Bixia

Chinese traditional religion is polytheistic; many deities are worshipped in a pantheistic view where divinity is inherent in the world. The gods are energies or principles revealing, imitating and propagating the way of Heaven (''Tian'' ), which is the supreme godhead manifesting in the northern culmen of the starry vault of the skies and its order. Many gods are ancestors or men who became deities for their heavenly achievements; most gods are also identified with stars and constellations. Ancestors are regarded as the equivalent of Heaven within human society, and therefore as the means connecting back to Heaven, which is the "utmost ancestral father" ( ''zēngzǔfù'').

Gods are innumerable, as every phenomenon has or is one or more gods, and they are organised in a complex celestial hierarchy. Besides the traditional worship of these entities, Confucianism, Taoism and formal thinkers in general give theological interpretations affirming a monistic essence of divinity. "Polytheism" and "monotheism" are categories derived from Western religion and do not fit Chinese religion, which has never conceived the two things as opposites. Since all gods are considered manifestations of '' qì'', the "power" or ''pneuma'' of Heaven, some scholars have employed the term "polypneumatism" or "(poly)pneumatolatry", first coined by Walter Medhurst (1796–1857), to describe the practice of Chinese polytheism. In the theology of the classic texts and Confucianism, "Heaven is the lord of the hundreds of deities". Modern Confucian theology compares them to intelligence, substantial forms or entelechies (inner purposes) as explained by Leibniz, generating all types of beings, so that "even mountains and rivers are worshipped as something capable of enjoying sacrificial offerings".

Unlike in Hinduism, the deification of historical persons and ancestors is not traditionally the duty of Confucians or Taoists. Rather depends on the choices of common people; persons are deified when they have made extraordinary deeds and have left an efficacious legacy. Yet, Confucians and Taoists traditionally may demand that state honour be granted to a particular deity. Each deity has a cult centre and ancestral temple where he or she, or the parents, lived their mortal life. There are frequently disputes over which is the original place and source temple of the cult of a deity.

Terminology

In Chinese language there is a terminological distinction between ''shén'', ''dì'' and '' xiān''. Although the usage of the former two is sometimes blurred, it corresponds to the distinction in Western cultures between "god" and "deity", Latin ''genius'' (meaning a generative principle, "spirit") and ''deus'' or 'Deva' (Sanskrit) and ''divus''; ''dì'', sometimes translated as "thearch", implies a manifested or incarnate "godly" power. It is etymologically and figuratively analogous to the concept of ''di'' as the base of a fruit, which falls and produces other fruits. This analogy is attested in the ''Shuowen Jiezi'' explaining "deity" as "what faces the base of a melon fruit". The latter term ''xiān'' unambiguously means a man who has reached immortality, similarly to the Western idea of "hero".

God of Heaven

Chinese traditional theology, which comes in different interpretations according to the classic texts, and specifically Confucian, Taoist and other philosophical formulations, is fundamentally monistic, that is to say it sees the world and the gods who produce it as an organic whole, or cosmos. The universal principle that gives origin to the world is conceived as transcendent and immanent to creation, at the same time. The Chinese idea of the universal God is expressed in different ways; there are many names of God from the different sources of Chinese tradition.

The radical Chinese terms for the universal God are ''Tiān'' and '' Shàngdì'' (the "Highest Deity") or simply ''Dì'' ("Deity"). There is also the concept of ''Tàidì'' (the "Great Deity"). ''Dì'' is a title expressing dominance over the all-under-Heaven, that is all things generated by Heaven and ordered by its cycles and by the stars. ''Tiān'' is usually translated as "Heaven", but by graphical etymology it means "Great One" and a number of scholars relate it to the same ''Dì'' through phonetic etymology and trace their common root, through their archaic forms respectively ''*Teeŋ'' and ''*Tees'', to the symbols of the squared north celestial pole godhead (''Dīng'' ). These names are combined in different ways in Chinese theological literature, often interchanged in the same paragraph if not in the same sentence.

Names of the God of Heaven

Besides ''Shangdi'' and ''Taidi'', other names include '' Yudi'' ("Jade Deity") and ''Taiyi'' ("Great Oneness") who, in mythical imagery, holds the ladle of the Big Dipper (Great Chariot) providing the movement of life to the world. As the hub of the skies, the north celestial pole constellations are known, among various names, as ''Tiānmén'' ("Gate of Heaven") p. 190. and ''Tiānshū'' ("Pivot of Heaven"). p. 343, note 17.

