''Biomphalaria glabrata'' is a
species
In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate s ...
of air-breathing
freshwater snail
Freshwater snails are gastropod mollusks which live in fresh water. There are many different families. They are found throughout the world in various habitats, ranging from ephemeral pools to the largest lakes, and from small seeps and springs ...
, an
aquatic pulmonate
Pulmonata or pulmonates, is an informal group (previously an order, and before that a subclass) of snails and slugs characterized by the ability to breathe air, by virtue of having a pallial lung instead of a gill, or gills. The group includ ...
gastropod
The gastropods (), commonly known as snails and slugs, belong to a large taxonomic class of invertebrates within the phylum Mollusca called Gastropoda ().
This class comprises snails and slugs from saltwater, from freshwater, and from land. T ...
mollusk
Mollusca is the second-largest phylum of invertebrate animals after the Arthropoda, the members of which are known as molluscs or mollusks (). Around 85,000 extant species of molluscs are recognized. The number of fossil species is e ...
in the
family
Family (from la, familia) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its ...
Planorbidae, the
ram
Ram, ram, or RAM may refer to:
Animals
* A male sheep
* Ram cichlid, a freshwater tropical fish
People
* Ram (given name)
* Ram (surname)
* Ram (director) (Ramsubramaniam), an Indian Tamil film director
* RAM (musician) (born 1974), Dutch
* ...
's horn
snail
A snail is, in loose terms, a shelled gastropod. The name is most often applied to land snails, terrestrial pulmonate gastropod molluscs. However, the common name ''snail'' is also used for most of the members of the molluscan class Gastro ...
s.
''Biomphalaria glabrata'' is an intermediate snail
host
A host is a person responsible for guests at an event or for providing hospitality during it.
Host may also refer to:
Places
* Host, Pennsylvania, a village in Berks County
People
*Jim Host (born 1937), American businessman
* Michel Host ...
for the trematode ''
Schistosoma mansoni
A paired couple of ''Schistosoma mansoni''.
''Schistosoma mansoni'' is a water-borne parasite of humans, and belongs to the group of blood flukes (''Schistosoma''). The adult lives in the blood vessels ( mesenteric veins) near the human inte ...
'', which is one of the main
schistosomes
''Schistosoma'' is a genus of trematodes, commonly known as blood flukes. They are parasitic flatworms responsible for a highly significant group of infections in humans termed ''schistosomiasis'', which is considered by the World Health Organi ...
that infect humans.
This snail is a medically important
pest,
because of transferring the disease
intestinal schistosomiasis, the most widespread of all types of
schistosomiasis
Schistosomiasis, also known as snail fever, bilharzia, and Katayama fever, is a disease caused by parasitic flatworms called schistosomes. The urinary tract or the intestines may be infected. Symptoms include abdominal pain, diarrhea, bloody s ...
.
The parasite ''Schistosoma mansoni'' (which these snails and other ''
Biomphalaria
''Biomphalaria'' is a genus of air-breathing freshwater snails, aquatic pulmonate gastropod mollusks in the family Planorbidae, the ram's horn snails and their allies.MolluscaBase (2018). Biomphalaria Preston, 1910. Accessed through: World Regi ...
'' snails carry) infects about 83.31 million people worldwide.
''Biomphalaria glabrata''/''Schistosoma mansoni'' provides a useful
model
A model is an informative representation of an object, person or system. The term originally denoted the plans of a building in late 16th-century English, and derived via French and Italian ultimately from Latin ''modulus'', a measure.
Models c ...
system for investigating the intimate interactions between host and parasite.
There is a great deal of information available about this snail, because it has been, and continues to be, under intensive study by many
malacologist
Malacology is the branch of invertebrate zoology that deals with the study of the Mollusca (mollusks or molluscs), the second-largest phylum of animals in terms of described species after the arthropods. Mollusks include snails and slugs, clams, ...
s,
parasitologist
Parasitology is the study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them. As a biological discipline, the scope of parasitology is not determined by the organism or environment in question but by their way of life. This means it ...
s and other researchers, on account of its medical significance.
The shell of this species, like all planorbids, is
sinistral
Sinistral and dextral, in some scientific fields, are the two types of chirality ("handedness") or relative direction. The terms are derived from the Latin words for "left" (''sinister'') and "right" (''dexter''). Other disciplines use different ...
in coiling, but it is carried upside down, and thus it appears to be
dextral.
Distribution
''Biomphalaria glabrata'' is a
Neotropical
The Neotropical realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms constituting Earth's land surface. Physically, it includes the tropical terrestrial ecoregions of the Americas and the entire South American temperate zone.
