buddhism (i.e. the ''Nikāya
''Nikāya'' () is a Pāli word meaning "volume". It is often used like the Sanskrit word '' āgama'' () to mean "collection", "assemblage", "class" or "group" in both Pāḷi and Sanskrit. It is most commonly used in reference to the Pali Buddhist ...
'' and Āgamas), such as the Middle Way
The Middle Way ( pi, ; sa, ) as well as "teaching the Dharma by the middle" (''majjhena dhammaṃ deseti'') are common Buddhist terms used to refer to two major aspects of the Dharma, that is, the teaching of the Buddha.; my, အလယ် ...
, Dependent origination
A dependant is a person who relies on another as a primary source of income. A common-law spouse who is financially supported by their partner may also be included in this definition. In some jurisdictions, supporting a dependant may enabl ...
, the Four Noble Truths
In Buddhism, the Four Noble Truths (Sanskrit: ; pi, cattāri ariyasaccāni; "The four Arya satyas") are "the truths of the Noble Ones", the truths or realities for the "spiritually worthy ones".[aFour Noble Truths: BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY Encycl ...
, the Noble Eightfold Path, the Refuge (Buddhism), Three Jewels, the Three marks of existence and the ''Bodhipakkhiyādhammā, bodhipakṣadharmas'' (aids to awakening). Mahāyāna Buddhism further accepts some of the ideas found in Buddhist Abhidharma thought. However, Mahāyāna also adds numerous Mahāyāna texts and doctrines, which are seen as definitive and in some cases superior teachings. D. T. Suzuki, D.T. Suzuki described the broad range and doctrinal liberality of Mahāyāna as "a vast ocean where all kinds of living beings are allowed to thrive in a most generous manner, almost verging on a chaos."
Paul Williams refers to the main impulse behind Mahāyāna as the vision which sees the motivation to achieve Buddhahood for sake of other beings as being the supreme religious motivation. This is the way that Atiśa, Atisha defines Mahāyāna in his ''Bodhipathapradīpa, Bodhipathapradipa''. As such, according to Williams, "Mahāyāna is not as such an institutional identity. Rather, it is inner motivation and vision, and this inner vision can be found in anyone regardless of their institutional position." Thus, instead of a specific school or sect, Mahāyāna is a "family term" or a religious tendency, which is united by "a vision of the ultimate goal of attaining full Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings (the 'bodhisattva ideal') and also (or eventually) a belief that Buddhas are still around and can be contacted (hence the possibility of an ongoing revelation)."
The Buddhas
Buddhahood, Buddhas and bodhisattva
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood.
In the Early Buddhist schools ...
s (beings on their way to Buddhahood) are central elements of Mahāyāna. Mahāyāna has a vastly expanded Buddhist cosmology, cosmology and Buddhist deities, theology, with various Buddhas and powerful bodhisattvas residing in different worlds and buddha-fields (''buddha kshetra'').[Williams, Paul, ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,'' Routledge, 2008, p. 21.] Buddhas unique to Mahāyāna include the Buddhas Amitābha
Amitābha ( sa, अमिताभ, IPA: ), also known as Amitāyus, is the primary Buddha of Pure Land Buddhism. In Vajrayana Buddhism, he is known for his longevity, discernment, pure perception, purification of aggregates, and deep awarene ...
("Infinite Light"), Five Wisdom Buddhas, Akṣobhya ("the Imperturbable"), Bhaisajyaguru, Bhaiṣajyaguru ("Medicine guru") and Vairocana
Vairocana (also Mahāvairocana, sa, वैरोचन) is a cosmic buddha from Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism. Vairocana is often interpreted, in texts like the ''Avatamsaka Sutra'', as the dharmakāya of the historical Gautama Buddha. In East ...
("the Illuminator"). In Mahāyāna, a Buddha is seen as a being that has achieved the highest kind of awakening due to his superior compassion and wish to help all beings.
An important feature of Mahāyāna is the way that it understands the nature of a Buddha, which differs from non-Mahāyāna understandings. Mahāyāna texts not only often depict numerous Buddhas besides Gautama Buddha, Sakyamuni, but see them as transcendental or supramundane (''lokuttara'') beings with great powers and huge lifetimes. The ''Lotus Sutra, White Lotus Sutra'' famously describes the lifespan of the Buddha as immeasurable and states that he actually achieved Buddhahood countless of eons (''kalpas'') ago and has been teaching the Dharma through his numerous avatars for an unimaginable period of time.
Furthermore, Buddhas are active in the world, constantly devising ways to teach and help all sentient beings. According to Paul Williams, in Mahāyāna, a Buddha is often seen as "a spiritual king, relating to and caring for the world", rather than simply a teacher who after his death "has completely 'gone beyond' the world and its cares".[Williams, Paul, ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,'' Routledge, 2008, p. 27.] Gautama Buddha, Buddha Sakyamuni's life and death on earth are then usually understood Docetism, docetically as a "mere appearance", his death is a show, while in actuality he remains out of compassion to help all sentient beings. Similarly, Guang Xing describes the Buddha in Mahāyāna as an Omnipotence, omnipotent and almighty divinity "endowed with numerous supernatural attributes and qualities."
The idea that Buddhas remain accessible is extremely influential in Mahāyāna and also allows for the possibility of having a reciprocal relationship with a Buddha through prayer, visions, devotion and revelations. Through the use of various practices, a Mahāyāna devotee can aspire to be reborn in a Buddha's pure land or buddha field (''Pure land, buddhakṣetra''), where they can strive towards Buddhahood in the best possible conditions. Depending on the sect, liberation into a buddha-field can be obtained by Faith in Buddhism, faith, meditation, or sometimes even by the Nianfo, repetition of Buddha's name. Faith-based devotional practices focused on rebirth in pure lands are common in East Asia Pure Land Buddhism.
The influential Mahāyāna concept of Trikaya, the three bodies (''trikāya'') of a Buddha developed to make sense of the transcendental nature of the Buddha. This doctrine holds that the "bodies of magical transformation" (''nirmāṇakāyas'') and the "enjoyment bodies" (''saṃbhogakāya'') are emanations from the ultimate Buddha body, the ''Dharmakāya, Dharmakaya,'' which is none other than the ultimate reality itself, i.e. emptiness
Emptiness as a human condition is a sense of generalized boredom, social alienation and apathy. Feelings of emptiness often accompany dysthymia, depression, loneliness, anhedonia,
despair, or other mental/emotional disorders, including schizoid ...
or ''Tathātā, Thusness''.
The Bodhisattvas
The Mahāyāna bodhisattva path (''mārga'') or vehicle (''Yana (Buddhism), yāna'') is seen as being the superior Spirituality, spiritual path by Mahāyānists, over and above the paths of those who seek arhat
In Buddhism, an ''arhat'' (Sanskrit: अर्हत्) or ''arahant'' (Pali: अरहन्त्, 𑀅𑀭𑀳𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁆) is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved ''Nirvana'' and liberated ...
ship or "solitary buddhahood" for their own sake (''Śrāvakayāna'' and ''Pratyekabuddhayāna''). Mahāyāna Buddhists generally hold that pursuing only the personal release from suffering i.e. Nirvana (Buddhism), nirvāṇa is a smaller or inferior aspiration (called "''hinayana''"), because it lacks the wish and resolve to liberate all other sentient beings from saṃsāra (the round of Rebirth (Buddhism), rebirth) by becoming a Buddha.''[Williams (2008), pp. 27-30, 46.][Conze, Edward]
The Perfection of Wisdom in eight thousand lines and its verse summary
/ref>''
This wish to help others is called ''bodhicitta''. One who engages in this path to complete buddhahood is called a bodhisattva
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood.
In the Early Buddhist schools ...
. High level bodhisattvas are seen as extremely powerful supramundane beings which are objects of devotion and prayer throughout Mahāyāna lands.[Williams and Tribe (2002), pp. 188-189.] Popular bodhisattvas which are revered across Mahāyāna include Avalokiteśvara, Avalokiteshvara, Manjushri, Tara (Buddhism), Tara and Maitreya. Bodhisattvas could reach the personal nirvana of the arhat
In Buddhism, an ''arhat'' (Sanskrit: अर्हत्) or ''arahant'' (Pali: अरहन्त्, 𑀅𑀭𑀳𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁆) is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved ''Nirvana'' and liberated ...
s, but they reject this goal and remain in saṃsāra to help others out of compassion.[Williams, Paul, ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,'' Routledge, 2008, p. 60.]
According to eighth-century Mahāyāna philosopher Haribhadra (Buddhist philosopher), Haribhadra, the term "bodhisattva" can technically refer to those who follow any of the three vehicles, since all are working towards ''Enlightenment in Buddhism, bodhi'' (awakening) and hence the technical term for a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is a ''mahāsattva'' (great being) ''bodhisattva''.[Williams, Paul, ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,'' Routledge, 2008, p. 55.] According to Paul Williams, a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is best defined as:that being who has taken the vow to be reborn, no matter how many times this may be necessary, in order to attain the highest possible goal, that of Complete and Perfect Buddhahood. This is for the benefit of all sentient beings.
