The Battle of Xiaoyao Ford, also known as the Battle of Leisure Ford, Battle of Hefei, and Hefei Campaign, was fought between the warlords

Cao Cao Cao Cao () (; 155 – 15 March 220), courtesy name Mengde (), was a Chinese statesman, warlord and poet. He was the penultimate Grand chancellor (China), grand chancellor of the Eastern Han dynasty, and he amassed immense power in the End of ...

and

Sun Quan Sun Quan (, Chinese: 孫權) (183 – 21 May 252), courtesy name Zhongmou (), posthumously known as Emperor Da of Wu, was the founder of the Eastern Wu dynasty, one of the Three Kingdoms of China. He inherited control of the warlord regime es ...

between 214 and 215 in the late

Eastern Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a warr ...

. The two contending sides were fighting for control over a strategic fortress at

Hefei Hefei (; ) is the capital and largest city of Anhui Province, People's Republic of China. A prefecture-level city, it is the political, economic, and cultural center of Anhui. Its population was 9,369,881 as of the 2020 census and its built-up ( ...

, which was defended by Cao Cao's general

Zhang Liao Zhang Liao () (169–222), courtesy name Wenyuan, was a Chinese military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao in the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He served briefly in the state of Cao Wei, founded by Cao Cao's successor Cao Pi, in the ...

. Towards the end of the campaign, Zhang Liao made use of

force concentration Force concentration is the practice of concentrating a military force so as to bring to bear such overwhelming force against a portion of an enemy force that the disparity between the two forces alone acts as a force multiplier in favour of the ...

and launched a sneak counteroffensive on Sun Quan at Leisure Ford, where Sun only had 1,000 soldiers with him at the time. Amidst the chaos, Sun Quan barely escaped capture with the aid of his general

Ling Tong Ling Tong () (189–217), courtesy name Gongji, was a Chinese military general serving under the warlord Sun Quan during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He started his service under Sun Quan when he was still a teenager and, throughout his ...

. This action raised Zhang Liao to primacy among Cao Cao's generals.

Background

Long before Sun Quan solidified his control over southeastern China, Cao Cao had appointed Liu Fu as the Inspector of

Yang Province Yangzhou, Yangchow or Yang Province was one of the Nine Provinces of ancient China mentioned in historical texts such as the ''Tribute of Yu'', ''Erya'' and ''Rites of Zhou''. Name There are four different theories regarding the origin of the ...

, and had him build fortifications against besiegers. Liu Fu oversaw the construction of Hefei fortress (), stocked with boulders, logs, and reserves of

fish oil Fish oil is oil derived from the tissues of oily fish. Fish oils contain the omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), precursors of certain eicosanoids that are known to reduce inflammation in the body a ...

. In late 208 after the

Battle of Red Cliffs The Battle of Red Cliffs, also known as the Battle of Chibi, was a decisive naval battle in the winter of AD 208–209 at the end of the Han dynasty, about twelve years prior to the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period in Chinese history. T ...

, Sun Quan led an army to invade Hefei but was unsuccessful despite several months of progress. The following year, the local parvenus and two former subordinates of

Yuan Shu Yuan Shu () (died July or August 199), courtesy name Gonglu, was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty. He rose to prominence following the collapse of the Han central government in 189 ...

and Liu Fu, Chen Lan () and Mei Cheng (), rebelled in Lujiang () after the death of Liu Fu (whom they trusted), but the revolt was suppressed by Cao Cao's generals Zhang Liao and

Zang Ba Zang Ba ( 162–230s), courtesy name Xuangao, was a military general who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms period of China. He served the warlord Tao Qian initially, followed by Lü Bu and finally Cao Cao and his succ ...

. Cao Cao then ordered Zhang Liao,

Yue Jin Yue Jin () (died 218), courtesy name Wenqian, was a military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao in the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He was noted as much for his short stature as for his valour and ferocity on the battlefield. Yue ...

and

Li Dian Li Dian ( 180 – 217), courtesy name Mancheng, was a Chinese military general and politician serving under the warlord Cao Cao during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He participated in the Battle of Guandu in 200 between Cao Cao and Yua ...

to lead 7,000 troops to enter Hefei fortress, Xiahou Dun to lead 26 ''jun''s (325,000 men) to prepare for probable attacks, and

Xiahou Yuan Xiahou Yuan () (died 219), courtesy name Miaocai, was a Chinese military general and politician serving under the warlord Cao Cao in the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He is known for his exploits in western China (in parts of present-day Ga ...

to handle logistics. Chen Lan's ally, Lei Bo (), surrendered to another warlord

Liu Bei Liu Bei (, ; ; 161 – 10 June 223), courtesy name Xuande (), was a warlord in the late Eastern Han dynasty who founded the state of Shu Han in the Three Kingdoms period and became its first ruler. Although he was a distant relative of the H ...