Definition
In bioge ...
species. Its native distribution includes the
Caribbean
The Caribbean (, ) ( es, El Caribe; french: la Caraïbe; ht, Karayib; nl, De Caraïben) is a region of the Americas that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands (some surrounded by the Caribbean Sea and some bordering both the Caribbean Se ...
:
Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico (; abbreviated PR; tnq, Boriken, ''Borinquen''), officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ( es, link=yes, Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, lit=Free Associated State of Puerto Rico), is a Caribbean island and Unincorporated ...
,
Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic ( ; es, República Dominicana, ) is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean region. It occupies the eastern five-eighths of the island, which it shares wit ...
,
Saint Lucia
Saint Lucia ( acf, Sent Lisi, french: Sainte-Lucie) is an island country of the West Indies in the eastern Caribbean. The island was previously called Iouanalao and later Hewanorra, names given by the native Arawaks and Caribs, two Amerindian ...
,
Haiti
Haiti (; ht, Ayiti ; French: ), officially the Republic of Haiti (); ) and formerly known as Hayti, is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea, east of Cuba and Jamaica, and ...
(first report in 1891),
Martinique
Martinique ( , ; gcf, label=Martinican Creole, Matinik or ; Kalinago: or ) is an island and an overseas department/region and single territorial collectivity of France. An integral part of the French Republic, Martinique is located in th ...
,
Guadeloupe
Guadeloupe (; ; gcf, label=Antillean Creole, Gwadloup, ) is an archipelago and overseas department and region of France in the Caribbean. It consists of six inhabited islands—Basse-Terre, Grande-Terre, Marie-Galante, La Désirade, and the ...
,
Antigua
Antigua ( ), also known as Waladli or Wadadli by the native population, is an island in the Lesser Antilles. It is one of the Leeward Islands in the Caribbean region and the main island of the country of Antigua and Barbuda. Antigua and Bar ...
,
Vieques
Vieques (; ), officially Isla de Vieques, is an island and municipality of Puerto Rico, in the northeastern Caribbean, part of an island grouping sometimes known as the Spanish Virgin Islands. Vieques is part of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, ...
,
Saint Martin,
Saint Kitts
Saint Kitts, officially the Saint Christopher Island, is an island in the West Indies. The west side of the island borders the Caribbean Sea, and the eastern coast faces the Atlantic Ocean. Saint Kitts and the neighbouring island of Nevis cons ...
,
Curaçao
Curaçao ( ; ; pap, Kòrsou, ), officially the Country of Curaçao ( nl, Land Curaçao; pap, Pais Kòrsou), is a Lesser Antilles island country in the southern Caribbean Sea and the Dutch Caribbean region, about north of the Venezuela coast ...
,
Dominica
Dominica ( or ; Kalinago: ; french: Dominique; Dominican Creole French: ), officially the Commonwealth of Dominica, is an island country in the Caribbean. The capital, Roseau, is located on the western side of the island. It is geographically ...
(it was probably replaced by other ''Biomphalaria'' species in Dominica or it was eradicated),
Montserrat
Montserrat ( ) is a British Overseas Territories, British Overseas Territory in the Caribbean. It is part of the Leeward Islands, the northern portion of the Lesser Antilles chain of the West Indies. Montserrat is about long and wide, with r ...
and in South America:
Venezuela
Venezuela (; ), officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela ( es, link=no, República Bolivariana de Venezuela), is a country on the northern coast of South America, consisting of a continental landmass and many islands and islets in th ...
,
Suriname
Suriname (; srn, Sranankondre or ), officially the Republic of Suriname ( nl, Republiek Suriname , srn, Ripolik fu Sranan), is a country on the northeastern Atlantic coast of South America. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the north ...
,
French Guiana
French Guiana ( or ; french: link=no, Guyane ; gcr, label=French Guianese Creole, Lagwiyann ) is an overseas departments and regions of France, overseas department/region and single territorial collectivity of France on the northern Atlantic ...
and
Brazil
Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area ...
.
This species has recently expanded its native range,
[.] but there is reduced its abundance in the Caribbean, because of competition with non-indigenous species and environmental change.
It
inhabits new localities in the time of
flooding
A flood is an overflow of water ( or rarely other fluids) that submerges land that is usually dry. In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Floods are an area of study of the discipline hydrolog ...
.