There are two models for the nature of the bodhisattvas, which are seen in the various Mahāyāna texts. One is the idea that a bodhisattva must postpone their awakening until Buddhahood is attained. This could take Kalpa (eon), eons and in the meantime, they will help countless beings. After reaching Buddhahood, they do pass on to nirvāṇa. The second model is the idea that there are two kinds of nirvāṇa, the nirvāṇa of an arhat and a superior type of nirvāṇa called ''apratiṣṭhita'' (non-abiding, not-established) that allows a Buddha to remain forever engaged in the world. As noted by Paul Williams, the idea of ''apratiṣṭhita nirvāṇa'' may have taken some time to develop and is not obvious in some of the early Mahāyāna literature.
The Bodhisattva Path
In most classic Mahāyāna sources (as well as in non-Mahāyāna sources on the topic), the bodhisattva path is said to take three or four Asaṃkhyeya, ''asaṃkheyyas'' ("incalculable eons"), requiring a huge number of lifetimes of practice.[Drewes, David, ]
Mahāyāna Sūtras and Opening of the Bodhisattva Path
', Paper presented at the XVIII the IABS Congress, Toronto 2017, Updated 2019.
[Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 176.] However, certain practices are sometimes held to provide shortcuts to Buddhahood (these vary widely by tradition). According to the ''Bodhipathapradīpa'' (''A Lamp for the Path to Awakening'') by the Indian master Atiśa, the central defining feature of a bodhisattva's path is the universal aspiration to end suffering for themselves and all other beings, i.e. ''bodhicitta''.[Williams, Paul, ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,'' Routledge, 2008, pp. 195–196.]
The bodhisattva's spiritual path is traditionally held to begin with the revolutionary event called the "arising of the Awakening Mind" (''bodhicittotpāda''), which is the wish to become a Buddha in order to help all beings. This is achieved in different ways, such as the meditation taught by the Indian master Shantideva in his ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra, Bodhicaryavatara'' called "equalising self and others and exchanging self and others." Other Indian masters like Atisha and Kamalaśīla, Kamalashila also teach a meditation in which we contemplate how ''all'' beings have been our close relatives or friends in past lives. This contemplation leads to the arising of deep love (''maitrī'') and compassion (''karuṇā'') for others, and thus bodhicitta is generated.[Williams and Tribe (2002), pp. 177-178.] According to the Indian philosopher Shantideva, when great compassion and bodhicitta arises in a person's heart, they cease to be an ordinary person and become a "son or daughter of the Buddhas".
The idea of the bodhisattva
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood.
In the Early Buddhist schools ...
is not unique to Mahāyāna Buddhism and it is found in Theravada and other early Buddhist schools. However, these schools held that becoming a bodhisattva required a prediction of one's future Buddhahood in the presence of a living Buddha.[Drewes, David, ''Mahayana Sutras'', forthcoming in Blackwell Companion to South and Southeast Asian Buddhism, Updated 2016] In Mahāyāna a bodhisattva is applicable to any person from the moment they intend to become a Buddha (i.e. the arising of bodhicitta) and without the requirement of a living Buddha. Some Mahāyāna sūtras like the ''Lotus Sutra'', promote the bodhisattva path as being universal and open to everyone. Other texts disagree with this.[Williams, Paul, ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,'' Routledge, 2008, pp. 29, 36, 43.]
The generation of bodhicitta may then be followed by the taking of the bodhisattva vows to "lead to Nirvana the whole immeasurable world of beings" as the ''Prajñaparamita'' ''sutras'' state. This compassionate commitment to help others is the central characteristic of the Mahāyāna bodhisattva.[Williams, Paul, ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,'' Routledge, 2008, p. 56, 200.] These vows may be accompanied by certain ethical guidelines or Bodhisattva Precepts, bodhisattva precepts. Numerous sutras also state that a key part of the bodhisattva path is the practice of a set of virtues called Pāramitā, ''pāramitās'' (transcendent or supreme virtues). Sometimes six are outlined: giving, ethical discipline, patient endurance, diligence, meditation and transcendent wisdom.[Nagarjuna, B. Dharmamitra (trans), ''Nagarjuna on the Six Perfections'', Kalavinka Press, 2009.] Other sutras (like the ''Ten Stages Sutra, Daśabhūmika'') give a list of ten, with the addition of ''Upaya, upāya'' (skillful means), ''Bodhisattva vow, praṇidhāna'' (vow, resolution), ''Five Strengths, Bala'' (spiritual power) and ''Jnana, Jñāna'' (knowledge). Prajñā (Buddhism), ''Prajñā'' (transcendent knowledge or wisdom) is arguably the most important virtue of the bodhisattva. This refers to an understanding of the emptiness
Emptiness as a human condition is a sense of generalized boredom, social alienation and apathy. Feelings of emptiness often accompany dysthymia, depression, loneliness, anhedonia,
despair, or other mental/emotional disorders, including schizoid ...
of all phenomena, arising from study, deep consideration and meditation.
Bodhisattva levels
Various texts associate the beginning of the bodhisattva practice with what is called the "path of accumulation" or equipment (''saṃbhāra-mārga''), which is the first path of the classic Bhūmi (Buddhism)#Five Paths, five paths schema.[Williams, Paul, ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,'' Routledge, 2008, pp. 200–201.]
The ''Ten Stages Sutra, Daśabhūmika Sūtra'' as well as other texts also outline a series of bodhisattva levels or spiritual stages (Bhūmi (Buddhism), ''bhūmis'' ) on the path to Buddhahood. The various texts disagree on the number of stages however, the ''Daśabhūmika'' giving ten for example (and mapping each one to the ten paramitas), the ''Yogacarabhumi-sastra, Bodhisattvabhūmi'' giving seven and thirteen and the ''Avatamsaka Sutra, Avatamsaka'' outlining 40 stages.
In later Mahāyāna scholasticism, such as in the work of Kamalaśīla, Kamalashila and Atiśa, the five paths and ten Bhūmi (Buddhism), ''bhūmi'' systems are merged and this is the progressive path model that is used in Tibetan Buddhism
Tibetan Buddhism (also referred to as Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Lamaism, Lamaistic Buddhism, Himalayan Buddhism, and Northern Buddhism) is the form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet and Bhutan, where it is the dominant religion. It is also in majo ...
. According to Paul Williams, in these systems, the first Bhūmi (Buddhism), ''bhūmi'' is reached once one attains "direct, nonconceptual and nondual insight into emptiness in meditative absorption", which is associated with the path of seeing (''darśana-mārga''). At this point, a bodhisattva is considered an ''Arya (Buddhism), ārya'' (a noble being).
Skillful means and the One Vehicle
Skillful means or Expedient techniques (Skt. ''Upaya, upāya'') is another important virtue and doctrine in Mahāyāna Buddhism. The idea is most famously expounded in the ''Lotus Sutra, White Lotus Sutra'', and refers to any effective method or technique that is conducive to spiritual growth and leads beings to awakening and nirvana. This doctrine states that the Buddha adapts his teaching to whoever he is teaching to out of compassion. Because of this, it is possible that the Buddha may teach seemingly contradictory things to different people. This idea is also used to explain the vast textual corpus found in Mahāyāna.[Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 169.]
A closely related teaching is the doctrine of the One Vehicle (''ekayāna''). This teaching states that even though the Buddha is said to have taught three vehicles (the śrāvakayāna, disciples' vehicle, pratyekabuddhayāna, the vehicle of solitary Buddhas and the bodhisattva vehicle, which are accepted by all early Buddhist schools), these actually are all skillful means which lead to the same place: Buddhahood. Therefore, there really are not three vehicles in an ultimate sense, but one vehicle, the supreme vehicle of the Buddhas, which is taught in different ways depending on the faculties of individuals. Even those beings who think they have finished the path (i.e. the arhat
In Buddhism, an ''arhat'' (Sanskrit: अर्हत्) or ''arahant'' (Pali: अरहन्त्, 𑀅𑀭𑀳𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁆) is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved ''Nirvana'' and liberated ...
s) are actually not done, and they will eventually reach Buddhahood.
This doctrine was not accepted in full by all Mahāyāna traditions. The Yogācāra school famously defended an alternative theory that held that not all beings could become Buddhas. This became a subject of much debate throughout Mahāyāna Buddhist history.
Prajñāpāramitā (Transcendent Knowledge)
Some of the key Mahāyāna teachings are found in the '' Prajñāpāramitā'' ("Transcendent Knowledge" or "Perfection of Wisdom") texts, which are some of the earliest Mahāyāna works. Prajñāpāramitā is a deep knowledge of reality which Buddhas and bodhisattvas attain. It is a transcendent, non-conceptual and Nondualism, non-dual kind of knowledge into the true nature of things. This wisdom is also associated with insight into the emptiness
Emptiness as a human condition is a sense of generalized boredom, social alienation and apathy. Feelings of emptiness often accompany dysthymia, depression, loneliness, anhedonia,
despair, or other mental/emotional disorders, including schizoid ...