Other names of the God of Heaven are attested in the vast Chinese religio-philosophical literary tradition:
* ''Tiāndì'' —the "Deity of Heaven" or "Emperor of Heaven": "On Rectification" (''Zheng lun'') of the '' Xunzi'' uses this term to refer to the active God of Heaven setting in motion creation;
* ''Tiānzhǔ'' —the "Lord of Heaven": In "The Document of Offering Sacrifices to Heaven and Earth on the Mountain Tai" (''Fengshan shu'') of the ''Records of the Grand Historian'' it is used as the title of the first God from whom all the other gods derive.
* ''Tiānhuáng'' —the "August Personage of Heaven": In the "Poem of Fathoming Profundity" (''Si'xuan fu''), transcribed in "The History of the Later Han Dynasty" (''Hou Han shu''), Zhang Heng ornately writes: «I ask the superintendent of the Heavenly Gate to open the door and let me visit the King of Heaven at the Jade Palace»;
* ''Tiānwáng'' —the "King of Heaven" or "Monarch of Heaven".
* ''Tiāngōng'' —the "Duke of Heaven" or "General of Heaven";
* ''Tiānjūn'' —the "Prince of Heaven" or "Lord of Heaven";
* ''Tiānzūn'' —the "Heavenly Venerable", also a title for high gods in Taoist theologies;
* ''Tiānshén'' —the "God of Heaven", interpreted in the ''Shuowen Jiezi'' as "the being that gives birth to all things";
* ''Shénhuáng'' —"God the August", attested in ''Taihong'' ("The Origin of Vital Breath");
* ''Lǎotiānyé'' ()—the "Olden Heavenly Father".

''Tian'' is both transcendent and immanent, manifesting in the three forms of dominance, destiny and nature of things. In the ''Wujing yiyi'' (, "Different Meanings in the Five Classics"), Xu Shen explains that the designation of Heaven is quintuple:
* ''Huáng Tiān'' —"August Heaven" or "Imperial Heaven", when it is venerated as the lord of creation;
* ''Hào Tiān'' —"Vast Heaven", with regard to the vastness of its vital breath (''qi'');
* ''Mín Tiān'' —"Compassionate Heaven", for it hears and corresponds with justice to the all-under-Heaven;
* ''Shàng Tiān'' —"Highest Heaven" or "First Heaven", for it is the primordial being supervising all-under-Heaven;
* ''Cāng Tiān'' —"Deep-Green Heaven", for it being unfathomably deep.

All these designations reflect a hierarchical, multiperspective experience of divinity.

Lists of gods, deities and immortals

Many classical books have lists and hierarchies of gods and immortals, among which the "Completed Record of Deities and Immortals" (, ''Shénxiān Tōngjiàn'') of the Ming dynasty, and the '' Biographies of the Deities and Immortals'' or ''Shenxian Zhuan'' by Ge Hong (284–343). There's also the older '' Collected Biographies of the Immortals'' or ''Liexian Zhuan''. Couplets or polarities, such as Fuxi and Nuwa, Xiwangmu and Dongwanggong, and the highest couple of Heaven and Earth, all embody yin and yang and are at once the originators and maintainers of the ordering process of space and time.