Shell description
Like all planorbids, the shell of ''Biomphalaria glabrata'' is planispiral, in other words coiled flat like a rope, and the
spire
A spire is a tall, slender, pointed structure on top of a roof of a building or tower, especially at the summit of church steeples. A spire may have a square, circular, or polygonal plan, with a roughly conical or pyramidal shape. Spires are ...
of the shell is sunken. Also, like all planorbids, this species has a sinistral
shell
Shell may refer to:
Architecture and design
* Shell (structure), a thin structure
** Concrete shell, a thin shell of concrete, usually with no interior columns or exterior buttresses
** Thin-shell structure
Science Biology
* Seashell, a hard o ...
, in other words, the coiling of the shell is left-handed. However, like all the snails in the subfamily Planobinae, this snail carries its coiled shell upside down, and thus the shell appears to be dextral in coiling. In other families of snails the spire is situated on top of the shell, here what shows on top of the shell is in fact the
umbilicus.
''Biomphalaria glabrata'' was discovered and described under the name ''Planorbis glabratus'' by American naturalist
Thomas Say
Thomas Say (June 27, 1787 – October 10, 1834) was an American entomologist, conchologist, and Herpetology, herpetologist. His studies of insects and shells, numerous contributions to scientific journals, and scientific expeditions to Florida, Ge ...
in 1818.
Say's type description reads as follows:
Unfortunately Say listed an incorrect type locality:
North Carolina
North Carolina () is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States. The state is the 28th largest and 9th-most populous of the United States. It is bordered by Virginia to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, Georgia and So ...
.
The shell was probably actually from the West Indian island of
Guadeloupe
Guadeloupe (; ; gcf, label=Antillean Creole, Gwadloup, ) is an archipelago and overseas department and region of France in the Caribbean. It consists of six inhabited islands—Basse-Terre, Grande-Terre, Marie-Galante, La Désirade, and the ...
.
The shell of animals from natural habitats is usually olivaceous (
olive drab
Olive is a dark yellowish-green color, like that of unripe or green olives.
As a color word in the English language, it appears in late Middle English. Shaded toward gray, it becomes olive drab.
Variations
Olivine
Olivine is the typical ...
) in color.
The width of the shell of adults snails is 6–10 mm.
An adult shell consist of
aragonite
Aragonite is a carbonate mineral, one of the three most common naturally occurring crystal forms of calcium carbonate, (the other forms being the minerals calcite and vaterite). It is formed by biological and physical processes, including prec ...
and sometimes there is also under 1.5% of
vaterite
Vaterite is a mineral, a polymorph of calcium carbonate ( Ca C O3). It was named after the German mineralogist Heinrich Vater. It is also known as mu- calcium carbonate (μ-CaCO3). Vaterite belongs to the hexagonal crystal system, whereas calc ...
especially near the margin of the shell.
Anatomy
The anatomy of the
mantle cavity is described in Sullivan et al. (1974) and Jurberg et al. (1997).
Genetics
The
genome
In the fields of molecular biology and genetics, a genome is all the genetic information of an organism. It consists of nucleotide sequences of DNA (or RNA in RNA viruses). The nuclear genome includes protein-coding genes and non-coding ge ...
length is estimated as about 929,10 Mb (millions of
base pair
A base pair (bp) is a fundamental unit of double-stranded nucleic acids consisting of two nucleobases bound to each other by hydrogen bonds. They form the building blocks of the DNA double helix and contribute to the folded structure of both DNA ...
s; 0.95 ± 0.01 pg), which is a small
genome size
Genome size is the total amount of DNA contained within one copy of a single complete genome. It is typically measured in terms of mass in picograms (trillionths (10−12) of a gram, abbreviated pg) or less frequently in daltons, or as the total ...
among gastropods.
Sequencing of the whole genome was approved as a priority by
National Human Genome Research Institute
The National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) is an institute of the National Institutes of Health, located in Bethesda, Maryland.
NHGRI began as the Office of Human Genome Research in The Office of the Director in 1988. This Office transi ...
in August 2004, Its participants also included the "''Biomphalaria glabrata'' Genome Initiative" and the Genome Center at
Washington University in St. Louis
Washington University in St. Louis (WashU or WUSTL) is a private research university with its main campus in St. Louis County, and Clayton, Missouri. Founded in 1853, the university is named after George Washington. Washington University is r ...
.
The complete genome was sequenced in 2017.
The
chromosome
A chromosome is a long DNA molecule with part or all of the genetic material of an organism. In most chromosomes the very long thin DNA fibers are coated with packaging proteins; in eukaryotic cells the most important of these proteins are ...
s in this snail are small, and the
haploid
Ploidy () is the number of complete sets of chromosomes in a cell, and hence the number of possible alleles for autosomal and pseudoautosomal genes. Sets of chromosomes refer to the number of maternal and paternal chromosome copies, respectively ...
number of chromosomes is 18.
