Bashmurian revolts (, ar, ثورة البشموريين) were a series of revolts by the
Egyptians
Egyptians ( arz, المَصرِيُون, translit=al-Maṣriyyūn, ; arz, المَصرِيِين, translit=al-Maṣriyyīn, ; cop, ⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ, remenkhēmi) are an ethnic group native to the Nile, Nile Valley in Egypt. Egyptian ...
in the
Bashmur
Bashmur ( , ; ar, الباشمور, ) was a region in the Nile Delta in Egypt. In the early Middle Ages, it was inhabited by Christian Copts and was the scene of a series of revolts against Arab rule in the 8th and 9th centuries.
Name
The nam ...
region in the north of the
Nile Delta
The Nile Delta ( ar, دلتا النيل, or simply , is the delta formed in Lower Egypt where the Nile River spreads out and drains into the Mediterranean Sea. It is one of the world's largest river deltas—from Alexandria in the west to Po ...
against the
Umayyad
The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE; , ; ar, ٱلْخِلَافَة ٱلْأُمَوِيَّة, al-Khilāfah al-ʾUmawīyah) was the second of the four major caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. The caliphate was ruled by the ...
and
Abbasid Caliphate
The Abbasid Caliphate ( or ; ar, الْخِلَافَةُ الْعَبَّاسِيَّة, ') was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttalib ...
s in the eighth and ninth centuries. Exactly how many revolts there were cannot be determined, but the major military conflicts took place in 749, 767 and 831–832.
The Bashmurian revolts are known from
Coptic
Coptic may refer to:
Afro-Asia
* Copts, an ethnoreligious group mainly in the area of modern Egypt but also in Sudan and Libya
* Coptic language, a Northern Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Egypt until at least the 17th century
* Coptic alphabet ...
and
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
sources. They did not become known in Europe until the early nineteenth century. Both Coptic and Arabic sources attribute them to oppressive
taxation
A tax is a compulsory financial charge or some other type of levy imposed on a taxpayer (an individual or legal person, legal entity) by a governmental organization in order to fund government spending and various public expenditures (regiona ...
and the unjust treatment of Christians by the
Arab governors.
Location
![Piri Reis - Map of the River Nile Estuary with the Cities of Rashid and Burullus on Each Side - Walters W658306B - Full Page](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Piri_Reis_-_Map_of_the_River_Nile_Estuary_with_the_Cities_of_Rashid_and_Burullus_on_Each_Side_-_Walters_W658306B_-_Full_Page.jpg)
The exact boundaries of Bashmur varied over time depending on where the Bashmurians were settled. At the time of the revolts, it seems to have lain across the northern Delta just south of the
Mediterranean
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the e ...
from
Fuwwa in the west to
Ashmun al-Rumman in the east. By the thirteenth century, the Bashmurians seem to have been confined to the eastern Delta. In the eighth century, they were perhaps concentrated in the west, around the lake of
Edku
Edku ( ar, إدكو) (also Edkhou, or Idku) is a town in the Beheira Governorate, located east of Alexandria and west of Rashid, overlooking the Mediterranean Sea. Edku lies on a sandy strip behind Abi Qir Bay, in the northwestern Nile River d ...
.
Bashmur was a region of marshland with sand banks and dense cover of reeds. Nowhere else in Egypt was more propitious for armed rebellion. Access to inhabited places was provided through narrow sandy banks and the reeds provided cover for soldiers. Moreover, Arabs did not settle in the Bashmur, leaving the population religiously unmixed. The economy of the region also favoured the Bashmurians, who relied on limited agriculture, fishing and hunting birds for food. Less dependent on irrigation works than the
fellahin
A fellah ( ar, فَلَّاح ; feminine ; plural ''fellaheen'' or ''fellahin'', , ) is a peasant, usually a farmer or agricultural laborer in the Middle East and North Africa. The word derives from the Arabic word for "ploughman" or "tiller". ...
, they were capable of resisting long sieges. The Bashmurians also sold
papyrus
Papyrus ( ) is a material similar to thick paper that was used in ancient times as a writing surface. It was made from the pith of the papyrus plant, '' Cyperus papyrus'', a wetland sedge. ''Papyrus'' (plural: ''papyri'') can also refer to a ...
and possibly raised cattle.