. In 213 Cao Cao brought with him a 400,000 strong army to attack Sun Quan's 70,000 men at Ruxukou (), but victory eluded him for more than a month, and he was forced on the defensive. After his repeated failures against the southerners, Cao Cao was worried that the various counties along the Yangtze River would be taken by Sun Quan, so he adopted a

Fabian strategy The Fabian strategy is a military strategy where pitched battles and frontal assaults are avoided in favor of wearing down an opponent through a war of attrition and indirection. While avoiding decisive battles, the side employing this strategy ...

and started to form military communities, families of soldiers concentrated in fortified towns. The Yangtze region became depopulated as residents were relocated except for Wan County (皖縣; present-day

Qianshan County Qianshan is a county-level city in the southwest of Anhui Province, People's Republic of China; it is under the jurisdiction of the prefecture-level city of Anqing. It has a population of 570,000 and an area of . The government of Qianshan County i ...

Anhui Anhui , (; formerly romanized as Anhwei) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the East China region. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze River ...

), which was situated south of Hefei. Cao Cao appointed Zhu Guang () as Administrator of Lujiang and garrisoned him at Wan County, promoting agriculture and bribing wealthy locals in Poyang () to spy on Sun Quan's forces and harass the enemy's rear.

The campaign

Battle of Wan County

Around June or July 214, Sun Quan took advantage of heavy rains and floods in the

Huai River The Huai River (), Postal Map Romanization, formerly romanization of Chinese, romanized as the Hwai, is a major river in China. It is located about midway between the Yellow River and Yangtze, the two longest rivers and largest drainage basins ...

region to sail up the Yangtze and attack Wan County (), which served as a billet and storehouse for Zhang Liao's and Xiahou Dun's armies. Sun Quan faced two options: to build siege engines, or attack right away with foot soldiers.

Lü Meng Lü Meng () (178 – January or February 220), courtesy name Ziming, was a Chinese military general and politician who served under the warlord Sun Quan during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. Early in his career, he fought in several batt ...

suggested the latter option and recommended

Gan Ning Gan Ning () (early 170s - c. 220), courtesy name Xingba, was a Chinese military general serving under the warlord Sun Quan in the late Eastern Han dynasty. Originally a notorious pirate, he gave up the life of a marauder in the late 190s and beca ...

to lead the offensive. Upon knowing Sun Quan had arrived on the battlefield, Zhang Liao moved out of Hefei fortress to reinforce Wan County. However, Sun Quan's energetic troops took Wan County within a day, and Zhu Guang was captured along with his advisor Dong He (). By the time Zhang Liao reached Jiashi (), he received news of the fall of Wan County and withdrew to Hefei. Around this time,

had taken over

Yi Province Yizhou (益州), Yi Province or Yi Prefecture, was a '' zhou'' (province) of ancient China. Its capital city was Chengdu.de Crespigny, p. 256. During the Han dynasty, it included the commanderies Hanzhong, Ba, Guanghan, Shu, Wenshan, Jianwei, ...

(covering present-day

Sichuan Sichuan (; zh, c=, labels=no, ; zh, p=Sìchuān; alternatively romanized as Szechuan or Szechwan; formerly also referred to as "West China" or "Western China" by Protestant missions) is a province in Southwest China occupying most of the ...

and

Chongqing Chongqing ( or ; ; Sichuanese dialects, Sichuanese pronunciation: , Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ), Postal Romanization, alternately romanized as Chungking (), is a Direct-administered municipalities of China, municipality in Southwes ...