A complete genome sequence from the
mitochondria
A mitochondrion (; ) is an organelle found in the Cell (biology), cells of most Eukaryotes, such as animals, plants and Fungus, fungi. Mitochondria have a double lipid bilayer, membrane structure and use aerobic respiration to generate adenosi ...
of this species has been available since 2004: the
mitochondrial genome
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA or mDNA) is the DNA located in mitochondria, cellular organelles within eukaryotic cells that convert chemical energy from food into a form that cells can use, such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Mitochondrial D ...
sequence has 13670
nucleotide
Nucleotides are organic molecules consisting of a nucleoside and a phosphate. They serve as monomeric units of the nucleic acid polymers – deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), both of which are essential biomolecules wi ...
s.
The ancestor of ''Biomphalaria glabrata'' colonized Africa, and
speciated into all of the African ''
Biomphalaria
''Biomphalaria'' is a genus of air-breathing freshwater snails, aquatic pulmonate gastropod mollusks in the family Planorbidae, the ram's horn snails and their allies.MolluscaBase (2018). Biomphalaria Preston, 1910. Accessed through: World Regi ...
'' species.
Phylogeny
A
cladogram
A cladogram (from Greek ''clados'' "branch" and ''gramma'' "character") is a diagram used in cladistics to show relations among organisms. A cladogram is not, however, an evolutionary tree because it does not show how ancestors are related to d ...
showing phylogenic relations of species in the genus ''Biomphalaria'':
text
Ecology
''Biomphalaria glabrata'' inhabits small streams, ponds
and marshes. These snails can survive in
aestivation
Aestivation ( la, aestas (summer); also spelled estivation in American English) is a state of animal dormancy, similar to hibernation, although taking place in the summer rather than the winter. Aestivation is characterized by inactivity and ...
for a few months when removed from their freshwater habitat or when the habitat dries out.
For example, the snail lives in
banana plantation
A banana plantation is a commercial agricultural facility found in tropical climates where bananas are grown.
Geographic distribution
Banana plants may grow with varying degrees of success in diverse climatic conditions, but
commercial banana p ...
drains in Saint Lucia.
''Biomphalaria glabrata'' can also survive up to 16 hours in
anaerobic water using
lactic acid fermentation
Lactic acid fermentation is a metabolic process by which glucose or other six-carbon sugars (also, disaccharides of six-carbon sugars, e.g. sucrose or lactose) are converted into cellular energy and the metabolite lactate, which is lactic acid ...
.
Like other species, this snail is "light sensitive" and can be disrupted by artificial light.
Feeding habits
''Biomphalaria glabrata'' feeds on bacterial films, algae,
diatom
A diatom (Neo-Latin ''diatoma''), "a cutting through, a severance", from el, διάτομος, diátomos, "cut in half, divided equally" from el, διατέμνω, diatémno, "to cut in twain". is any member of a large group comprising sev ...
s and decaying macrophytes.
[What is ''Biomphalaria glabrata''?](_blank)
UNM Biology Department Home Page. Accessed 20 November 2009.
They can be fed using
fish food
Aquarium fish feed is plant or animal material intended for consumption by pet fish kept in aquariums or ponds. Fish foods normally contain macronutrients, trace elements and vitamins necessary to keep captive fish in good health. Approximatel ...
and
lettuce
Lettuce (''Lactuca sativa'') is an annual plant of the family Asteraceae. It is most often grown as a leaf vegetable, but sometimes for its stem and seeds. Lettuce is most often used for salads, although it is also seen in other kinds of food, ...
when they are kept in captivity.
Life cycle
''Biomphalaria glabrata'' snails lay egg masses at rather a high rate (about 1 per day).
[Pimentel D. (October 1957) "Life history of ''Australorbis glabratus'', the intermediate snail host of ''Schistosoma mansoni'' in Puerto Rico". Ecol 38(4)]
576
580. One snail can lay 14,000 eggs during its whole life span.
The
periostracum of the
embryonic shell (inside the egg) begin to grow in 48-hour old
embryo
An embryo is an initial stage of development of a multicellular organism. In organisms that reproduce sexually, embryonic development is the part of the life cycle that begins just after fertilization of the female egg cell by the male spe ...
s.
Amorphous
calcium carbonate appear in 54-60-hour old embryos.