(''śūnyatā'') of dharmas (phenomena) and their illusory nature (''Maya (religion), māyā''). This amounts to the idea that all phenomena (Dharma theory, ''dharmas'') without exception have "no essential unchanging core" (i.e. they lack ''Svabhava, svabhāva,'' an essence or inherent nature), and therefore have "no fundamentally real existence." These empty phenomena are also said to be conceptual constructions.[Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 135.]
Because of this, all ''dharmas'' (things, phenomena), even the Buddha's Teaching, the Buddha himself, Nirvana, Nirvāṇa and all living beings, are like "illusions" or "magic" (''māyā'') and "dreams" (''Swapna (philosophy), svapna''). This emptiness or lack of real existence applies even to the apparent arising and ceasing of phenomena. Because of this, all phenomena are also described as unarisen (''Anutpada, anutpāda''), unborn (''ajata''), "beyond coming and going" in the Prajñāpāramitā literature. Most famously, the ''Heart Sutra'' states that "all phenomena are empty, that is, without characteristic, unproduced, unceased, stainless, not stainless, undiminished, unfilled." The Prajñāpāramitā texts also use various metaphors to describe the nature of things, for example, the ''Diamond Sutra'' compares phenomena to: "A shooting star, a clouding of the sight, a lamp, an illusion, a drop of dew, a bubble, a dream, a lightning's flash, a thunder cloud."
Prajñāpāramitā is also associated with not grasping, not taking a stand on or "not taking up" (''aparigṛhīta'') anything in the world. The ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'' explains it as "not grasping at form, not grasping at sensation, perception, volitions and cognition." This includes not grasping or taking up even correct Buddhist ideas or mental signs (such as "not-self", "emptiness", bodhicitta, vows), since these things are ultimately all empty concepts as well.
Attaining a state of fearless receptivity (''Kshanti, ksanti'') through the insight into the true nature of reality (''Dharmata, Dharmatā'') in an intuitive, non-conceptual manner is said to be the ''prajñāpāramitā,'' the highest spiritual wisdom. According to Edward Conze, the "patient acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas" (''anutpattika-dharmakshanti'') is "one of the most distinctive virtues of the Mahāyānistic saint." The Prajñāpāramitā texts also claim that this training is not just for Mahāyānists, but for all Buddhists following any of the three vehicles.
Madhyamaka (Centrism)
The Mahāyāna philosophical school termed Madhyamaka
Mādhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as Śūnyavāda ("the emptiness doctrine") and Niḥsvabhāvavāda ("the no ''svabhāva'' doctrine"), refers to a tradition of Buddhist ...
(Middle theory or Centrism, also known as ''śūnyavāda,'' 'the emptiness theory') was founded by the second-century figure of Nagarjuna
Nāgārjuna . 150 – c. 250 CE (disputed)was an Indian Mahāyāna Buddhist thinker, scholar-saint and philosopher. He is widely considered one of the most important Buddhist philosophers.Garfield, Jay L. (1995), ''The Fundamental Wisdom of ...
. This philosophical tradition focuses on refuting all theories which posit any kind of substance, inherent existence or intrinsic nature (''Svabhava, svabhāva'').
In his writings, Nagarjuna attempts to show that any theory of intrinsic nature is contradicted by the Buddha's theory of Pratītyasamutpāda, dependent origination, since anything that has an independent existence cannot be dependently originated. The ''śūnyavāda'' philosophers were adamant that their denial of Svabhava, ''svabhāva'' is not a kind of nihilism (against protestations to the contrary by their opponents).[Williams and Tribe (2002), pp. 70, 141.]
Using the Two truths doctrine, two truths theory, Madhyamaka claims that while one can speak of things existing in a conventional, relative sense, they do not exist inherently in an ultimate sense. Madhyamaka also argues that emptiness itself is also "empty", it does not have an absolute inherent existence of its own. It is also not to be understood as a transcendental absolute reality. Instead, the emptiness theory is merely a useful concept that should not be clung to. In fact, for Madhyamaka, since everything is empty of true existence, all things are just conceptualizations (''prajñapti-matra''), including the theory of emptiness, and all concepts must ultimately be abandoned in order to truly understand the nature of things.
Vijñānavāda (The Consciousness doctrine)
''Vijñānavāda'' ("the doctrine of consciousness", a.k.a. ''vijñapti-mātra,'' "perceptions only" and ''citta-mātra'' "mind only") is another important doctrine promoted by some Mahāyāna sutras which later became the central theory of a major philosophical movement which arose during the Gupta Empire, Gupta period called Yogachara, Yogācāra. The primary sutra associated with this school of thought is the ''Sandhinirmocana Sutra, Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra,'' which claims that ''śūnyavāda'' is not the final definitive teaching (Buddhist hermeneutics, ''nītārtha'') of the Buddha. Instead, the ultimate truth (''Two truths doctrine, paramārtha-satya'') is said to be the view that all things (''dharmas'') are only mind (''citta''), consciousness (''vijñāna'') or perceptions (''vijñapti'') and that seemingly "external" objects (or "internal" subjects) do not really exist apart from the Pratītyasamutpāda, dependently originated flow of mental experiences.
When this flow of mentality is seen as being empty of the subject-object duality we impose upon it, one reaches the Nondualism#Yogācāra tradition, non-dual cognition of "Thusness" (''tathatā''), which is nirvana. This doctrine is developed through various theories, the most important being the Eight Consciousnesses, eight consciousnesses and the three natures.[Williams, Paul, Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, 2002, pp. 89–91.] The ''Sandhinirmocana Sutra, Saṃdhinirmocana'' calls its doctrine the 'Three Turnings of the Wheel of Dharma, third turning of the dharma wheel.'' The ''Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra, Pratyutpanna sutra'' also mentions this doctrine, stating: "whatever belongs to this triple world is nothing but thought [''citta-mātra'']. Why is that? It is because however I imagine things, that is how they appear".
The most influential thinkers in this tradition were the Indian brothers Asanga
Asaṅga (, ; Romaji: ''Mujaku'') ( fl. 4th century C.E.) was "one of the most important spiritual figures" of Mahayana Buddhism and the "founder of the Yogachara school".Engle, Artemus (translator), Asanga, ''The Bodhisattva Path to Unsurpassed ...
and Vasubandhu
Vasubandhu (; Tibetan: དབྱིག་གཉེན་ ; floruit, fl. 4th to 5th century CE) was an influential bhikkhu, Buddhist monk and scholar from ''Puruṣapura'' in ancient India, modern day Peshawar, Pakistan. He was a philosopher who ...
, along with an obscure figure termed Maitreya-nātha, Maitreyanātha. Yogachara, Yogācāra philosophers developed their own Śūnyatā#Yogācāra school, interpretation of the doctrine of emptiness which also criticized Madhyamaka for falling into nihilism.
Buddha-nature
The doctrine of ''Tathāgata embryo'' or ''Tathāgata womb (Buddha-nature, Tathāgatagarbha),'' also known as ''Buddha-nature, matrix'' or ''principle'' (Sanskrit, Skt: ''Buddha-dhātu'') is important in all modern Mahāyāna traditions, though it is interpreted in many different ways. Broadly speaking, Buddha-nature is concerned with explaining what allows sentient beings to become Buddhas.[Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 160.] The earliest sources for this idea may include the ''Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra'' and the ''Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra''. The ''Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa'' refers to "a sacred nature that is the basis for [beings] becoming buddhas", and it also describes it as the 'Self' (''Ātman (Buddhism), atman'').[Zimmermann, Michael (2002)]
''A Buddha Within: The Tathāgatagarbhasūtra''
Biblotheca Philologica et Philosophica Buddhica VI, The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology, Soka University, pp. 82–83
David Seyfort Ruegg explains this concept as the base or support for the practice of the path, and thus it is the "cause" (''hetu'') for the fruit of Buddhahood. The ''Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra'' states that within the defilements is found "the tathagata's wisdom, the tathagata's vision, and the tathagata's body...eternally unsullied, and...replete with virtues no different from my own...the tathagatagarbhas of all beings are eternal and unchanging".[Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 162.]
The ideas found in the Buddha-nature literature are a source of much debate and disagreement among Mahāyāna Buddhist philosophers as well as modern academics. Some scholars have seen this as an influence from Brahmanic Hinduism, and some of these sutras admit that the use of the term 'Self' is partly done in order to win over non-Buddhist ascetics (in other words, it is a skillful means). According to some scholars, the Buddha-nature discussed in some Mahāyāna sūtras does not represent a substantial self (''Ātman (Hinduism), ātman'') which the Buddha critiqued; rather, it is a positive expression of Shunyata, emptiness (''śūnyatā'') and represents the potentiality to realize Buddhahood through Buddhist practices. Similarly, Williams thinks that this doctrine was not originally dealing with ontological issues, but with "religious issues of realising one's spiritual potential, exhortation, and encouragement."