) from Liu Zhang, so Sun Quan sent

Zhuge Jin Zhuge Jin (174 – July or August 241), courtesy name Ziyu, was a Chinese military general and politician of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Born in the late Eastern Han dynasty, Zhuge Jin started his career in ...

to demand from Liu Bei the return of

Jing Province Jingzhou or Jing Province was one of the Nine Provinces of ancient China referenced in Chinese historical texts such as the ''Tribute of Yu'', '' Erya'' and '' Rites of Zhou''. Jingzhou became an administrative division during the reign of Empe ...

. Liu Bei refused, and

Guan Yu Guan Yu (; ), courtesy name Yunchang, was a Chinese military general serving under the warlord Liu Bei during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. Along with Zhang Fei, he shared a brotherly relationship with Liu Bei and accompanied him on ...

also drove away the officials Sun Quan sent to three commanderies in southern Jing Province. Sun Quan then withdrew his elite generals from the northern frontier and ordered Lü Meng and Ling Tong to lead 20,000 troops to take the three commanderies of Jing Province, while sending

Lu Su Lu Su (172–217), courtesy name Zijing, was a Chinese military general and politician serving under the warlord Sun Quan during the late Eastern Han dynasty. In the year 200, when Sun Quan had just taken over the reins of power, his adviser Zho ...

to lead 10,000 men to garrison at Baqiu () to resist Guan Yu, while he personally stationed at Lukou () to serve as backup. Liu Bei also led his army to Gong'an () and sent Guan Yu with 30,000 men to Yiyang (). Lü Meng and Ling Tong took three commanderies by strategy and led their men with

Sun Jiao Sun Jiao (died early 220), courtesy name Shulang, was a cousin of Sun Quan, a Chinese warlord who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty and later became the founding emperor of the state of Eastern Wu in the Three Kingdoms period. Life Sun ...

and

Pan Zhang Pan Zhang (died 234), courtesy name Wengui, was a military general serving under the warlord Sun Quan during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He continued serving in the state of Eastern Wu (founded by Sun Quan) during the Three Kingdoms ...

to support Lu Su at Yiyang. Taking advantage of the Liu-Sun conflict, Cao Cao led an army to attack Zhang Lu of

Hanzhong Hanzhong (; abbreviation: Han) is a prefecture-level city in the southwest of Shaanxi province, China, bordering the provinces of Sichuan to the south and Gansu to the west. The founder of the Han dynasty, Liu Bang, was once enfeoffed as the ...

. Liu Bei was afraid that if Hanzhong fell to Cao Cao, Yi Province would be in peril as Hanzhong was the "gateway" to Yi Province. Hence, Liu Bei made peace with Sun Quan by dividing southern Jing Province. In return, Sun Quan promised to divert Cao Cao's attention from the west by attacking Hefei fortress.

An unorthodox order

The force at Hefei was outnumbered because Xiahou Dun's force was stationed at Juchao (居巢; in present-day Chaohu, Anhui) and it would take time for help to arrive. Only 7000 men were at the fortress. Before Cao Cao left to attack Zhang Lu, he left his representative

Xue Ti Xue () is the pinyin romanization of the Chinese surname 薛 (Xuē). It is romanized as Hsüeh in Wade-Giles. In Hong Kong and Macau it is usually romanized through its Cantonese pronunciation Sit. In Korean language, Korean, it corresponds to Seo ...

() with a letter that read "Open when the enemy arrives" on the envelope. As Sun Quan's army was already advancing towards Hefei, the defending generals opened the letter, which stated: "When Sun Quan arrives, generals Zhang (Liao) and Li (Dian) will engage him; General Yue (Jin) will remain behind to defend and not go into battle." This puzzled the generals, since it was well known that Li Dian and Zhang Liao had a personal feud, and Yue Jin lacked defensive experience, but was famous as the best vanguard in Cao Cao's forces. As the three of them did not get along well, Zhang Liao feared they might disobey orders.Chen Shou. ''Records of Three Kingdoms'', Volume 18, Biography of Li Dian. He said, "Our lord is away at war. By the time his reinforcements reach here, we're already done for. So he is actually instructing us to take advantage of the situation, when the enemy has just arrived and not fully gathered yet, to attack them and devastate their morale so as to calm our men and strengthen our defences. Victory or defeat, it all depends on this battle. Why are the two of you still hesitating?" Li Dian was moved and he said, "This is a national crisis. We'll see how your strategy works out. How can I let my personal affairs take precedence over my official duties?" Zhang Liao then selected 800 "die-hard" soldiers overnight in preparation for the upcoming battle, and threw a banquet for his men.