Calcification
Calcification is the accumulation of calcium salts in a body tissue. It normally occurs in the formation of bone, but calcium can be deposited abnormally in soft tissue,Miller, J. D. Cardiovascular calcification: Orbicular origins. ''Nature Mat ...
(formation of aragonite) of the embryonic shell starts in the time interval between 60-hour old embryos and 72-hour-old ones.
The weight of the shell of 72-hour-old embryo is 0.64 μg.
The weight of the embryonic shell in 5-day-old (120-hours-old) embryos a very short time before hatching, is 30.3 μg, and the width is 500 μm.
The juvenile snail hatches from 5 to 6 days old eggs.
The weight of the juvenile shell is 2.04 mg in four weeks after hatching.
There is no vaterite in juvenile shells.
The growth rate, maximum
birth rate
The birth rate for a given period is the total number of live human births per 1,000 population divided by the length of the period in years. The number of live births is normally taken from a universal registration system for births; populati ...
, and longevity of ''Biomphalaria glabrata'' was studied by Pimentel (1957).
There can be up to seven generations in one year in laboratory.
The
generation time
In population biology and demography, generation time is the average time between two consecutive generations in the lineages of a population. In human populations, generation time typically ranges from 22 to 33 years. Historians sometimes use this ...
(the time it takes a snail from developing from an egg to laying an egg of its own) is 4–6 weeks.
The lifespan is 15–18 months in natural conditions.
The lifespan in laboratory conditions can be up to 18–24 months,
but usually it is 9–12 months.
[The Genome Center at ]Washington University in St. Louis
Washington University in St. Louis (WashU or WUSTL) is a private research university with its main campus in St. Louis County, and Clayton, Missouri. Founded in 1853, the university is named after George Washington. Washington University is r ...
''Biomphalaria glabrata''
Accessed 21 November.
''Biomphalaria glabrata'' is a
simultaneous hermaphrodite
Simultaneous hermaphroditism is one of the two types of hermaphroditism, the other type being sequential hermaphroditism. In this form of hermaphroditism an individual has sex organs of both sexes and can produce both gamete types even in the sa ...
,
but
self-fertilization
Autogamy, or self-fertilization, refers to the fusion of two gametes that come from one individual. Autogamy is predominantly observed in the form of self-pollination, a reproductive mechanism employed by many flowering plants. However, species o ...
is also possible.
The
mucus
Mucus ( ) is a slippery aqueous secretion produced by, and covering, mucous membranes. It is typically produced from cells found in mucous glands, although it may also originate from mixed glands, which contain both serous and mucous cells. It is ...
of this snail species contains species-specific signals that allow individual snails to identify others of the same species,
but the causative mucus components decay within 10 to 30 min.
The typically unilateral copulations are initiated when a male actor mounts the shell of a prospective mate. The male actor then moves towards the frontal left edge of the partner's shell, where he probes the female gonopore with his penis to subsequently achieve penis intromission. Following a typically 5–87 min penis intromission with usually successful sperm transfer, the male actor retracts to terminate copulation. Mating roles are subsequently exchanged in about 45% of all copulations, with the male actor now taking the female role, and vice versa.
In 2009, ''Biomphalaria glabrata'' was a subject of the study focusing on the
Coolidge effect
The Coolidge effect is a biological phenomenon seen in animals, whereby males exhibit renewed sexual interest whenever a new female is introduced, even after sex with prior but still available sexual partners. To a lesser extent, the effect is also ...
in simultaneous hermaphrodites. The result of this research is that ''Biomphalaria glabrata'' shows the absence of any sex-specific effects of partner novelty, which means there is no Coolidge effect in this species.
Parasites
''Biomphalaria glabrata'' is a major
intermediate host
In biology and medicine, a host is a larger organism that harbours a smaller organism; whether a parasitic, a mutualistic, or a commensalist ''guest'' (symbiont). The guest is typically provided with nourishment and shelter. Examples include a ...
for ''
Schistosoma mansoni
A paired couple of ''Schistosoma mansoni''.
''Schistosoma mansoni'' is a water-borne parasite of humans, and belongs to the group of blood flukes (''Schistosoma''). The adult lives in the blood vessels ( mesenteric veins) near the human inte ...
'' in the
Americas
The Americas, which are sometimes collectively called America, are a landmass comprising the totality of North and South America. The Americas make up most of the land in Earth's Western Hemisphere and comprise the New World.