Cosmic gods

* Yudi ( "Jade Deity") or Yuhuang ( "Jade Emperor" or "Jade King"), is the popular human-like representation of the God of Heaven. Jade traditionally represents purity, so it is a metaphor for the unfathomable source of creation.
* Doumu ( "Mother of the Great Chariot"), often entitled with the honorific Tianhou ( "Queen of Heaven") is the heavenly goddess portrayed as the mother of the Big Dipper (Great Chariot), whose seven stars in addition to two invisible ones are conceived as her sons, the Jiuhuangshen ( "Nine God-Kings"), themselves regarded as the ninefold manifestation of Jiuhuangdadi (, "Great Deity of the Nine Kings") or Doufu "Father of the Great Chariot"), another name of the God of Heaven. She is therefore both wife and mother of the God of Heaven.
* Pangu (), a macranthropic metaphor of the cosmos. He separated yin and yang, creating the earth (murky ''yin'') and the sky (clear ''yang''). All things were made from his body after he died.
* Xiwangmu ( "Queen Mother of the West"), identified with the Kunlun Mountain, shamanic inspiration, death and immortality. She is the dark, chthonic goddess, pure ''yin'', at the same time terrifying and benign, both creation and destruction, associated with the tiger and weaving. Her male counterpart is Dongwanggong ( "King Duke of the East"; also called Mugong, 木公 "Duke of the Woods"), who represents the ''yang'' principle.
** Yi the Archer (''Hòuyì'' ) was a man who sought for immortality reaching Xiwangmu on her mountain Kunlun.
* Yanwang ( "Purgatory King") the ruler of the underworld, assisted by the Heibai Wuchang ( "Black and White Impermanence") representing the alternation of yin and yang principles, alongside Ox-Head and Horse-Face, who escort spirits to his realm.
* Yinyanggong ( "Yinyang Duke") or Yinyangsi ( "Yinyang Controller"), the personification of the union of yin and yang.

Three Patrons and Five Deities

* ''Sānhuáng'' — Three Patrons (or Augusts) or ''Sāncái'' — Three Potencies; they are the "vertical" manifestation of Heaven spatially corresponding to the Three Realms ( ''Sānjiè''), representing the yin and yang and the medium between them, that is the human being:
** '' Fúxī'' the patron of heaven ( ''Tiānhuáng''), also called Bāguàzǔshī ( "Venerable Inventor of the Bagua") by the Taoists, is a divine man reputed to have taught to humanity writing, fishing, and hunting.
** '' Nǚwā'' the patron of earth ( ''Dehuáng''), is a goddess attributed for the creation of mankind and mending the order of the world when it was broken.
** '' Shénnóng'' — Peasant God, the patron of humanity ( ''Rénhuáng''), identified as '' Yándì'' ( "Flame Deity" or "Fiery Deity"), a divine man said to have taught the techniques of farming, herbal medicine and marketing. He is often represented as a human with horns and other features of an ox.
* '' Wǔdì'' — Five Deities, also ''Wǔfāng Shàngdì'' ( "Five Manifestations of the Highest Deity"), Wǔfāng Tiānshén ( "Five Manifestations of the Heavenly God"), ''Wǔfāngdì'' ( "Five Forms Deity"), ''Wǔtiāndì'' ( "Five Heavenly Deities"), ''Wǔlǎojūn'' ( "Five Ancient Lords"), ''Wǔdàoshén'' ( "Five Ways God(s)"); they are the five main "horizontal" manifestations of Heaven and according with the Three Potencies they have a celestial, a terrestrial and a chthonic form. They correspond to the five phases of creation, the five constellations rotating around the celestial pole and five planets, the five sacred mountains and five directions of space (their terrestrial form), and the five Dragon Gods which represent their mounts, that is to say the material forces they preside over (their chthonic form).
** '' Huángdì'' — Yellow Emperor or Yellow Deity; or ''Huángshén'' — Yellow God, also known as ''Xuānyuán Huángdì'' ( "Yellow Deity of the Chariot Shaft"), is the ''Zhōngyuèdàdì'' ( "Great Deity of the Central Peak"): he represents the essence of earth and the Yellow Dragon, and is associated with Saturn. The character ''huáng'', for "yellow", also means, by homophony and shared etymology with ''huáng'', "august", "creator" and "radiant", identifying the Yellow Emperor with Shangdi (the "Highest Deity"). Huangdi represents the heart of creation, the ''axis mundi'' (Kunlun) that is the manifestation of the divine order in physical reality, opening the way to immortality. As the deity of the centre, intersecting the Three Patrons and the Five Deities, in the '' Shizi'' he is described as "Yellow Emperor with Four Faces" ( ''Huángdì Sìmiàn''). As a human, he is said to have been the fruit of a virginal birth, as his mother Fubao conceived him as she was aroused, while walking in the country, by a lightning from the Big Dipper (Great Chariot). She delivered her son after twenty-four months on the mount of Shou (Longevity) or mount Xuanyuan (Chariot Shaft), after which he was named. He is reputed to be the founder of the ''Huaxia'' civilisation, and the Han Chinese identify themselves as the descendants of Yandi and Huangdi.
** ''Cāngdì'' — Green Deity; or ''Qīngdì'' — Blue Deity or Bluegreen Deity, the ''Dōngdì'' ( "East Deity") or ''Dōngyuèdàdì'' ( "Great Deity of the Eastern Peak"): he is ''Tàihào'' , associated with the essence of wood and with Jupiter, and is the god of fertility and spring. The Bluegreen Dragon is both his animal form and constellation. His female consort is the goddess of fertility Bixia.
** '' Hēidì'' — Black Deity, the ''Běidì'' ( "North Deity") or ''Běiyuèdàdì'' ( "Great Deity of the Northern Peak"): he is '' Zhuānxū'' (), today frequently worshipped as '' Xuánwǔ'' ( "Dark Warrior") or ''Zhēnwǔ'' (), and is associated with the essence of water and winter, and with Mercury. His animal form is the Black Dragon and his stellar animal is the tortoise-snake.
** ''Chìdì'' — Red Deity, the ''Nándì'' ( "South Deity") or ''Nányuèdàdì'' ( "Great Deity of the Southern Peak"): he is Shennong (the "Divine Farmer"), the Yandi ("Fiery Deity"), associated with the essence of fire and summer, and with Mars. His animal form is the Red Dragon and his stellar animal is the phoenix. He is the god of agriculture, animal husbandry, medicinal plants and market.
** ''Báidì'' — White Deity, the ''Xīdì'' ( "West Deity") or ''Xīyuèdàdì'' ( "Great Deity of the Western Peak"): he is Shǎohào (), and is the god of the essence of metal and autumn, associated with Venus. His animal form is the White Dragon and his stellar animal the tiger.
* ''Sānguān'' or ''Sānguāndàdì'' — Three Officials f Heavenor Three Officer Great Deities: Yao the Official of Heaven (''Tiānguān'' ), Shun the Official of Earth (''Deguān'' ), and Yu the Official of Water (''Shuǐguān'' ).