The Buddha-nature genre of sūtras can be seen as an attempt to state Buddhist teachings using positive language while also maintaining the middle way, to prevent people from being turned away from Buddhism by a false impression of nihilism. This is the position taken by the ''Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra'', which states that the Buddhas teach the doctrine of ''tathāgatagarbha'' (which sounds similar to an atman) in order to help those beings who are attached to the idea of anatman. However, the sutra goes on to say that the ''tathāgatagarbha'' is empty and is not actually a substantial self.
A different view is defended by various modern scholars like Michael Zimmermann. This view is the idea that Buddha-nature sutras such as the ''Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, Mahāparinirvāṇa'' and the ''Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra'' teach an affirmative vision of an eternal, indestructible Buddhic Self. Shenpen Hookham, a western scholar and lama sees Buddha-nature as a True Self that is real and permanent. Similarly, C. D. Sebastian understands the ''Ratnagotravibhāga, Ratnagotravibhāga's'' view of this topic as a transcendental self that is "the unique essence of the universe".
Arguments for authenticity
Indian Mahāyāna Buddhists faced various criticisms from non-Mahāyānists regarding the authenticity of their teachings. The main critique they faced was that Mahāyāna teachings had not been taught by the Buddha, but were invented by later figures.[Sree Padma. Barber, Anthony W. ''Buddhism in the Krishna River Valley of Andhra.'' 2008. p. 68.] Numerous Mahāyāna texts discuss this issue and attempt to defend the truth and authenticity of Mahāyāna in various ways.[Werner et al (2013). ''The Bodhisattva Ideal: Essays on the Emergence of Mahayana.'' pp. 89-90, 211-212, 227. Buddhist Publication Society.]
One idea that Mahāyāna texts put forth is that Mahāyāna teachings were taught later because most people were unable to understand the Mahāyāna sūtras at the time of the Buddha and that people were ready to hear the Mahāyāna only in later times. Certain traditional accounts state that Mahāyāna sutras were hidden away or kept safe by divine beings like Nāga, Nagas or bodhisattvas until the time came for their dissemination.
Similarly, some sources also state that Mahāyāna teachings were revealed by other Buddhas, bodhisattvas and Deva (Buddhism), devas to a select number of individuals (often through visions or dreams). Some scholars have seen a connection between this idea and Mahāyāna meditation practices which involve the visualization of Buddhas and their Buddha-lands.
Another argument that Indian Buddhists used in favor of the Mahāyāna is that its teachings are true and lead to awakening since they are in line with the Dharma. Because of this, they can be said to be "well said" (''subhasita)'', and therefore, they can be said to be the word of the Buddha in this sense. This idea that whatever is "well spoken" is the Buddha's word can be traced to the earliest Buddhist texts, but it is interpreted more widely in Mahāyāna. From the Mahāyāna point of view, a teaching is the "word of the Buddha" because it is in accord with the Dharma, not because it was spoken by a specific individual (i.e. Gautama Buddha, Gautama). This idea can be seen in the writings of Shantideva (8th century), who argues that an "inspired utterance" is the Buddha word if it is "connected with the truth", "connected with the Dharma", "brings about renunciation of kleshas, not their increase" and "it shows the laudable qualities of nirvana, not those of samsara."
The modern Japanese Zen Buddhist scholar D. T. Suzuki similarly argued that while the Mahāyāna sūtras may not have been directly taught by the historical Buddha, the "spirit and central ideas" of Mahāyāna derive from the Buddha. According to Suzuki, Mahāyāna evolved and adapted itself to suit the times by developing new teachings and texts, while maintaining the spirit of the Buddha.
Claims of superiority
Mahāyāna often sees itself as penetrating further and more profoundly into the Buddha's Dharma. An Indian commentary on the ''Mahāyānasaṃgraha'', gives a classification of teachings according to the capabilities of the audience:
There is also a tendency in Mahāyāna sūtras to regard adherence to these sūtras as generating spiritual benefits greater than those that arise from being a follower of the non-Mahāyāna approaches. Thus the ''Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra'' claims that the Buddha said that devotion to Mahāyāna is inherently superior in its virtues to following the śrāvaka or pratyekabuddha paths.
The commentary on the ''Abhidharma-samuccaya, Abhidharmasamuccaya'' gives the following seven reasons for the "greatness" of the Mahayana:
# Greatness of support (ālambana): the path of the bodhisatva is supported by the limitless teachings of the ''Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred Thousand Verses'' and other texts;
# Greatness of practice (pratipatti): the comprehensive practice for the benefit of self and others (sva-para-artha);
# Greatness of understanding (jñāna): from understanding the absence of self in persons and phenomena (pudgala-dharma-nairātmya);
# Greatness of energy (vīrya): from devotion to many hundreds of thousands of difficult tasks during three incalculable great aeons (mahākalpa);
# Greatness of resourcefulness (upāyakauśalya): because of not taking a stand in Saṃsāra or Nirvāṇa;
# Greatness of attainment (prāpti): because of the attainment of immeasurable and uncountable powers (bala), confidences (vaiśāradya), and dharmas unique to Buddhas ( āveṇika-buddhadharma);
# Greatness of deeds (karma): because of willing the performance of the deeds of a Buddha until the end of Saṃsāra by displaying awakening, etc.
Practice
Mahāyāna Buddhist practice is quite varied. A common set of virtues and practices which is shared by all Mahāyāna traditions are the six perfections or transcendent virtues (''pāramitā'').
A central practice advocated by numerous Mahāyāna sources is focused around "the acquisition of Merit (Buddhism), merit, the universal currency of the Buddhist world, a vast quantity of which was believed to be necessary for the attainment of Buddhahood".[Drewes, David, Mahayana Sutras, forthcoming in Blackwell Companion to South and Southeast Asian Buddhism, Updated 2016]
Another important class of Mahāyāna Buddhist practice is textual practices that deal with listening to, memorizing, reciting, preaching, worshiping and copying Mahayana sutras, Mahāyāna sūtras.
Pāramitā
Mahāyāna sūtras, especially those of the ''Prajñāpāramitā'' genre, teach the practice of the six transcendent virtues or perfections (''pāramitā'') as part of the path to Buddhahood
In Buddhism, Buddha (; Pali, Sanskrit: 𑀩𑀼𑀤𑁆𑀥, बुद्ध), "awakened one", is a title for those who are awake, and have attained nirvana and Buddhahood through their own efforts and insight, without a teacher to point out ...
. Special attention is given to transcendent knowledge (''prajñāpāramitā''), which is seen as a primary virtue. According to Donald S. Lopez Jr., the term ''pāramitā'' can mean "excellence" or "perfection" as well as "that which has gone beyond" or "Transcendence (religion), transcendence".
The Prajnaparamita, ''Prajñapāramitā sūtras'', and a large number of other Mahāyāna texts list six perfections:
# ''Dāna pāramitā'': generosity, charity, giving
# ''Śīla pāramitā'': virtue, discipline, proper conduct (see also: Bodhisattva Precepts, Bodhisattva precepts)
# ''Kshanti, pāramitā'': patience, tolerance, forbearance, acceptance, endurance
# ''Vīrya pāramitā'': energy, diligence, vigour, effort
# ''Dhyāna in Buddhism, Dhyāna pāramitā'': one-pointed concentration, contemplation, meditation
# ''Prajnaparamita, Prajñā pāramitā'': transcendent wisdom, spiritual knowledge
This list is also mentioned by the Theravāda commentator Dhammapala, who describes it as a categorization of the same ten perfections of Theravada Buddhism. According to Dhammapala, ''Sacca'' is classified as both ''Śīla'' and ''Prajñā'', ''Mettā'' and ''Upekkhā'' are classified as ''Dhyāna'', and ''Adhiṭṭhāna'' falls under all six. Bhikkhu Bodhi states that the correlations between the two sets show there was a shared core before the Theravada and Mahayana schools split.
In the ''Ten Stages Sutra'' and the ''Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra'', four more pāramitās are listed:
: 7. ''Upaya, Upāya pāramitā'': skillful means
: 8. ''Bodhisattva vow, Praṇidhāna pāramitā'': vow, resolution, aspiration, determination, this related to the bodhisattva vows
: 9. ''Five Strengths, Bala pāramitā'': spiritual power
: 10. ''Jnana, Jñāna pāramitā'': knowledge
Meditation
Mahāyāna Buddhism teaches a vast array of meditation practices. These include meditations which are shared with the early Buddhist traditions, including Anapanasati, mindfulness of breathing; Patikulamanasikara, mindfulness of the unattractivenes of the body; Maitrī, loving-kindness; the contemplation of Pratītyasamutpāda, dependent origination; and Buddhānusmṛti, mindfulness of the Buddha.[Ven. Dr. Yuanci]
''A Study of the Meditation Methods in the DESM and Other Early Chinese Texts''
The Buddhist Academy of China. In Chinese Buddhism, these five practices are known as the "five methods for stilling or pacifying the mind" and support the development of the stages of Dhyāna in Buddhism, ''dhyana''.