Along with th ...
and a
vector
Vector most often refers to:
*Euclidean vector, a quantity with a magnitude and a direction
*Vector (epidemiology), an agent that carries and transmits an infectious pathogen into another living organism
Vector may also refer to:
Mathematic ...
of
schistosomiasis
Schistosomiasis, also known as snail fever, bilharzia, and Katayama fever, is a disease caused by parasitic flatworms called schistosomes. The urinary tract or the intestines may be infected. Symptoms include abdominal pain, diarrhea, bloody s ...
.
In medical research, the most commonly used ''Biomphalaria glabrata'' snail stock (used for the maintenance of ''Schistosoma mansoni'') is
albino
Albinism is the congenital absence of melanin in an animal or plant resulting in white hair, feathers, scales and skin and pink or blue eyes. Individuals with the condition are referred to as albino.
Varied use and interpretation of the term ...
, i.e. it is without pigment. It is descended from a
mutant
In biology, and especially in genetics, a mutant is an organism or a new genetic character arising or resulting from an instance of mutation, which is generally an alteration of the DNA sequence of the genome or chromosome of an organism. It ...
albino stock which arose during research by Newton (1955). Not only did this albino variety prove to be highly susceptible to ''Schistosoma mansoni'', but the lack of pigment allowed investigators using a
dissecting microscope to view the development of the
parasite
Parasitism is a close relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or inside another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this way of life. The entomologist E. O. Wilson has ...
within the snail. The black pigment normally found in snails that are taken from the field previously made this viewing too difficult.
There are both
resistant and
susceptible
Susceptibility may refer to:
Physics and engineering
In physics the susceptibility is a quantification for the change of an extensive property under variation of an intensive property. The word may refer to:
* In physics, the susceptibility of ...
strains of ''B. glabrata''. Li et al 2021 finds resistant snails to have
innate immune receptors specifically to fight ''S. mansoni'' infection. These IIRs are expressed on particular immune cells.
[ . .]
Some other trematodes are also natural parasites of ''Biomphalaria glabrata'':
* ''
Ribeiroia marini
''Ribeiroia'' () is a genus of trematode parasites that sequentially infect freshwater snails in the family Planorbidae (ramshorn snails) as first intermediate hosts, fish and larval amphibians as second intermediate hosts, and birds and mamm ...
''
*
Candidatus
In prokaryote nomenclature, ''Candidatus'' (Latin for candidate of Roman office) is used to name prokaryotic phyla that are well characterized but yet-uncultured. Contemporary sequencing approaches, such as 16S sequencing or metagenomics, provide m ...
''
Paenibacillus glabratella'' – this bacterial pathogen is causing white nodules and high mortalities of snails.
Experimental parasites include:
* ''
Angiostrongylus vasorum
''Angiostrongylus vasorum'', also known as French heartworm, is a species of parasitic nematode in the family Metastrongylidae. It causes the disease canine angiostrongylosis in dogs. It is not zoonotic, that is, it cannot be transmitted to huma ...
'' – (experimental)
* ''
Echinostoma caproni
''Echinostoma caproni'' is a species of 37-spined Egyptian echinostome. It is naturally found in Cameroon, Congo, Egypt, Madagascar, and Togo.
''Echinostoma caproni'' uses different snails species as first and second intermediate hosts, like ' ...
'' – (experimental)
* ''
Echinostoma paraensei'' – (experimental)
* ''
Echinostoma trivolvis
''Echinostoma'' is a genus of Trematoda, trematodes (flukes), which can infect both humans and other animals. These intestinal trematoda, flukes have a three-host life cycle with snails or other aquatic organisms as intermediate hosts, and a var ...
'' – as second (experimental) intermediate host (referred as ''Echinostoma revolutum'' in Anderson & Fried (1987)).
* ''
Plagiorchis elegans
''Plagiorchis elegans'' is a species of parasitic trematodes (flukes) in the genus ''Plagiorchis
''Plagiorchis'' is a genus of parasitic trematodes (flukes) in the family Plagiorchiidae
Plagiorchiidae is a family of parasitic trematodes (fl ...
'' can experimentally infect ''Biomphalaria glabrata'' and it can cause its parasitic castration, but the snail is incompatible for its full development.
Interaction with schistosome
''Schistosoma mansoni'' can infect juveniles of ''Biomphalaria glabrata'' much more easily than it can adults.
''Schistosoma mansoni'' causes
parasitic castration
Parasitic castration is the strategy, by a parasite, of blocking reproduction by its host, completely or in part, to its own benefit. This is one of six major strategies within parasitism.
Evolutionary strategy
The parasitic castration strateg ...
in infected snails.