In mythology, Huangdi and Yandi fought a battle against each other; and Huang finally defeated Yan with the help of the Dragon (the controller of water, who is Huangdi himself). pp. 156-157 This myth symbolises the equipoise of yin and yang, here the fire of knowledge (reason and craft) and earthly stability. ''Yan'' is flame, scorching fire, or an excess of it (it is important to note that graphically it is a double ''huo'', "fire"). As an excess of fire brings destruction to the earth, it has to be controlled by a ruling principle. Nothing is good in itself, without limits; good outcomes depend on the proportion in the composition of things and their interactions, never on extremes in absolute terms. Huangdi and Yandi are complementary opposites, necessary for the existence of one another, and they are powers that exist together within the human being.

Gods of celestial and terrestrial phenomena

* '' Lóngshén'' — Dragon Gods, or ''Lóngwáng'' — Dragon Kings: also ''Sìhǎi Lóngwáng'' ( "Dragon Kings of the Four Seas"), are gods of watery sources, usually reduced to four, patrons of the Four Seas (''sihai'' ) and the four cardinal directions. They are the White Dragon ( ''Báilóng''), the Black Dragon ( ''Xuánlóng''), the Red Dragon ( ''Zhūlóng''), and the Bluegreen Dragon ( ''Qīnglóng''). Corresponding with the Five Deities as the chthonic forces that they sublimate (the Dragon Gods are often represented as the "mount" of the Five Deities), they inscribe the land of China into an ideal sacred squared boundary. The fifth dragon, the Yellow Dragon ( ''Huánglóng''), is the dragon of the centre representing the Yellow God.
* ''Báoshén'' — Hail God
* ''Bālà'', ''Chóngshén'' — Insect God, or ''Chóngwáng'' — Insect King: the gods of insects
* ''Dòushén'' — Smallpox God
* ''Fēngshén'' — Wind God, or '' Fēi Lián
* ''Hǎishén'' — Sea God, or ''Hǎiyé'' — Sea Lord
* ''Héshén'' — River God: any watercourse god among which one of the most revered is the god of the Yellow River, '' Hébó'' — River Lord
* ''Gǔshén'' — Valley God, in the ''Daodejing'' a name used to refer to the Way
* ''Huǒshén'' — Fire God, often personified as '' Zhùróng'' ()
* ''Húshén'' — Lake God
* ''Jīnshén'' — Gold God, often identified as the ''Qiūshén'' — Autumn God, and personified as ''Rùshōu'' ()
* ''Jǐngshén'' — Waterspring God
* '' Léishén'' — Thunder God, or ''Léigōng'' — Thunder Duke; his consort is ''Diànmǔ'' — Lightning Mother
* ''Mùshén'' — Woodland God, usually the same as the ''Chūnshén'' — Spring God, and as ''Jùmáng'' ()
* ''Shānshén'' — Mountain God
* ''Shuǐshén'' — Water God
* '' Tǔdìshén'' — God of the Local Land, or ''Tǔshén'' — Earth God, or ''Tǔdìgōng'' — Duke of the Local Land: the tutelary deity of any locality and their Overlord is '' Hòutǔ'' — Queen of the Earth
* '' Wēnshén'' — Plague God
* '' Xiāngshuǐshén'' — Xiang Waters' Goddesses, are the patrons of the Xiang River
* ''Xuěshén'' — Snow God
* ''Yǔshén'' — Rain God
* '' Xīhé'' the ''Tàiyángshén'' — Great Sun Goddess, or ''Shírìzhīmǔ'' — Mother of the Ten Suns
* ''Yuèshén'' — Moon Goddesses: ''Chángxī'' or ''Shí'èryuèzhīmǔ'' — Mother of the Twelve Moons, and Cháng'é

Gods of human virtues and crafts

* Civil (''wen'') and military (''wu'') deities:
** '' Wéndi'' — Culture Deity, or ''Wénchāngdì'' — Deity who Makes Culture Thrive, or ''Wénchāngwáng'' — King who Makes Culture Thrive: in southern provinces this deity takes the identity of different historical persons while in the north he is more frequently the same as Confucius (''Kǒngfūzǐ'' )
*** '' Kuíxīng'' — Chief Star, another god of culture and literature, but specifically examination, is a personification of the man who awakens to the order of the Great Chariot
** ''Wǔdì'' — Military Deity: '' Guāndì'' — ''Divus'' Guan, also called ''Guāngōng'' — Duke Guan, and popularly ''Guānyǔ''
*** Another class is the ''Zhànshén'' — Fight God, who may be personified by '' Chīyóu'' () or '' Xíngtiān'' (, who was decapitated for fighting against Tian)
* '' Bǎoshēngdàdì'' — Great Deity who Protects Life
* '' Bāxiān'' — Eight Immortals
* '' Cánshén'' — Silkworm God, who may be:
** ''Cánmǔ'' — Silkworm Mother, also called ''Cángū'' — Silkworm Maiden, who is identified as '' Léizǔ'' (), the wife of the Yellow Emperor: the invention of sericulture is attributed primarily to her
** ''Qīngyīshén'' — Bluegreen-Clad God: his name as a human was ''Cáncóng'' — Silkworm Twig, and he is the first ruler and ancestor of the Shu state, and promoter of sericulture among his people
* '' Cáishén'' — Wealth God
* '' Cāngjié'', the four-eyed inventor of the Chinese characters
* '' Chénghuángshén'' — Moat and Walls God, Boundary God: the god of the sacred boundaries of a human agglomeration, he is often personified by founding fathers or noble personalities from each city or town
* '' Chénjìnggū'' — Old Quiet Lady, also called ''Línshuǐ Fūrén'' — Waterside Dame
* ''Chēshén'' — Vehicle God
* '' Èrlángshén'' — Twice Young God, the god of engineering
* ''Guǎngzé Zūnwáng'' — Honorific King of Great Compassion
* '' Guānyīn'' — She who Hears the Cries of the World, the goddess of mercy
* '' Huáng Dàxiān'' — Great Immortal Huang
* '' Jìgōng'' — Help Lord
* ''Jiǔshén'' — Wine God, personified as '' Yidi''
* '' Jiǔtiān Xuánnǚ'' — Mysterious Lady of the Nine Heavens, a disciple of Xiwangmu and initiator of Huangdi
* '' Lóngmǔ'' — Dragon Mother
* '' Lǔbān'', the god of carpentry
* ''Lùshén'' — Road God
* '' Māzǔ'' — Ancestral Mother, often entitled the Queen of Heaven
* ''Píng'ānshén'' — Peace God, an embodiment of whom is considered to have been Mao Zedong
* '' Qīngshuǐ Zǔshī'' — Venerable Patriarch of the Clear Stream
* ''Táoshén'' — Pottery God
* '' Tùershén'' — Leveret God, the god of love among males
* ''Tuōtǎlǐ Tiānwáng'' — Tower-Wielding Heavenly King, in person Li Jing, who has three sons, the warlike protector deities '' Jīnzhā'' (), '' Mùzhā'' (木吒) and '' Nǎzhā'' ()
* ''Wǔxiǎn'' — Five Shining Ones, possibly a popular form of the cosmological Five Deities
* ''Xǐshén'' — Joy God
* ''Yàoshén'' — Medicine God, or frequently ''Yàowáng'' — Medicine King"
* '' Yuèxià Lǎorén'' — Old Man Under the Moon, the matchmaker who pairs lovers together
* ''Yùshén'' — Jail-Purgatory God
* '' Zàoshén'' — Hearth God, the master of the household deities including: the Bed God ( ''Chuángshén''), the Gate Gods ( ''Ménshén'') and the Toilet god ( ''Cèshén''), often personified as Zigu
* '' Sānxīng'' — Three Stars, a cluster of three astral gods of well-being:
** '' Fúxīng'' — Prosperity Star, god of happiness
** '' Lùxīng'' — Firmness Star, god of firmness and success in life and examinations
** '' Shòuxing'' — Longevity Star, who stands for a healthy and long life