Battle around the fortress

The following morning, Zhang Liao led the 800 soldiers on a charge targeting Sun Quan's forces as they set up camp unafraid of Zhang Liao's small detachment.

Xu Sheng Xu Sheng (died 222–229), courtesy name Wenxiang, was a military general serving under the warlord Sun Quan in the late Eastern Han dynasty and early Three Kingdoms period of China. Early life and career Xu Sheng was from Ju County (), Langya ...

and Song Qian in the front were routed after a brief skirmish, with Xu Sheng was wounded and disarmed, and Zhang Liao penetrated the camp. After personally killing tens of enemy soldiers and two officers, he cried out, "Zhang Liao is here!" Chen Wu, the commander of Sun Quan's bodyguards, went out to meet Zhang Liao's challenge. However, Chen Wu's unit was no match for Zhang Liao's and he was killed. Sun Quan was shocked by Zhang Liao's onslaught, and Xu Sheng and Song Qian's troops turned tail when they saw their commanders being killed or fleeing, and Pan Zhang killed two deserters. Ling Tong, just arrived on the field, led Sun Quan to a hill and ordered his men to use the long '' ji''s to a form a defensive line before he went down to fight Zhang Liao. At the bottom of the hill, Zhang Liao shouted for Sun Quan to come down and fight him, but Sun did not dare to move. When Sun Quan saw that the situation had become more stable and Zhang Liao was only left with slightly more than a hundred men, he ordered

He Qi He Qi (died 227), courtesy name Gongmiao, was a military general serving under the warlords Sun Ce and Sun Quan during the late Eastern Han dynasty, and later in the state of Eastern Wu during the early Three Kingdoms period of China. He was es ...

to surround Zhang Liao's men. During the battle He Qi retrieved Xu Sheng's personal ''mao'' (矛, a 5m long spear). Zhang Liao fought fiercely and succeeded in breaking out of the encirclement. When his remaining men, still trapped inside, shouted, "Has our general abandoned us?" Zhang Liao plowed back through enemy ranks and rescued his men. Sun Quan's men were stunned by Zhang Liao's valour and did not dare to stand in his way. After the engagement, Pan Zhang was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant General while Ling Tong was appointed as Right Commander, but the long morning's battle had crushed the morale of Sun Quan's troops. Zhang Liao brought his survivors back to the city and fortified his defences. Zhang Liao's victory boosted his men's fighting spirits and reassured the defenders. When Sun Quan's forces had all gathered, they launched an assault on the city. However, Hefei's defenses, prepared by Liu Fu, were not easy to breach. After several days, Sun Quan was still unable to take the city, when a plague broke out in his army, forcing Sun Quan to withdraw.

Battle at Xiaoyao Ford

In order to avoid being infected with the plague, Sun Quan ordered the rest of his units to retreat first while his guards, numbering only about 1,000, were the last to move. Zhang Liao, watching closely, seized this moment to counterattack, when Sun Quan had the fewest troops. He waited until Sun Quan's army had reached the northern crossing of Xiaoyao Ford when he, Li Dian, and Yue Jin led all their forces out of Hefei for an all-out assault. When Sun Quan saw that the advancing attack, he realised his danger and hurriedly recalled his retreating units, but they could not return in time from the ships. As the 1,000 men of Sun Quan were engulfed by Zhang Liao's veteran cavalry,

led a relief force of 300 horsemen to pierce the encirclement, keeping the enemy from Sun Quan and mauling Zhang Liao's army.Chen Shou. ''Records of Three Kingdoms'', Volume 55, Biography of Ling Tong. As Sun Quan's side was in confusion and battle signals were not given, Gan Ning drummed the other units to action, while he personally shot arrows at the enemy. As soon as Ling Tong dragged Sun Quan from the thick of the fight, he urged Sun to leave the battlefield while he stayed behind to cover his lord's escape. Sun Quan hurried to the southern shore until he reached the crossing at Xiaoyao Ford, but the bridge had been destroyed, leaving a nearly 10 metre-long gap. Gu Li, Sun Quan's attendant, told his master to sit tight, grab the reins firmly. Gu Li whipped the horse's flanks, and it made a mighty leap across to the southern side. Ling Tong turned back to hold off the enemy after seeing Sun Quan to safety. On the northern shore, Ling Tong gave all for his lord's cause, fighting until all his 300 men had died and the other units had retreated. Zhang Liao and Li Dian wounded him. Knowing Sun Quan was safety away by this time, Ling Tong finally attempted to fight his way out. He single-handedly killed dozens of enemy horsemen blocking his way, and succeeded in breaking out, only to find all the roads blockaded. As the enemy closed in, Ling Tong quickly dove into the water before discarding his armour. By that time, Sun Quan had already boarded a boat, and he delightedly rescued his general from the water, rejoicing in this miraculous reunion, but Ling Tong wept at the death of all his close aides. Sun Quan comforted him, saying, "Gongji (Ling Tong's