The rebels and inhabitans of Bashmur were also known in the Arabic sources under the name ''Biyama'' (), which
Eutychius Eutychius or Eutychios ( el, Εὐτύχιος, "fortunate") may refer to:
* Eutychius Proclus, 2nd-century grammarian
* Eutychius (exarch) (died 752), last Byzantine exarch of Ravenna
* Saint Eutychius, an early Christian martyr and companion of ...
derives from Coptic , relating to a story that when the
Byzantines withdrew from the Delta, only forty men remained behind in Bashmur, and that they were the ancestors of the Biyama. This etymology is more legendary than historical, as
al-Maqrīzī
Al-Maqrīzī or Maḳrīzī (Arabic: ), whose full name was Taqī al-Dīn Abū al-'Abbās Aḥmad ibn 'Alī ibn 'Abd al-Qādir ibn Muḥammad al-Maqrīzī (Arabic: ) (1364–1442) was a medieval Egyptian Arab historian during the Mamluk era, kn ...
states that all Copts living in Lower Egypt are called Biyama.
It is rather to be derived from a Coptic word for "cattle herdsman" (), a Greek translation of which is βουκόλος "herdsman", another name for the Bashmurian rebels and the inhabitants of the marshy eastern shore of the
lake Burullus
Lake Burullus ( ar, بحيرة البرلس, Buḥayrat al-Burullus; grc-gre, λίμνη Σεβεννυτική, limnē Sebennytikē) is a brackish water lake in the Nile Delta in Egypt, the name coming from Burullus town ( cop, Ϯⲡⲁⲣⲁⲗ ...
called Boucolia (), who also revolted against the
Roman rule under the lead of
Isidorus
Isidorus (born c. 139) was a native ancient Egyptian priest in the 2nd century during the Roman rule in Egypt. He led the native Egyptian revolt against Roman rule during the reign of emperor Marcus Aurelius.Dio CassiusEpitome 72/ref> The likely ...
in the
2nd century
The 2nd century is the period from 101 ( CI) through 200 ( CC) in accordance with the Julian calendar. It is considered part of the Classical era, epoch, or historical period.
Early in the century, the Roman Empire attained its greatest ex ...
.
Military actions
It is impossible to say when the first Bashmurian revolt in the region broke out. Although there had been Coptic revolts in Egypt as early as the seventh century, most were quickly crushed. Only the Bashmurians were able to resist for long periods, inflict heavy losses on the Arabs and endure long sieges. Of the nine recorded Egyptian revolts between 693/694 and 832, only the Bashmurian revolts required the personal intervention of the caliphs.
712 and 720
In 712, there was an uprising in the Delta known as the revolt of the ''boukoloi'' (cattle herders).
According to
al-Kindī
Abū Yūsuf Yaʻqūb ibn ʼIsḥāq aṣ-Ṣabbāḥ al-Kindī (; ar, أبو يوسف يعقوب بن إسحاق الصبّاح الكندي; la, Alkindus; c. 801–873 AD) was an Arab Muslim philosopher, polymath, mathematician, physician ...
, during the governorship of
Bishr ibn Ṣafwān
Bishr ibn Safwan al-Kalbi () (died 727) was a provincial governor for the Umayyad Caliphate, serving in Egypt (720–721) and Ifriqiyah (721–727).
Career
The son of one Safwan ibn Tuwayl, Bishr was an Arab of the Banu Kalb tribe. He and his fa ...
(April 720 – April 721), the
Byzantine navy
The Byzantine navy was the naval force of the East Roman or Byzantine Empire. Like the empire it served, it was a direct continuation from its Imperial Roman predecessor, but played a far greater role in the defence and survival of the state than ...
made landings at
Tinnis
Tennis or Tinnīs ( arz, تنيس, cop, ⲑⲉⲛⲛⲉⲥⲓ) was a medieval city in Egypt which no longer exists. It was most prosperous from the 9th century to the 11th century until its abandonment. It was located at 31°12′N 32°14′E, o ...
. Ibn Aḥmar, the son of the local ruler, Maslama al-Murādī, was killed. The northern Delta area does not appear to have been under Umayyad control at the time, and may have been controlled by rebels.
749
By 749, the Bashmurians were in open revolt. The leader of the rebels is called Abū Mina by
al-Kindī
Abū Yūsuf Yaʻqūb ibn ʼIsḥāq aṣ-Ṣabbāḥ al-Kindī (; ar, أبو يوسف يعقوب بن إسحاق الصبّاح الكندي; la, Alkindus; c. 801–873 AD) was an Arab Muslim philosopher, polymath, mathematician, physician ...
and Mina ibn Bāqīra (Menas, son of Apacyrus) in the ''
History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria
The ''History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria'' is a major historical work of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. It is written in Arabic, but draws extensively on Greek and Coptic sources.