Interactions between snails and schistosomes are complex and there exists an urgent need to elucidate pathways involved in snail-parasite relationships as well as to identify those factors involved in the intricate balance between the snail internal defence system and trematode infectivity mechanisms that determine the success or failure of an
infection
An infection is the invasion of tissues by pathogens, their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to the infectious agent and the toxins they produce. An infectious disease, also known as a transmissible disease or communicable dise ...
.
Molluscs appear to lack an
adaptive immune system
The adaptive immune system, also known as the acquired immune system, is a subsystem of the immune system that is composed of specialized, systemic cells and processes that eliminate pathogens or prevent their growth. The acquired immune system ...
like that found in vertebrates and, instead, are considered to use various innate mechanisms involving cell-mediated and
humoral reactions (non-cellular factors in
plasma
Plasma or plasm may refer to:
Science
* Plasma (physics), one of the four fundamental states of matter
* Plasma (mineral), a green translucent silica mineral
* Quark–gluon plasma, a state of matter in quantum chromodynamics
Biology
* Blood pla ...
/
serum or
hemolymph
Hemolymph, or haemolymph, is a fluid, analogous to the blood in vertebrates, that circulates in the interior of the arthropod (invertebrate) body, remaining in direct contact with the animal's tissues. It is composed of a fluid plasma in which ...
) that interact to recognize and eliminate invading pathogens or parasites in incompatible or resistant snails. However, a diverse family of
fibrinogen-related proteins (FREPs)
containing immunoglobulin-like domains has been discovered in ''Biomphalaria glabrata'' and may play a role in snail defence. Circulating haemocytes (macrophage-like defence cells) in the snail haemolymph are known to aggregate in response to trauma, phagocytose small particles (bacteria, and fungi) and encapsulate larger ones, such as parasites. Final killing is effected by hemocyte-mediated cytotoxicity mechanisms involving non-oxidative and oxidative pathways, including lysosomal enzymes and reactive oxygen/nitrogen intermediates. Certain
allele
An allele (, ; ; modern formation from Greek ἄλλος ''állos'', "other") is a variation of the same sequence of nucleotides at the same place on a long DNA molecule, as described in leading textbooks on genetics and evolution.
::"The chro ...
s of cytosolic copper/zinc
superoxide dismutase
Superoxide dismutase (SOD, ) is an enzyme that alternately catalyzes the dismutation (or partitioning) of the superoxide () radical into ordinary molecular oxygen (O2) and hydrogen peroxide (). Superoxide is produced as a by-product of oxygen me ...
(SOD1) have been associated with resistance also suggesting these processes are important in the snail internal defence system.
On the
schistosome
''Schistosoma'' is a genus of trematodes, commonly known as blood flukes. They are parasitic flatworms responsible for a highly significant group of infections in humans termed ''schistosomiasis'', which is considered by the World Health Organi ...
's part the Roger group (in Roger et al 2008 a & b) find that ''S. mansoni'' produces
mucin
Mucins () are a family of high molecular weight, heavily glycosylated proteins (glycoconjugates) produced by epithelial tissues in most animals. Mucins' key characteristic is their ability to form gels; therefore they are a key component in most ...
s.
Immunoprecipitation reveals FREPs and mucins bound to each other. This suggests FREPs are detecting these mucins and recognition or failure to recognize helps to determine the course of the infection interaction.
Predators
The freshwater snail ''
Marisa cornuarietis
''Marisa cornuarietis'', common name the Colombian ramshorn apple snail, is a species of large freshwater snail with an operculum, an aquatic gastropod mollusc in the family Ampullariidae, the apple snail family.
These snails are popular ...
'' is a predator of ''Biomphalaria glabrata'': it feeds on its eggs, juvenile and adult snails.
It also acts as a competitor.
Competitors
''
Melanoides tuberculata
The red-rimmed melania (''Melanoides tuberculata''), also known as Malayan livebearing snails or Malayan/Malaysian trumpet snails (often abbreviated to MTS) by aquarists, is a species of freshwater snail with an operculum, a parthenogenetic, a ...
'' is considered to be a
competitor
Competition is a rivalry where two or more parties strive for a common goal which cannot be shared: where one's gain is the other's loss (an example of which is a zero-sum game). Competition can arise between entities such as organisms, indivi ...
of ''Biomphalaria glabrata'', but all the intraspecific interactions are not fully understood yet.
