Alhambra
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The Alhambra (, ; ar, الْحَمْرَاء, Al-Ḥamrāʾ, , ) is a palace and fortress complex located in
Granada Granada (,, DIN 31635, DIN: ; grc, Ἐλιβύργη, Elibýrgē; la, Illiberis or . ) is the capital city of the province of Granada, in the autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Andalusia, Spain. Granada is located at the fo ...
,
Andalusia Andalusia (, ; es, Andalucía ) is the southernmost Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community in Peninsular Spain. It is the most populous and the second-largest autonomous community in the country. It is officially recognised as a ...
,
Spain , image_flag = Bandera de España.svg , image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg , national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond") , national_anthem = (English: "Royal March") , i ...
. It is one of the most famous monuments of
Islamic architecture Islamic architecture comprises the architectural styles of buildings associated with Islam. It encompasses both secular and religious styles from the early history of Islam to the present day. The Islamic world encompasses a wide geographic ar ...
and one of the best-preserved palaces of the historic
Islamic world The terms Muslim world and Islamic world commonly refer to the Islamic community, which is also known as the Ummah. This consists of all those who adhere to the religious beliefs and laws of Islam or to societies in which Islam is practiced. In ...
, in addition to containing notable examples of Spanish
Renaissance architecture Renaissance architecture is the European architecture of the period between the early 15th and early 16th centuries in different regions, demonstrating a conscious revival and development of certain elements of Ancient Greece, ancient Greek and ...
. The complex was begun in 1238 by Muhammad I Ibn al-Ahmar, the first Nasrid emir and founder of the
Emirate of Granada ) , common_languages = Official language: Classical ArabicOther languages: Andalusi Arabic, Mozarabic, Berber, Ladino , capital = Granada , religion = Majority religion: Sunni IslamMinority religions: Ro ...
, the last Muslim state of
Al-Andalus Al-Andalus DIN 31635, translit. ; an, al-Andalus; ast, al-Ándalus; eu, al-Andalus; ber, ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵍⵓⵙ, label=Berber languages, Berber, translit=Andalus; ca, al-Àndalus; gl, al-Andalus; oc, Al Andalús; pt, al-Ândalus; es, ...
. It was built on the Sabika hill, an outcrop of the
Sierra Nevada The Sierra Nevada () is a mountain range in the Western United States, between the Central Valley of California and the Great Basin. The vast majority of the range lies in the state of California, although the Carson Range spur lies primarily ...
which had been the site of earlier fortresses and of the 11th-century palace of Samuel ibn Naghrillah. Later Nasrid rulers continuously modified the site. The most significant construction campaigns, which gave the royal palaces much of their definitive character, took place in the 14th century during the reigns of
Yusuf I Abu al-Hajjaj Yusuf ibn Ismail ( ar, أبو الحجاج يوسف بن إسماعيل; 29 June 131819 October 1354), known by the regnal name al-Muayyad billah (, "He who is aided by God"), was the seventh Nasrid ruler of the Emirate of Gran ...
and Muhammad V. After the conclusion of the Christian
Reconquista The ' (Spanish, Portuguese and Galician for "reconquest") is a historiographical construction describing the 781-year period in the history of the Iberian Peninsula between the Umayyad conquest of Hispania in 711 and the fall of the Nasrid ...
in 1492, the site became the Royal Court of
Ferdinand and Isabella The Catholic Monarchs were Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, whose marriage and joint rule marked the ''de facto'' unification of Spain. They were both from the House of Trastámara and were second cousins, being both ...
(where
Christopher Columbus Christopher Columbus * lij, Cristoffa C(or)ombo * es, link=no, Cristóbal Colón * pt, Cristóvão Colombo * ca, Cristòfor (or ) * la, Christophorus Columbus. (; born between 25 August and 31 October 1451, died 20 May 1506) was a ...
received royal endorsement for his expedition), and the palaces were partially altered. In 1526,
Charles V Charles V may refer to: * Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1500–1558) * Charles V of Naples (1661–1700), better known as Charles II of Spain * Charles V of France (1338–1380), called the Wise * Charles V, Duke of Lorraine (1643–1690) * Infan ...
commissioned a new Renaissance-style palace in direct juxtaposition with the Nasrid palaces, but it was left uncompleted in the early 17th century. After being allowed to fall into disrepair for centuries, with its buildings occupied by
squatters Squatting is the action of occupying an abandoned or unoccupied area of land or a building, usually residential, that the squatter does not own, rent or otherwise have lawful permission to use. The United Nations estimated in 2003 that there ...
, the Alhambra was rediscovered following the defeat of
Napoleon I Napoleon Bonaparte ; it, Napoleone Bonaparte, ; co, Napulione Buonaparte. (born Napoleone Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French military commander and political leader who ...
, whose troops destroyed parts of the site. The rediscoverers were first British intellectuals and then other American and northern European Romantic travelers. The most influential of them was
Washington Irving Washington Irving (April 3, 1783 – November 28, 1859) was an American short-story writer, essayist, biographer, historian, and diplomat of the early 19th century. He is best known for his short stories "Rip Van Winkle" (1819) and " The Legen ...