The Yogacarabhumi-sastra, ''Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra'' (compiled c. 4th century), which is the most comprehensive Indian treatise on Mahāyāna practice, discusses classic Buddhist numerous meditation methods and topics, including the four Dhyāna in Buddhism, ''dhyānas'', the different kinds of Samadhi, ''samādhi'', the development of insight (''vipaśyanā'') and tranquility (''Samatha, śamatha''), the Satipatthana, four foundations of mindfulness (''smṛtyupasthāna''), the five hindrances (''Five hindrances, nivaraṇa''), and classic Buddhist meditations such as the contemplation of unattractiveness, impermanence (''Impermanence, anitya''), suffering (''Dukkha, duḥkha''), and contemplation death (''Maraṇasati, maraṇasaṃjñā'').
Other works of the Yogacarabhumi-sastra, Yogācāra school, such as Asaṅga's ''Abhidharma-samuccaya, Abhidharmasamuccaya,'' and Vasubandhu's ''Madhyanta-vibhaga-karika, Madhyāntavibhāga-bhāsya'' also discuss meditation topics such as Sati (Buddhism), mindfulness, ''Satipatthana, smṛtyupasthāna,'' the Bodhipakkhiyādhammā, 37 wings to awakening'','' and ''samadhi
''Samadhi'' (Pali and sa, समाधि), in Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and yogic schools, is a state of meditative consciousness. In Buddhism, it is the last of the eight elements of the Noble Eightfold Path. In the Ashtanga Yoga ...
''.
A very popular Mahāyāna practice from very early times involved the visualization of a Buddha while practicing mindfulness of a Buddha (''buddhānusmṛti'') along with their Pure Land. This practice could lead the meditator to feel that they were in the presence of the Buddha and in some cases it was held that it could lead to visions of the Buddhas, through which one could receive teachings from them.[Williams and Tribe (2002), p. 109-110]
This meditation is taught in numerous Mahāyāna sūtras such as the Pure Land Buddhism#Pure Land sutras, Pure Land sutras, the ''Akṣobhya-vyūha'' and the ''Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra, Pratyutpanna Samādhi''. The ''Pratyutpanna'' states that through mindfulness of the Buddha meditation one may be able to meet this Buddha in a vision or a dream and learn from them.
Similarly, the ''Samadhiraja Sutra, Samādhirāja Sūtra'' for states that:Those who, while walking, sitting, standing, or sleeping, recollect the moon-like Buddha, will always be in Buddha's presence and will attain the vast nirvāṇa. His pure body is the colour of gold, beautiful is the Protector of the World. Whoever visualizes him like this practises the meditation of the bodhisattvas.
In the case of Pure Land Buddhism, it is widely held that the practice of reciting the Buddha's name (called ''nianfo'' in Chinese and ''nembutsu'' in Japanese) can lead to rebirth in a Buddha's Pure Land, as well as other positive outcomes. In East Asian Buddhism, the most popular Buddha used for this practice is Amitābha, Amitabha.
East Asian Mahāyāna Buddhism also developed numerous unique meditation methods, including the Chan (Zen) practices of Hua Tou, huatou, Koan, koan meditation, and Shikantaza, silent illumination (Jp. ''shikantaza''). Tibetan Buddhism also includes numerous unique forms of contemplation, such as ''tonglen'' ("sending and receiving") and ''lojong'' (''"mind training"'').
There are also numerous meditative practices that are generally considered to be part of a separate category rather than general or mainstream Mahāyāna meditation. These are the various practices associated with Vajrayāna
Vajrayāna ( sa, वज्रयान, "thunderbolt vehicle", "diamond vehicle", or "indestructible vehicle"), along with Mantrayāna, Guhyamantrayāna, Tantrayāna, Secret Mantra, Tantric Buddhism, and Esoteric Buddhism, are names referring t ...
(also termed Mantrayāna, Secret Mantra, Buddhist Tantra, and Esoteric Buddhism). This family of practices, which include such varied forms as Tibetan Tantric Practice, Deity Yoga, Dzogchen, Mahamudra, the Six Dharmas of Naropa, Six Dharmas of Nāropa, the recitation of mantras and dharanis, and the use of mudras and mandalas, are very important in Tibetan Buddhism as well as in some forms of East Asian Buddhism (like Shingon
file:Koyasan (Mount Koya) monks.jpg, Shingon monks at Mount Koya
is one of the major schools of Buddhism in Japan and one of the few surviving Vajrayana lineages in East Asia, originally spread from India to China through traveling monks suc ...
and Tendai).
Scripture
Mahāyāna Buddhism takes the basic teachings of the Buddha as recorded in Early Buddhist Texts, early scriptures as the starting point of its teachings, such as those concerning Karma in Buddhism, karma and Rebirth (Buddhism), rebirth, Anatman, anātman, Shunyata, emptiness, dependent origination, and the Four Noble Truths
In Buddhism, the Four Noble Truths (Sanskrit: ; pi, cattāri ariyasaccāni; "The four Arya satyas") are "the truths of the Noble Ones", the truths or realities for the "spiritually worthy ones".[aFour Noble Truths: BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY Encycl ...
. East Asian Buddhism, Mahāyāna Buddhists in East Asia have traditionally studied these teachings in the Āgamas preserved in the Chinese Buddhist canon. "Āgama" is the term used by those traditional Buddhist schools in India who employed Sanskrit for their basic canon. These correspond to the Nikāya
''Nikāya'' () is a Pāli word meaning "volume". It is often used like the Sanskrit word '' āgama'' () to mean "collection", "assemblage", "class" or "group" in both Pāḷi and Sanskrit. It is most commonly used in reference to the Pali Buddhist ...
s used by the Theravāda school. The surviving Āgamas in Chinese translation belong to at least two schools. Most of the Āgamas were never translated into the Tibetan Buddhist canon, Tibetan canon, which according to Hirakawa, only contains a few translations of early sutras corresponding to the Nikāya
''Nikāya'' () is a Pāli word meaning "volume". It is often used like the Sanskrit word '' āgama'' () to mean "collection", "assemblage", "class" or "group" in both Pāḷi and Sanskrit. It is most commonly used in reference to the Pali Buddhist ...
s or Āgamas. However, these basic doctrines are contained in Tibetan translations of later works such as the Abhidharmakośakārikā, ''Abhidharmakośa'' and the ''Yogacarabhumi-sastra, Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra.''
Mahāyāna sutras
In addition to accepting the essential scriptures of the early Buddhist schools as valid, Mahāyāna Buddhism maintains large collections of sūtras that are not recognized as authentic by the modern Theravada, Theravāda school. The earliest of these sutras do not call themselves 'Mahāyāna', but use the terms ''vaipulya'' (extensive) sutras, or ''gambhira'' (profound) sutras. These were also not recognized by some individuals in the early Buddhist schools. In other cases, Buddhist communities such as the Mahāsāṃghika
The Mahāsāṃghika (Brahmi: 𑀫𑀳𑀸𑀲𑀸𑀁𑀖𑀺𑀓, "of the Great Sangha", ) was one of the early Buddhist schools. Interest in the origins of the Mahāsāṃghika school lies in the fact that their Vinaya recension appears in se ...
school were divided along these doctrinal lines. In Mahāyāna Buddhism, the Mahayana sutras, Mahāyāna sūtras are often given greater authority than the Āgamas. The first of these Mahāyāna-specific writings were written probably around the 1st century BCE or 1st-century CE.[''Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism'' (2004): p. 293][Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993). ''A History of Indian Buddhism''. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass: p. 252] Some influential Mahāyāna sutras are the ''Prajnaparamita, Prajñaparamita sutras'' such as the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra,'' the ''Lotus Sutra,'' the ''Pure Land Buddhism#Pure Land sutras, Pure Land sutras,'' the ''Vimalakirti Sutra,'' the ''Golden Light Sutra,'' the ''Avatamsaka Sutra,'' the ''Sandhinirmocana Sutra'' and the ''Tathāgatagarbha sūtras.''
According to David Drewes, Mahāyāna sutras contain several elements besides the promotion of the bodhisattva
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood.
In the Early Buddhist schools ...
ideal, including "expanded cosmologies and mythical histories, ideas of Pure Land Buddhism, purelands and great, 'celestial' Buddhahood, Buddhas and bodhisattvas, descriptions of powerful new religious practices, new ideas on the nature of the Buddha, and a range of new philosophical perspectives." These texts present stories of revelation in which the Buddha teaches Mahāyāna sutras to certain bodhisattvas who vow to teach and spread these sutras after the Buddha's death. Regarding religious praxis, David Drewes outlines the most commonly promoted practices in Mahāyāna sutras were seen as means to achieve Buddhahood quickly and easily and included "hearing the names of certain Buddhas or bodhisattvas, maintaining Buddhist precepts, and listening to, memorizing, and copying sutras, that they claim can enable rebirth in the pure lands Abhirati and Sukhavati, where it is said to be possible to easily acquire the Merit (Buddhism), merit and knowledge necessary to become a Buddha in as little as one lifetime." Another widely recommended practice is ''anumodana'', or rejoicing in the good deeds of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.