Although in various countries there were contradictory results,
and despite this situation being unpredictable and thus possible
ecological damage might result, ''Melanoides tuberculata'' is nonetheless used in an attempt to control or reduce populations of ''Biomphalaria glabrata'' in Brazil,
in the
West Indies
The West Indies is a subregion of North America, surrounded by the North Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea that includes 13 independent island countries and 18 dependencies and other territories in three major archipelagos: the Greater A ...
,
and in Venezuela.
Symbionts
A single-celled
symbiont
Symbiosis (from Greek , , "living together", from , , "together", and , bíōsis, "living") is any type of a close and long-term biological interaction between two different biological organisms, be it mutualistic, commensalistic, or parasit ...
''
Capsaspora owczarzaki
''Capsaspora'' is a monotypic genus containing the single species ''Capsaspora owczarzaki. C. owczarzaki'' is a single-celled eukaryote that occupies a key phylogenetic position in our understanding of the origin of animal multicellularity, as o ...
'' was discovered in the
haemolymph
Hemolymph, or haemolymph, is a fluid, analogous to the blood in vertebrates, that circulates in the interior of the arthropod (invertebrate) body, remaining in direct contact with the animal's tissues. It is composed of a fluid plasma in which ...
of ''Biomphalaria glabrata'' in 2002.
Hybrid
There is one known
hybrid
Hybrid may refer to:
Science
* Hybrid (biology), an offspring resulting from cross-breeding
** Hybrid grape, grape varieties produced by cross-breeding two ''Vitis'' species
** Hybridity, the property of a hybrid plant which is a union of two dif ...
: ''Biomphalaria glabrata ×
Biomphalaria alexandrina
''Biomphalaria alexandrina'' is a species of air-breathing freshwater snail, an aquatic pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family Planorbidae, the ram's horn snails and their allies.
Distribution
This species occur in Egypt
Habitat
''Bi ...
'', from Egypt.
Toxicology
The
absolute lethal concentration Absolute may refer to:
Companies
* Absolute Entertainment, a video game publisher
* Absolute Radio, (formerly Virgin Radio), independent national radio station in the UK
* Absolute Software Corporation, specializes in security and data risk mana ...
(LC
100) of glucose/
mannose-binding lectins from plants ''
Canavalia brasiliensis'', ''
Cratylia floribunda'', ''
Dioclea guianensis
''Dioclea guianensis'' is a species of legume native to the Americas
The Americas, which are sometimes collectively called America, are a landmass comprising the totality of North America, North and South America. The Americas make up mo ...
'', ''
Dioclea grandiflora'' and ''
Dioclea virgata Dioclea or Diocleia, and also Dioklea or Diokleia may refer to :
* Diocleia (festival), an annual festival in ancient Megara in honor of the hero Diocles, famous for the kissing contest between men
* Dioclea (state), a medieval state of Duklja, i ...
'' for adults of ''Biomphalaria glabrata'' is 50 μg mL
−1.
The
latex
Latex is an emulsion (stable dispersion) of polymer microparticles in water. Latexes are found in nature, but synthetic latexes are common as well.
In nature, latex is found as a milky fluid found in 10% of all flowering plants (angiosperms ...
of ''
Euphorbia conspicua'' is toxic to adults of ''Biomphalaria glabrata''.
Four species of the genus ''
Solanum
''Solanum'' is a large and diverse genus of flowering plants, which include three food crops of high economic importance: the potato, the tomato and the eggplant (aubergine, brinjal). It is the largest genus in the nightshade family Solanaceae ...
'' from Brazil are toxic to ''Biomphalaria glabrata''.
Some species of ''
Annona'' are toxic to adults of ''Biomphalaria glabrata'' and to its eggs.
References
This article incorporates public domain text from reference,
CC-BY-2.5 text (but not under
GFDL
The GNU Free Documentation License (GNU FDL or simply GFDL) is a copyleft license for free documentation, designed by the Free Software Foundation (FSF) for the GNU Project. It is similar to the GNU General Public License, giving readers the r ...
) from reference
and CC-BY-2.0 text from references.
Further reading
* Genetics as known up to 2006:
**
* Feeding behaviour:
**
**
* Egg-laying process:
**
*Competition in laboratory:
**
* Circulatory system:
**
* Biochemistry:
**
* Interactions with ''Schistosome'':
**
* Mineralogy:
**
**
* Phylogeography:
**
* Toxicology:
**
External links
''Biomphalaria glabrata'' Genome Initiative''Biomphalaria glabrata'' genome page at NCBIWhat is ''Biomphalaria glabrata'' – UNM Biology Department Home Page
{{DEFAULTSORT:Biomphalaria Glabrata
Biomphalaria
Gastropods described in 1818