, whose ''
Tales of the Alhambra ''Tales of the Alhambra'' (1832) is a collection of essays, verbal sketches and stories by American author Washington Irving (1783–1859) inspired by, and partly written during, his 1828 visit to the palace/fortress complex known as the Alhambr ...
'' (1832) brought international attention to the site. The Alhambra was one of the first Islamic monuments to become the object of modern scientific study and has been the subject of numerous restorations since the 19th century. It is now one of Spain's major tourist attractions and a
UNESCO World Heritage Site A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). World Heritage Sites are designated by UNESCO for h ...
. During the Nasrid era, the Alhambra was a self-contained city separate from the rest of Granada below. It contained most of the amenities of a Muslim city such as a
Friday mosque A congregational mosque or Friday mosque (, ''masjid jāmi‘'', or simply: , ''jāmi‘''; ), or sometimes great mosque or grand mosque (, ''jāmi‘ kabir''; ), is a mosque for hosting the Friday noon prayers known as ''jumu'ah''.* * * * * * * ...
, hammams (public baths), roads, houses, artisan workshops, a
tannery Tanning may refer to: *Tanning (leather), treating animal skins to produce leather *Sun tanning, using the sun to darken pale skin **Indoor tanning, the use of artificial light in place of the sun **Sunless tanning, application of a stain or dye t ...
, and a sophisticated water supply system. As a royal city and citadel, it contained at least six major palaces, most of them located along the northern edge where they commanded views over the
Albaicín The Albaicín (), also known as Albayzín (from ar, ٱلْبَيّازِينْ, translit=al-Bayyāzīn), is a district of Granada, in the autonomous community of Andalusia, Spain. It is centered around a hill on the north side of the Darro Rive ...
quarter. The most famous and best-preserved are the
Mexuar The Mexuar (; ) is a section of the Nasrid palace complex in the Alhambra of Granada, Spain. It served as the entrance wing of the Comares Palace, the official palace of the sultan and the state, and it housed various administrative functions. Af ...
, the Comares Palace, the Palace of the Lions, and the
Partal Palace Partal Palace () is a palatial structure inside the Alhambra fortress complex located in Granada, Spain. It was originally built in the early 14th century by the Nasrid ruler Muhammad III, making it the oldest surviving palatial structure in ...
, which form the main attraction to visitors today. The other palaces are known from historical sources and from modern excavations. At the Alhambra's western tip is the Alcazaba fortress. Multiple smaller towers and fortified gates are also located along the Alhambra's walls. Outside the Alhambra walls and located nearby to the east is the
Generalife The Generalife (; ar, جَنَّة الْعَرِيف, translit=Jannat al-‘Arīf) was a summer palace and country estate of the Nasrid rulers of the Emirate of Granada in Al-Andalus. It is located directly east of and uphill from the Alham ...
, a former Nasrid country estate and summer palace accompanied by historic
orchards An orchard is an intentional plantation of trees or shrubs that is maintained for food production. Orchards comprise fruit- or nut-producing trees which are generally grown for commercial production. Orchards are also sometimes a feature of lar ...
and modern landscaped gardens. The architecture of the Nasrid palaces reflects the tradition of
Moorish architecture Moorish architecture is a style within Islamic architecture which developed in the western Islamic world, including al-Andalus (on the Iberian peninsula) and what is now Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia (part of the Maghreb). The term "Moorish" com ...
developed over previous centuries. It is characterized by the use of the
courtyard A courtyard or court is a circumscribed area, often surrounded by a building or complex, that is open to the sky. Courtyards are common elements in both Western and Eastern building patterns and have been used by both ancient and contemporary ...
as a central space and basic unit around which other halls and rooms were organized. Courtyards typically had water features at their center, such as a reflective pool or a fountain. Decoration was focused on the inside of the building and was executed primarily with tile mosaics on lower walls and carved
stucco Stucco or render is a construction material made of aggregates, a binder, and water. Stucco is applied wet and hardens to a very dense solid. It is used as a decorative coating for walls and ceilings, exterior walls, and as a sculptural and a ...
on the upper walls.
Geometric patterns A pattern is a regularity in the world, in human-made design, or in abstract ideas. As such, the elements of a pattern repeat in a predictable manner. A geometric pattern is a kind of pattern formed of geometric shapes and typically repeated l ...
, vegetal motifs, and
Arabic Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
inscriptions were the main types of decorative motifs. Additionally, "stalactite"-like sculpting, known as ''
muqarnas Muqarnas ( ar, مقرنص; fa, مقرنس), also known in Iranian architecture as Ahoopāy ( fa, آهوپای) and in Iberian architecture as Mocárabe, is a form of ornamented vaulting in Islamic architecture. It is the archetypal form of I ...
'', was used for three-dimensional features like
vaulted In architecture, a vault (French ''voûte'', from Italian ''volta'') is a self-supporting arched form, usually of stone or brick, serving to cover a space with a ceiling or roof. As in building an arch, a temporary support is needed while ring ...
ceilings.