Gods of animal and vegetal life

* ''Huāshén'' — Flower Goddess
* '' Húshén'' — Fox God(dess), or ''Húxiān'' — Fox Immortal, also called ''Húxiān Niángniáng'' — Fox Immortal Lady
** Two other great fox deities, peculiar to northeast China, are the Great Lord of the Three Foxes ( ''Húsān Tàiyé'') and the Great Lady of the Three Foxes ( ''Húsān Tàinǎi'') representing the yin and yang
* ''Mǎshén'' — Horse God, or ''Mǎwáng'' — Horse King
* ''Niúshén'' — Cattle God or Ox God, also called ''Niúwáng'' — Cattle King
* ''Lángshén'' — Wolf God
* ''Shùshén'' — Tree God(s)
* '' Wǔgǔshén'' — Five Cereals God, another name of Shennong
* ''Yuánshén'' — Monkey God, or ''Yuánwáng'' — Monkey King, who is identified as '' Sūn Wùkōng'' ()
* ''Zhīmáshén'' — Sesame God

''Bixia'' mother goddess worship

The worship of mother goddesses for the cultivation of offspring is present all over China, but predominantly in northern provinces. There are nine main goddesses, and all of them tend to be considered as manifestations or attendant forces of a singular goddess identified variously as Bixia Yuanjun (the Lady of the Blue Dawn, , also known as the ''Tiānxiān Niángniáng'' , "Heavenly Immortal Lady", or ''Tàishān Niángniáng'' , "Lady of Mount Tai", or also ''Jiǔtiān Shèngmǔ'' , "Holy Mother of the Nine Skies") or Houtu, the goddess of the earth. Bixia herself is identified by Taoists as the more ancient goddess Xiwangmu, The general Chinese term for "goddess" is ''nǚshén'', and goddesses may receive many qualifying titles including ''mǔ'' ( "mother"), ''lǎomǔ'' ( "old mother"), ''shèngmǔ'' ( "holy mother"), ''niángniáng'' ( "lady"), ''nǎinai'' ( "granny").

The additional eight main goddesses of fertility, reproduction and growth are:
* ''Bānzhěn Niángniáng'', the goddess who protects children from illness;
* ''Cuīshēng Niángniáng'', the goddess who gives swift childbirth and protects midwives;
* ''Nǎimǔ Niángniáng'', the goddess who presides over maternal milk and protects nursing;
* ''Péigū Niángniáng'', the goddess who cultivate children;
* ''Péiyǎng Niángniáng'', the goddess who protects the upbringing of children;
* '' Sòngzi Niángniáng'' or ''Zǐsūn Niángniáng'', the goddess who presides over offspring;
* ''Yǎnguāng Niángniáng'', the goddess who protects eyesight;
* ''Yǐnméng Niángniáng'', the goddess who guides young children.