The practice of meditation and visualization of Buddhas has been seen by some scholars as a possible explanation for the source of certain Mahāyāna sutras which are seen traditionally as direct visionary revelations from the Buddhas in their pure lands. Paul Harrison has also noted the importance of dream revelations in certain Mahāyāna sutras such as the ''Arya-svapna-nirdesa'' which lists and interprets 108 dream signs.
As noted by Paul Williams, one feature of Mahāyāna sutras (especially earlier ones) is "the phenomenon of laudatory self-reference – the lengthy praise of the sutra itself, the immense merits to be obtained from treating even a verse of it with reverence, and the nasty penalties which will accrue in accordance with karma to those who denigrate the scripture." Some Mahāyāna sutras also warn against the accusation that they are not the word of the Buddha (''buddhavacana),'' such as the ''Astasāhasrikā (8,000 verse) Prajñāpāramitā,'' which states that such claims come from Mara (demon), Mara (the evil tempter). Some of these Mahāyāna sutras also warn those who would denigrate Mahāyāna sutras or those who preach it (i.e. the ''dharmabhanaka'') that this action can lead to rebirth in Naraka (Buddhism), hell.
Another feature of some Mahāyāna sutras, especially later ones, is increasing sectarianism and animosity towards non-Mahāyāna practitioners (sometimes called ''sravakas'', "hearers") which are sometimes depicted as being part of the 'hinayana, hīnayāna' (the 'inferior way') who refuse to accept the 'superior way' of the Mahāyāna. As noted by Paul Williams, earlier Mahāyāna sutras like the ''Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra
The ''Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra'' (''The inquiry of Ugra'') is an early Indian sutra which is particularly important for understanding the beginnings of Mahayana Buddhism. It contains positive references to both the path of the bodhisattva and the p ...
'' and the ''Ajitasena Sutra, Ajitasena sutra'' do not present any antagonism towards the hearers or the ideal of arhat
In Buddhism, an ''arhat'' (Sanskrit: अर्हत्) or ''arahant'' (Pali: अरहन्त्, 𑀅𑀭𑀳𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁆) is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved ''Nirvana'' and liberated ...
ship like later sutras do. Regarding the bodhisattva path, some Mahāyāna sutras promote it as a universal path for everyone, while others like the ''Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra, Ugraparipṛcchā'' see it as something for a small elite of hardcore ascetics.
In the 4th-century Mahāyāna Abhidharma work ''Abhidharma-samuccaya, Abhidharmasamuccaya'', Asanga, Asaṅga refers to the collection which contains the āgamas as the ''Śrāvakapiṭaka'' and associates it with the sravaka, śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas.[Boin-Webb, Sara (tr). Rahula, Walpola (tr). Asanga. ''Abhidharma Samuccaya: The Compendium of Higher Teaching.'' 2001. pp. 199–200] Asaṅga classifies the Mahāyāna sūtras as belonging to the ''Bodhisattvapiṭaka'', which is designated as the collection of teachings for bodhisattvas.
Other literature
Mahāyāna Buddhism also developed a massive commentarial and exegetical literature, many of which are called shastras, ''śāstra'' (treatises) or ''vrittis'' (commentaries). Philosophical texts were also written in verse form (''karikās''), such as in the case of the famous ''Mulamadhyamakakarika, Mūlamadhyamika-karikā'' (Root Verses on the Middle Way) by Nagarjuna
Nāgārjuna . 150 – c. 250 CE (disputed)was an Indian Mahāyāna Buddhist thinker, scholar-saint and philosopher. He is widely considered one of the most important Buddhist philosophers.Garfield, Jay L. (1995), ''The Fundamental Wisdom of ...
, the foundational text of Madhyamika philosophy. Numerous later Madhyamika
Mādhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as Śūnyavāda ("the emptiness doctrine") and Niḥsvabhāvavāda ("the no ''svabhāva'' doctrine"), refers to a tradition of Buddhist ...
philosophers like Chandrakirti, Candrakirti wrote commentaries on this work as well as their own verse works.
Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition also relies on numerous non-Mahayana commentaries (śāstra), a very influential one being the ''Abhidharmakośakārikā, Abhidharmakosha'' of Vasubandhu
Vasubandhu (; Tibetan: དབྱིག་གཉེན་ ; floruit, fl. 4th to 5th century CE) was an influential bhikkhu, Buddhist monk and scholar from ''Puruṣapura'' in ancient India, modern day Peshawar, Pakistan. He was a philosopher who ...
, which is written from a non-Mahayana Sarvastivada–Sautrāntika, Sautrantika perspective.
Vasubandhu
Vasubandhu (; Tibetan: དབྱིག་གཉེན་ ; floruit, fl. 4th to 5th century CE) was an influential bhikkhu, Buddhist monk and scholar from ''Puruṣapura'' in ancient India, modern day Peshawar, Pakistan. He was a philosopher who ...
is also the author of various Mahāyāna Yogacara
Yogachara ( sa, योगाचार, IAST: '; literally "yoga practice"; "one whose practice is yoga") is an influential tradition of Buddhist philosophy and psychology emphasizing the study of cognition, perception, and consciousness through t ...
texts on the philosophical theory known as ''vijñapti-matra'' (conscious construction only). The Yogacara school philosopher Asanga
Asaṅga (, ; Romaji: ''Mujaku'') ( fl. 4th century C.E.) was "one of the most important spiritual figures" of Mahayana Buddhism and the "founder of the Yogachara school".Engle, Artemus (translator), Asanga, ''The Bodhisattva Path to Unsurpassed ...
is also credited with numerous highly influential commentaries. In East Asia, the Satyasiddhi, ''Satyasiddhi śāstra'' was also influential.
Another influential tradition is that of Dignaga, Dignāga's Buddhist logic whose work focused on epistemology. He produced the ''Pramāṇa-samuccaya, Pramānasamuccaya'', and later Dharmakirti wrote the ''Pramanavarttika, Pramānavārttikā'', which was a commentary and reworking of the Dignaga text.
Later Tibetan and Chinese Buddhists continued the tradition of writing commentaries.
Classifications
Dating back at least to the ''Sandhinirmocana Sutra, Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra'' is a classification of the corpus of Buddhism into three categories, based on ways of understanding the nature of reality, known as the "three turnings of the wheel of dharma, Three Turnings of the Dharma Wheel". According to this view, there were three such "turnings":[Joseph Kitagawa, Kitagawa, Joseph Mitsuo (2002). ''The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture''. Routledge. : p. 80]
# In the first turning, the Buddha taught the Four Noble Truths
In Buddhism, the Four Noble Truths (Sanskrit: ; pi, cattāri ariyasaccāni; "The four Arya satyas") are "the truths of the Noble Ones", the truths or realities for the "spiritually worthy ones".[aFour Noble Truths: BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY Encycl ...
at Varanasi for those in the shravaka, śravaka vehicle. It is described as marvelous and wonderful, but requires interpretation and occasioning controversy.[Keenan, John (2000). ''The Scripture on the Explication of the Underlying Meaning''. Numata Center. : p. 49] The doctrines of the first turning are exemplified in the ''Dhammacakkapavattana Sutta, Dharmacakra Pravartana Sūtra''. This turning represents the earliest phase of the Buddhist teachings and the earliest period in the history of Buddhism.
# In the second turning, the Buddha taught the Mahāyāna teachings to the bodhisattvas, teaching that all phenomena have no-essence, no arising, no passing away, are originally quiescent, and essentially in cessation. This turning is also described as marvelous and wonderful, but requiring interpretation and occasioning controversy. Doctrine of the second turning is established in the Prajñāpāramitā teachings, first put into writing around 100 BCE. In Indian philosophical schools, it is exemplified by the Mādhyamaka school of Nagarjuna, Nāgārjuna.
# In the third turning, the Buddha taught similar teachings to the second turning, but for everyone in the three vehicles, including all the śravakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas. These were meant to be completely explicit teachings in their entire detail, for which interpretations would not be necessary, and controversy would not occur. These teachings were established by the ''Sandhinirmocana Sutra, Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra'' as early as the 1st or 2nd century CE. In the Indian philosophical schools, the third turning is exemplified by the Yogachara, Yogācāra school of Asaṅga and Vasubandhu
Vasubandhu (; Tibetan: དབྱིག་གཉེན་ ; floruit, fl. 4th to 5th century CE) was an influential bhikkhu, Buddhist monk and scholar from ''Puruṣapura'' in ancient India, modern day Peshawar, Pakistan. He was a philosopher who ...
.
Some traditions of Tibetan Buddhism
Tibetan Buddhism (also referred to as Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Lamaism, Lamaistic Buddhism, Himalayan Buddhism, and Northern Buddhism) is the form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet and Bhutan, where it is the dominant religion. It is also in majo ...
consider the teachings of Esoteric Buddhism and Vajrayāna
Vajrayāna ( sa, वज्रयान, "thunderbolt vehicle", "diamond vehicle", or "indestructible vehicle"), along with Mantrayāna, Guhyamantrayāna, Tantrayāna, Secret Mantra, Tantric Buddhism, and Esoteric Buddhism, are names referring t ...
to be the third turning of the Dharma Wheel. Tibetan teachers, particularly of the Gelugpa school, regard the second turning as the highest teaching, because of their particular interpretation of Yogācāra doctrine. The Tathagatagarbha, Buddha Nature teachings are normally included in the third turning of the wheel.