courtesy name A courtesy name (), also known as a style name, is a name bestowed upon one at adulthood in addition to one's given name. This practice is a tradition in the East Asian cultural sphere, including China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.Ulrich Theobald ...

), let the dead go. As long as you live, why worry that you'll have no men under you?" Sun Quan later put Ling Tong in command of twice his previous force.

Aftermath

During a banquet hosted by Sun Quan after the battle, He Qi wept and said, "My lord, as a leader of men, you should be prudent. Today we were almost wiped out and the men are in shock. I hope you will learn from this lesson." Sun Quan thanked He Qi for his advice and promised to remember it for life. When the battle was over, Zhang Liao, Li Dian, and Yue Jin lingered on the battlefield hoping to find Sun Quan's body. They were not aware that Sun Quan had already escaped until Zhang Liao asked a captive soldier, "Who was that purple-bearded, long-bodied, short-legged man so skilled in mounted archery?" The soldier replied it was Sun Quan. Zhang Liao then told Yue Jin that he regretted not chasing after this purple-bearded fighter, for he could have caught him. When the news reached Cao Cao, he could hardly believe what his officers had achieved, so he later travelled to Xiaoyao Ford to scrutinize the battlefield. Zhang Liao was promoted to the rank of "General Conqueror of the East". Li Dian was granted 100 more households, for a total of 300. Yue Jin received 500 more taxable households, for a total of 1,200. Five hundred households were allotted to Yue Jin's son, who had also fought. Yue Jin's son also received the title of marquis, while the father was promoted to "General of the Right". On Sun Quan's side, Ling Tong and Pan Zhang were promoted to "Lieutenant General"Chen Shou. ''Records of Three Kingdoms'', Volume 55, Biography of Pan Zhang. while Jiang Qin was appointed "General Vanquisher of Bandits".Chen Shou. ''Records of Three Kingdoms'', Volume 55, Biography of Jiang Qin. Sun Quan also attended Chen Wu's funeral and ordered Chen's favourite concubine to join him in death.Chen Shou. ''Records of Three Kingdoms'', Volume 55, Biography of Chen Wu.

In popular culture

The battle is featured as a playable stage in

Koei Koei Co., Ltd. was a Japanese video game publisher, developer, and distributor founded in 1978. The company is known for its ''Dynasty Warriors'' games based on the novel ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', as well as simulation games based on p ...

's video game series ''

Dynasty Warriors is a series of Japanese hack and slash action video games created by Omega Force and Koei (now is Koei Tecmo). The series is a spin-off of Koei's turn-based strategy '' Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' series, based upon the Chinese novel of ...

''. In the games, the battle is known as the "Battle of He Fei", and is not to be confused with another stage (Battle of Hefei Castle), which refers to the

Battle of Hefei (234) The Battle of Hefei, also known as the Battle of Hefei Xincheng, was fought between the contending states of Cao Wei and Eastern Wu from roughly June to September 234 during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Background Around March 234, Shu ...

Notes

{{Reflist

References

Chen Shou Chen Shou (; 233–297), courtesy name Chengzuo (), was a Chinese historian, politician, and writer who lived during the Three Kingdoms period and Jin dynasty of China. Chen Shou is most known for his most celebrated work, the ''Records of the ...

. ''

Records of the Three Kingdoms The ''Records or History of the Three Kingdoms'', also known by its Chinese name as the Sanguo Zhi, is a Chinese historical text which covers the history of the late Eastern Han dynasty (c. 184–220 AD) and the Three Kingdoms period (220– ...

''. 214 215 Xiaoyao Ford Military history of Anhui Xiaoyao Ford Hefei