Altars of goddess worship are usually arranged with Bixia at the center and two goddesses at her sides, most frequently the Lady of Eyesight and the Lady of Offspring. A different figure but with the same astral connections as Bixia is the Goddess of the Seven Stars ( ''Qīxīng Niángniáng''). There is also the cluster of the Holy Mothers of the Three Skies ( ''Sānxiāo Shèngmǔ''; or ''Sānxiāo Niángniáng'', "Ladies of the Three Stars"), composed of '' Yunxiao Guniang'', '' Qiongxiao Guniang'' and '' Bixiao Guniang''. The cult of Chenjinggu present in southeast China is identified by some scholars as an emanation of the northern cult of Bixia.

Other goddesses worshipped in China include ''Cánmǔ'' ( Silkworm Mother) or ''Cángū'' ( Silkworm Maiden), identified with '' Léizǔ'' (, the wife of the Yellow Emperor), '' Mágū'' ( "Hemp Maiden"), ''Sǎoqīng Niángniáng'' ( Goddess who Sweeps Clean), ''Sānzhōu Niángniáng'' ( Goddess of the Three Isles), and Wusheng Laomu. Mother goddess is central in the theology of many folk religious sects.

Gods of northeast China

Northeast China has clusters of deities which are peculiar to the area, deriving from the Manchu and broader Tungusic substratum of the local population. Animal deities related to shamanic practices are characteristic of the area and reflect wider Chinese cosmology. Besides the aforementioned Fox Gods ( ''Húxiān''), they include:
* ''Huángxiān'' — Yellow Immortal, the Weasel God
* ''Shéxiān'' — Snake Immortal, also variously called ''Liǔxiān'' — Immortal Liu, or ''Chángxiān'' — Viper Immortal, or also ''Mǎngxiān'' — Python or Boa Immortal
* ''Báixiān'' — White Immortal, the Hedgehog God
* ''Hēixiān'' — Black Immortal, who may be the ''Wūyāxiān'' — Crow Immortal, or the ''Huīxiān'' — Rat Immortal, with the latter considered a misinterpretation of the former

Gods of Indian origin

Gods who have been adopted into Chinese religion but who have their origins in the Indian subcontinent or Hinduism:
* '' Guānyīn'' — "She who Hears the Cries of the World", a Chinese goddess of mercy modeled after the bodhisattva ''Avalokiteśvara''
* ''Sìmiànshén'' — "Four-Faced God", but also a metaphor for "Ubiquitous God": The recent cult has its origin in the Thai transmission of the Hindu god Brahma, but it is important to note that it is also an epithet of the indigenous Chinese god Huangdi who, as the deity of the centre of the cosmos, is described in the '' Shizi'' as "Yellow Emperor with Four Faces" ( ''Huángdì Sìmiàn'').
* ''Xiàngtóushén'' — "Elephant-Head God", is the Indian god Ganesha p. 311.

Gods of northern people

* Genghis Khan ( ''Chéngjísīhán''), worshipped by Mongols and Chinese under a variety of divinity titles including ''Shèngwǔ Huángdì'' — "Holy Military Sovereign Deity", ''Fǎtiān Qǐyùn'' "Starter of the Transmission of the Law of Heaven", and ''Tàizǔ'' — "Great Ancestor" (of the Yuan and the Mongols).

See also

* Chinese folk religion
* Chinese temple
* Shen
* Xian
* Zhenren

Notes

;Notes about the deities and their names

References

Citations

Sources

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Volume I: The Ancient Eurasian World and the Celestial Pivot
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Volume II: Representations and Identities of High Powers in Neolithic and Bronze China
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Volume III: Terrestrial and Celestial Transformations in Zhou and Early-Imperial China
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* Original preserved at The British Library. Digitalised in 2014.
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* Two volumes: 1) A-L; 2) L-Z.
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Chinese gods and immortals


Lists of deities
Religion-related lists