The different Chinese Buddhism, Chinese Buddhist traditions have different schemes of doctrinal periodization called ''Three Turnings of the Wheel of Dharma#Other similar classifications, panjiao'' which they use to organize the sometimes bewildering array of texts.
Relationship with the early texts
Scholars have noted that many key Mahāyāna ideas are closely connected to the Early Buddhist Texts, earliest texts of Buddhism. The seminal work of Mahāyāna philosophy, Nagarjuna, Nāgārjuna's ''Mulamadhyamakakarika, Mūlamadhyamakakārikā'', mentions the canon's ''Katyāyana Sūtra'' (SA 301) by name, and may be an extended commentary on that work. Nāgārjuna systematized the Mādhyamaka
Mādhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as Śūnyavāda ("the emptiness doctrine") and Niḥsvabhāvavāda ("the no ''svabhāva'' doctrine"), refers to a tradition of Buddhist ...
school of Mahāyāna philosophy. He may have arrived at his positions from a desire to achieve a consistent exegesis of the Buddha's doctrine as recorded in the canon. In his eyes, the Buddha was not merely a forerunner, but the very founder of the Mādhyamaka system. Nāgārjuna also referred to a passage in the canon regarding "Nirvana#Luminous consciousness, nirvanic consciousness" in two different works.
Yogācāra
Yogachara ( sa, योगाचार, IAST: '; literally "yoga practice"; "one whose practice is yoga") is an influential tradition of Buddhist philosophy and psychology emphasizing the study of cognition, perception, and consciousness through t ...
, the other prominent Mahāyāna school in dialectic with the Mādhyamaka school, gave a special significance to the canon's ''Lesser Discourse on Emptiness'' (MA 190). A passage there (which the discourse itself emphasizes) is often quoted in later Yogācāra texts as a true definition of emptiness
Emptiness as a human condition is a sense of generalized boredom, social alienation and apathy. Feelings of emptiness often accompany dysthymia, depression, loneliness, anhedonia,
despair, or other mental/emotional disorders, including schizoid ...
. According to Walpola Rahula, the thought presented in the Yogācāra school's ''Abhidharma-samuccaya'' is undeniably closer to that of the Pali Nikayas than is that of the Theravadin Abhidhamma.
Both the Mādhyamikas and the Yogācārins saw themselves as preserving the Buddhist Middle Way between the extremes of nihilism (everything as unreal) and substantialism (substantial entities existing). The Yogācārins criticized the Mādhyamikas for tending towards nihilism, while the Mādhyamikas criticized the Yogācārins for tending towards substantialism.
Key Mahāyāna texts introducing the concepts of bodhicitta and Buddha nature also use language parallel to passages in the canon containing the Buddha's description of "luminous mind" and appear to have evolved from this idea.
Contemporary Mahāyāna Buddhism
The main contemporary traditions of Mahāyāna in Asia are:
* The East Asian Mahāyāna traditions of China, Korea, Japan and Vietnam, also known as "Eastern Buddhism". Peter Harvey (Buddhism), Peter Harvey estimates that there are about 360 million Eastern Buddhists in Asia.
* The Tibetan Buddhism, Indo-Tibetan tradition (mainly found in Tibet, Mongolia, Bhutan, parts of India and Nepal), also known as "Northern Buddhism". According to Harvey "the number of people belonging to Northern Buddhism totals only around 18.2 million."
There are also some minor Mahāyāna traditions practiced by minority groups, such as Newar Buddhism practiced by the Newar people (Nepal
Nepal (; ne, नेपाल ), formerly the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal ( ne,
सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल ), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is mai ...
) and Azhaliism practiced by the Bai people (Yunnan).
Furthermore, there are also various new religious movements which either see themselves as Mahāyāna or are strongly influenced by Mahāyāna Buddhism. Examples of these include Hòa Hảo, Won Buddhism, Triratna Buddhist Community and Soka Gakkai, Sōka Gakkai.
Lastly, some religious traditions such as Bon and Shugendō, Shugendo are strongly influenced by Mahāyāna Buddhism, though they may not be considered as being "Buddhist" per se.
Most of the major forms of contemporary Mahāyāna Buddhism are also practiced by Asian immigrant populations in the West and also by western convert Buddhists. For more on this topic see: Buddhism in the West.
Chinese
Contemporary Chinese Buddhism, Chinese Mahāyāna Buddhism (also known as Han Chinese, Han Buddhism) is practiced through many varied forms, such as Chan Buddhism, Chan, Pure Land Buddhism, Pure land, Tiantai
Tiantai or T'ien-t'ai () is an East Asian Buddhist school of Mahāyāna Buddhism that developed in 6th-century China. The school emphasizes the ''Lotus Sutra's'' doctrine of the "One Vehicle" (''Ekayāna'') as well as Mādhyamaka philosophy, ...
, Huayan and Chinese Esoteric Buddhism, mantra practices. This group is the largest population of Buddhists in the world. There are between 228 and 239 million Mahāyāna Buddhists in the China, People's Republic of China (this does not include the Tibetan and Mongolian Buddhists who practice Tibetan Buddhism).[Harvey, Peter (2013). ''An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices'', p. 403.]
Harvey also gives the East Asian Mahāyāna Buddhist population in other nations as follows: Buddhism in Taiwan, Taiwanese Buddhists, 8 million; Buddhism in Malaysia, Malaysian Buddhists, 5.5 million; Buddhism in Singapore, Singaporean Buddhists, 1.5 million; Buddhism in Hong Kong, Hong Kong, 0.7 million; Buddhism in Indonesia, Indonesian Buddhists, 4 million, Buddhism in the Philippines, The Philippines: 2.3 million. Most of these are Han Chinese populations.
Chinese Buddhism can be divided into various different traditions (''zong''), such as East Asian Mādhyamaka, Sanlun, East Asian Yogācāra, Faxiang, Tiantai
Tiantai or T'ien-t'ai () is an East Asian Buddhist school of Mahāyāna Buddhism that developed in 6th-century China. The school emphasizes the ''Lotus Sutra's'' doctrine of the "One Vehicle" (''Ekayāna'') as well as Mādhyamaka philosophy, ...
, Huayan, Pure Land
A pure land is the celestial realm of a buddha or bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism. The term "pure land" is particular to East Asian Buddhism () and related traditions; in Sanskrit the equivalent concept is called a buddha-field (Sanskrit ). Th ...
, Chan Buddhism, Chan, and Chinese Esoteric Buddhism, Zhenyan. However, historically, most temples, institutions and Buddhist practitioners usually did not belong to any single "sect" (as is common in Japanese Buddhism), but draw from the various different elements of Chinese Buddhist thought and practice. This non-sectarian and eclectic aspect of Chinese Buddhism as a whole has persisted from its historical beginnings into its modern practice. The modern development of an ideaology called Humanistic Buddhism (Chinese
Chinese can refer to:
* Something related to China
* Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity
**''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation
** List of ethnic groups in China, people of ...
: 人間佛教; pinyin: ''rénjiān fójiào, more literally'' "Buddhism for the Human World") has also been influential on Chinese Buddhist leaders and institutions. In addition, Chinese Buddhists may also practice some form of religious syncretism with other Religion in China, Chinese religions, such as Taoism. In modern China, the Chinese economic reform, reform and opening up period in the late 20th century saw a particularly significant increase in the number of converts to Chinese Buddhism, a growth which has been called "extraordinary". Outside of mainland China, Chinese Buddhism is also practiced in Taiwan
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the nort ...
and wherever there are Overseas Chinese, Chinese diaspora communities.
Korean
Korean Buddhism consists mostly of the Korean Korean Seon, Seon school (i.e. Zen), primarily represented by the Jogye Order and the Taego Order. Korean Seon also includes some Pure Land practice. It is mainly practiced in South Korea, with a rough population of about 10.9 million Buddhists. There are also some minor schools, such as the Cheontae (i.e. Korean Tiantai), and the esoteric Jingak Order, Jingak and Chinŏn schools.
While North Korea's Totalitarianism, totalitarian government remains repressive and ambivalent towards religion, at least 11 percent of the population is considered to be Buddhist according to Williams.
Japanese
Buddhism in Japan, Japanese Buddhism is divided into numerous traditions which include various sects of Pure Land Buddhism#Japanese Buddhism, Pure Land Buddhism, Tendai, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon
file:Koyasan (Mount Koya) monks.jpg, Shingon monks at Mount Koya
is one of the major schools of Buddhism in Japan and one of the few surviving Vajrayana lineages in East Asia, originally spread from India to China through traveling monks suc ...
and Japanese Zen, Zen. There are also various Mahāyāna oriented Japanese new religions that arose in the Post-war, post-war period. Many of these new religions are lay movements like Soka Gakkai, Sōka Gakkai and Agon Shu, Agon Shū.