The compilation was based on earlier biographical ...
''. It is not unusual for a Coptic name beginning with ''apa''- to be interpreted as a ''
kunya'' with ''Abū'' in Arabic. This revolt began in Shubra near
Samannūd.
According to
Sāwīrus ibn al-Muqaffaʿ, multiple land and sea campaigns by Governor
Ḥawthara ibn Suhayl had failed to subdue them. The failure of the governor to crush the revolt prompted the Caliph
Marwān II to come in person with an army from
Damascus
)), is an adjective which means "spacious".
, motto =
, image_flag = Flag of Damascus.svg
, image_seal = Emblem of Damascus.svg
, seal_type = Seal
, map_caption =
, ...
. Although he proposed an armistice, the Bashmurians rejected it and the army from Damascus was sent against them.
At this juncture, Ḥawthara took the Coptic patriarch,
Michael I Michael I may refer to:
* Pope Michael I of Alexandria, Coptic Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of the See of St. Mark in 743–767
* Michael I Rhangabes, Byzantine Emperor (died in 844)
* Michael I Cerularius, Patriarch Michael I of Constantinopl ...
, hostage to
Rosetta
Rosetta or Rashid (; ar, رشيد ' ; french: Rosette ; cop, ϯⲣⲁϣⲓⲧ ''ti-Rashit'', Ancient Greek: Βολβιτίνη ''Bolbitinē'') is a port city of the Nile Delta, east of Alexandria, in Egypt's Beheira governorate. The Ro ...
, and threatened to have him killed if the Bashmurians did not lay down their arms. The Bashmurians attacked Rosetta and sacked it, massacring its Muslim inhabitants. There was an offensive as far as
Pelusium
Pelusium ( Ancient Egyptian: ; cop, /, romanized: , or , romanized: ; grc, Πηλουσιον, Pēlousion; la, Pēlūsium; Arabic: ; Egyptian Arabic: ) was an important city in the eastern extremes of Egypt's Nile Delta, 30 km to ...
against an Umayyad army. In response, Marwān ordered the pillaging and razing of Coptic villages and monasteries throughout the Delta. His campaign was a failure and in 750 he was overthrown in the
Abbasid Revolution
The Abbasid Revolution, also called the Movement of the Men of the Black Raiment, was the overthrow of the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE), the second of the four major Caliphates in early History of Islam, Islamic history, by the third, the A ...
. The Abbasids granted an amnesty to the Bashmurians and exempted them from taxes for their first two fiscal years. Abū Mina was killed during the revolt.
767
A general revolt of the Delta took place in 767. The Bashmurians (called Bashruds in the Arabic sources) joined with Arab settlers against the Abbasid government. Local officials were killed. Governor
Yazīd ibn Ḥātim sent a force against them, but it was defeated and forced to retreat to
al-Fusṭāṭ.
831–832
The rebellion of 767 had never been brought properly under control when the Caliph
al-Maʾmūn
Abu al-Abbas Abdallah ibn Harun al-Rashid ( ar, أبو العباس عبد الله بن هارون الرشيد, Abū al-ʿAbbās ʿAbd Allāh ibn Hārūn ar-Rashīd; 14 September 786 – 9 August 833), better known by his regnal name Al-Ma'mu ...
sent his
Sogdia
Sogdia (Sogdian language, Sogdian: ) or Sogdiana was an ancient Iranian peoples, Iranian civilization between the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya, and in present-day Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan. Sogdiana was also ...
n general
al-Afshīn to the Delta in 830, 831 or 832. The rebels in the eastern Delta and in
Alexandria
Alexandria ( or ; ar, ٱلْإِسْكَنْدَرِيَّةُ ; grc-gre, Αλεξάνδρεια, Alexándria) is the second largest city in Egypt, and the largest city on the Mediterranean coast. Founded in by Alexander the Great, Alexandria ...
were crushed, but the Bashmurians successfully resisted al-Ashfīn's efforts. They manufactured their own weapons. The Sogdian induced the patriarch
Joseph I Joseph I or Josef I may refer to:
*Joseph I of Constantinople, Ecumenical Patriarch in 1266–1275 and 1282–1283
*Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor (1678–1711)
*Joseph I (Chaldean Patriarch) (reigned 1681–1696)
*Joseph I of Portugal (1750–1777)
...
to send letters and bishops entreating the Bashmurians to come to terms, but the Bashmurians abused the bishops. When this failed, al-Ashfīn urged the caliph to come in person. The caliph brought with him
Dionysius of Tel Mahre
Dionysius I Telmaharoyo (Latin: ''Dionysius Telmaharensis'', Syriac: ܕܝܘܢܢܘܣܝܘܣ ܬܠܡܚܪܝܐ, Arabic: مار ديونيسيوس التلمحري), also known as Dionysius of Tel Mahre, was the Patriarch of Antioch, and head of the Syr ...