An estimate of the Japanese Mahāyāna Buddhist population is given by Harvey as 52 million and a recent 2018 survey puts the number at 84 million. It should also be noted that many Japanese Buddhists also participate in Shinto practices, such as visiting shrines, collecting amulets and attending festivals.
Vietnamese
Buddhism in Vietnam, Vietnamese Buddhism is strongly influenced by the Chinese tradition. It is a synthesis of numerous practices and ideas. Vietnamese Mahāyāna draws practices from Vietnamese Thiền, Vietnamese ''Thiền'' (Chan/Zen), ''Tịnh độ'' (Pure Land), and ''Mật Tông'' (Mantrayana) and its philosophy from ''Hoa Nghiêm'' (Huayan) and ''Thiên Thai'' (Tiantai). New Mahāyāna movements have also developed in the modern era, perhaps the most influential of which has been Thích Nhất Hạnh's Plum Village Tradition, which also draws from Theravada Buddhism.
Though Vietnamese Buddhism suffered extensively during the Vietnam War, Vietnam war (1955-1975) and during subsequent Fall of Saigon, communist takeover of the south, there has been a revival of the religion since the liberalization period following 1986. There are about 43 million Vietnamese Mahāyāna Buddhists.
Northern Buddhism
Tibetan Buddhism, Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism or "Northern" Buddhism derives from the Indian Vajrayana Buddhism that was adopted in medieval Tibet. Though it includes numerous Tibetan Tantric Practice, tantric Buddhist practices not found in East Asian Mahāyāna, Northern Buddhism still considers itself as part of Mahāyāna Buddhism (albeit as one which also contains a more effective and distinct vehicle or ''yana'').
Contemporary Northern Buddhism is traditionally practiced mainly in the Himalayas, Himalayan regions and in some regions of Central Asia
Central Asia, also known as Middle Asia, is a subregion, region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes t ...
, including:
* The Tibet Autonomous Region, Tibet autonomous region (PRC): 5.4 million
* North and North-east India (Sikkim, Sikkhim, Ladakh, West Bengal, Jammu and Kashmir (state), Jammu and Kashmir): 0.4 million
* Pakistan: 0.16 million
* Nepal
Nepal (; ne, नेपाल ), formerly the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal ( ne,
सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल ), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is mai ...
: 2.9 million
* Bhutan
Bhutan (; dz, འབྲུག་ཡུལ་, Druk Yul ), officially the Kingdom of Bhutan,), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is situated in the Eastern Himalayas, between China in the north and India in the south. A mountainous ...
: 0.49 million
* Mongolia
Mongolia; Mongolian script: , , ; lit. "Mongol Nation" or "State of Mongolia" () is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south. It covers an area of , with a population of just 3.3 million, ...
: 2.7 million
* Inner Mongolia (PRC): 5 million
* Buryatia, Tuva and Kalmykia (Russia, Russian Federation): 0.7 million
As with Eastern Buddhism, the practice of northern Buddhism declined in Tibet, China and Mongolia during the communist takeover of these regions (Mongolia: 1924, Tibet: 1959). Tibetan Buddhism continued to be practiced among the Tibetan diaspora population, as well as by other Himalayan peoples in Bhutan, Ladakh and Nepal. Post-1980s though, Northern Buddhism has seen a revival in both Tibet and Mongolia due to more liberal government policies towards religious freedom. Northern Buddhism is also now practiced in the Western world by western convert Buddhists.
Theravāda school
Role of the Bodhisattva
In the early Buddhist texts, and as taught by the modern Theravada school, the goal of becoming a teaching Buddha in a future life is viewed as the aim of a small group of individuals striving to benefit future generations after the current Buddha's teachings have been lost, but in the current age there is no need for most practitioners to aspire to this goal. Theravada texts do, however, hold that this is a more perfectly virtuous goal.
Paul Williams writes that some modern Theravada meditation masters in Thailand are popularly regarded as bodhisattvas.
Theravāda and Hīnayāna
In the 7th century, the Chinese Buddhist monk Xuanzang
Xuanzang (, ; 602–664), born Chen Hui / Chen Yi (), also known as Hiuen Tsang, was a 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making contributions to Chinese Buddhism, the travelogue of ...
describes the concurrent existence of the Mahavihara, Mahāvihara and the Abhayagiri Dagaba, Abhayagiri Vihara in Sri Lanka. He refers to the monks of the Mahāvihara as the "Hīnayāna Sthaviras" (''Theras''), and the monks of the Abhayagiri Vihara as the "Mahāyāna Sthaviras". Xuanzang further writes:
The modern Theravāda school is usually described as belonging to Hīnayāna. Some authors have argued that it should not be considered such from the Mahāyāna perspective. Their view is based on a different understanding of the concept of Hīnayāna. Rather than regarding the term as referring to any school of Buddhism that has not accepted the Mahāyāna canon and doctrines, such as those pertaining to the role of the bodhisattva,[ these authors argue that the classification of a school as "Hīnayāna" should be crucially dependent on the adherence to a specific phenomenology of religion, phenomenological position. They point out that unlike the now-extinct Sarvastivada, Sarvāstivāda school, which was the primary object of Mahāyāna criticism, the Theravāda does not claim the existence of independent Dharma#In Buddhist phenomenology, entities (''dharmas''); in this it maintains the attitude of early Buddhism. Adherents of Mahāyāna Buddhism disagreed with the substantialist thought of the Sarvāstivādins and Sautrantika, Sautrāntikas, and in emphasizing the doctrine of sunyata, emptiness, Kalupahana holds that they endeavored to preserve the early teaching. The Theravādins too refuted the Sarvāstivādins and Sautrāntikas (and other schools) on the grounds that their theories were in conflict with the non-substantialism of the canon. The Theravāda arguments are preserved in the ''Kathavatthu, Kathāvatthu''.
Some contemporary Theravādin figures have indicated a sympathetic stance toward the Mahāyāna philosophy found in texts such as the ''Heart Sutra, Heart Sūtra'' (Skt. ''Prajñāpāramitā Hṛdaya'') and Nāgārjuna's ''Mulamadhyamakakarika, Fundamental Stanzas on the Middle Way'' (Skt. ''Mūlamadhyamakakārikā'').]
See also
* Buddha-nature
Buddha-nature refers to several related Mahayana Buddhist terms, including '' tathata'' ("suchness") but most notably ''tathāgatagarbha'' and ''buddhadhātu''. ''Tathāgatagarbha'' means "the womb" or "embryo" (''garbha'') of the "thus-gone ...
* Buddhist holidays
* Creator in Buddhism
* Dzogchen
* Early Buddhist schools
* Faith in Buddhism
* ''Golden Light Sutra''
* History of Buddhism
* Index of Buddhism-related articles
* ''Lotus Sutra''
* Mahayana sutras
* ''Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra''
* Pure land
* Rebirth (Buddhism), Rebirth
* Schools of Buddhism
* Secular Buddhism
* Śūnyatā
* Silk Road transmission of Buddhism
* Tathagatagarbha
* Tendai
* Tibetan Buddhism
Tibetan Buddhism (also referred to as Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Lamaism, Lamaistic Buddhism, Himalayan Buddhism, and Northern Buddhism) is the form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet and Bhutan, where it is the dominant religion. It is also in majo ...
* Zen
Notes
References
Sources
* Akira, Hirakawa; Groner, Paul (editor and translator) (1993). ''A History of Indian Buddhism.'' Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
*
* Beal (1871). ''Catena of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese'', London, Trübner
* Harvey, Peter (2013). ''An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices''
* Karashima, Seishi,
Was the ''Așțasāhasrikā Prajñāparamitā'' Compiled in Gandhāra in Gandhārī?
''Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology'', Soka University, vol. XVI (2013).
* Lowenstein, Tom (1996). ''The Vision of the Buddha'', Boston: Little Brown,
* Schopen, G. "The inscription on the Kusan image of Amitabha and the character of the early Mahayana in India", ''Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 10'', 1990
* Suzuki, D.T. (1914)
"The Development of Mahayana Buddhism"
''The Monist'' Volume 24, Issue 4, 1914, pp. 565–581
* Suzuki, D.T. (1908)
''Outline of Mahayana Buddhism''
Open Court, Chicago
* Walser, Joseph (2005). ''Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture'', Columbia University Press.
* Williams, Paul (2008). ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundation'', Routledge.
* Williams, Paul (with Anthony Tribe) (2002)'' Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition.'' Routledge.
*
External links
Digital Dictionary of Buddhism
* [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29058160 Introduction to Mahayana] on Kagyu Samye Ling Monastery and Tibetan Centre, Kagyu Samye Ling's website
The Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra: complete text and analysis
Buddhas and Bodhisattvas in Mahayana Buddhism
by Bhikkhu Bodhi
by Jeffrey Samuel
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Mahayana,
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