,
patriarch of Antioch
Patriarch of Antioch is a traditional title held by the bishop of Antioch (modern-day Antakya, Turkey). As the traditional "overseer" (ἐπίσκοπος, ''episkopos'', from which the word ''bishop'' is derived) of the first gentile Christian c ...
, to negotiate with the rebels. The offer of a general amnesty in return for surrender and resettlement was rejected, an indication of the importance the rebels attached to geography.
The negotiations failed, al-Maʾmūn launched a large attack from Shubra near Samannūd, guided by natives from Shubra and Tandah, resulting in high losses on both sides. When al-Maʾmūn offered an armistice, the rebels accepted. Their success was short-lived. Many armed men were executed, women and children end up deported to
Iraq
Iraq,; ku, عێراق, translit=Êraq officially the Republic of Iraq, '; ku, کۆماری عێراق, translit=Komarî Êraq is a country in Western Asia. It is bordered by Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq ...
or sold as slaves in the slave markets of Damascus. The region of Bashmur was burned and systematically destroyed to prevent further uprisings.
According to some historians, the crushing of the rebellion in 832 demoralized the Coptic Christian population. The Christian Copts were heavily pressured to convert to Islam.
Legacy
Al-Kindī writes that "from then on God made the Copts small throughout the country of Egypt and destroyed their power and no one was able to outrage and oppose the sultan".
Carl Heinrich Becker
Carl Heinrich Becker (12 April 1876 – 10 February 1933) was a German orientalist and politician in Prussia. In 1921 and 1925–1930 he served as Minister for Culture in Prussia (independent). He was one of the founders of the study of t ...
and
Gawdat Gabra
Dr. Gawdat Gabra (born 1947) ( ar, جودت جبرا, Coptic: Ⲅⲁⲩⲇⲁⲧ Ⲅⲁⲃⲣⲁ) is a Coptologist; he finished his bachelor's degree in Egyptian Antiquities – Cairo University 1967 and PhD in Coptic Antiquities University of Mü ...
both consider the defeat of the final Bashmurian revolt a pivotal event that sapped the Copts' vitality and broke their spirit of resistance. It was "the last rebellion of the Copts and perhaps the last armed resistance of Egyptian people—not as an organized army—against the oppression of foreign occupation."
Medieval
Coptic historiography has a generally negative attitude towards the Bashmurians. It lays stress on the general obedience of the Coptic church to the government. The ''History of the Patriarchs'' portrays the rebels of 831 as rebels against both legitimate secular authority and legitimate ecclesiastical authority for refusing to obey the patriarch. Their defeat is the due penalty for their disobedience. Later Egyptian writers who mentioned the Bashmurians include
Abu ʾl-Makārim (13th century), who called them "ignorant";
Ibn al-Rāhib Abū Shākir ibn al-Rāhib (c. 1205 – c. 1295) was a Coptic polymath and encyclopaedist from the golden age of Christian literature in Arabic. He is a "towering figure" in Coptic linguistics and made important contributions to Coptic historiogra ...
(1257), who knew of the revolts of 749 and the 830s; and
Athanasius of Qus (14th century), who wrote of the region of Bashmur and the Bashmuric dialect, which he called extinct. This dialect remains a phantom to linguists and its mention may only attest to the already legendary character of the Bashmurian revolts by the late medieval period.
Syriac historiography, which depends on the eyewitness account of Dionysius of Tel Mahre, is slightly more sympathetic to the Bashmurians. Dionysius views them as having a legitimate grievance and seeking redress. He also describes episodes of Abbasid cruelty, such as the attempted rape of a Coptic woman.
Notes
References
Bibliography
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{{Use dmy dates, date=June 2017
830s conflicts
8th-century rebellions
9th-century rebellions
8th century in Egypt
9th century in Egypt
History of Christianity in Egypt
Persecution of Copts
Rebellions in Egypt
Rebellions against the Abbasid Caliphate
Egypt under the Abbasid Caliphate