Etymology

''Alhambra'' derives from the Arabic '' (f.)'', meaning "the red one", the complete form of which was ' "the red fortress ( qalat)". The "Al-" in "Alhambra" means "the" in Arabic, but this is ignored in general usage in both English and Spanish, where the name is normally given the definite article. The reference to the colour "red" in the name is due to the reddish colour of its walls, which were constructed of
rammed earth Rammed earth is a technique for constructing foundations, floors, and walls using compacted natural raw materials such as earth, chalk, lime, or gravel. It is an ancient method that has been revived recently as a sustainable building method. ...
. The reddish colour comes from the
iron oxide Iron oxides are chemical compounds composed of iron and oxygen. Several iron oxides are recognized. All are black magnetic solids. Often they are non-stoichiometric. Oxyhydroxides are a related class of compounds, perhaps the best known of whic ...
in the local
clay Clay is a type of fine-grained natural soil material containing clay minerals (hydrous aluminium phyllosilicates, e.g. kaolin, Al2 Si2 O5( OH)4). Clays develop plasticity when wet, due to a molecular film of water surrounding the clay par ...
used for this type of construction.


History


Origins and early history

The evidence for a Roman presence is unclear but archeologists have found remains of ancient foundations on the Sabika hill. A fortress or citadel, probably dating from the Visigothic period, existed on the hill in the 9th century. The first reference to the ''Qal‘at al-Ḥamra'' was during the battles between the Arabs and the Muladies during the rule of ‘Abdallah ibn Muhammad (r. 888–912). According to surviving documents from the era, the red castle was quite small, and its walls were not capable of deterring an army intent on conquering. The first reference to ' came in lines of poetry attached to an arrow shot over the ramparts, recorded by
Ibn Hayyan Abū Marwān Ḥayyān ibn Khalaf ibn Ḥusayn ibn Ḥayyān al-Qurṭubī () (987–1075), usually known as Ibn Hayyan, was a Muslim historian from Al-Andalus. Born at Córdoba, his father was an important official at the court of the Andalusi ...
(d. 1076): "Deserted and roofless are the houses of our enemies; Invaded by the autumnal rains, traversed by impetuous winds; Let them within the red castle (Kalat al hamra) hold their mischievous councils; Perdition and woe surround them on every side." At the beginning of the 11th century, the region of Granada was dominated by the Zirids, a
Sanhaja The Sanhaja ( ber, Aẓnag, pl. Iẓnagen, and also Aẓnaj, pl. Iẓnajen; ar, صنهاجة, ''Ṣanhaja'' or زناگة ''Znaga'') were once one of the largest Berber tribal confederations, along with the Zanata and Masmuda confederations. Ma ...
Berber group and offshoot of the
Zirids The Zirid dynasty ( ar, الزيريون, translit=az-zīriyyūn), Banu Ziri ( ar, بنو زيري, translit=banū zīrī), or the Zirid state ( ar, الدولة الزيرية, translit=ad-dawla az-zīriyya) was a Sanhaja Berber dynasty from ...
who ruled parts of
North Africa North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in ...
. When the
Caliphate of Córdoba The Caliphate of Córdoba ( ar, خلافة قرطبة; transliterated ''Khilāfat Qurṭuba''), also known as the Cordoban Caliphate was an Islamic state ruled by the Umayyad dynasty from 929 to 1031. Its territory comprised Iberia and parts o ...
collapsed after 1009 and the Fitna (civil war) began, the Zirid leader
Zawi ben Ziri Zawi ibn Ziri as-Sanhaji or Al-Mansur Zawi ibn Ziri ibn Manad as-Sanhaji ( ar, المنصور زاوي بن زيري بن مناد الصنهاجي), was a chief in the Berber Sanhaja tribe. He arrived in Spain in 1000 (391) during the reign of A ...
established an independent kingdom for himself, the
Taifa of Granada The Taifa of Granada ( ar, طائفة غرناطة, rtl=yes, , es, Taifa de Granada) or Zirid Kingdom of Granada was a Berber Muslim kingdom which was formed in al-Andalus in 1013, following the deposition of Caliph Hisham II in 1009. The king ...
. The Zirids built their citadel and palace, known as the ''al-Qaṣaba al-Qadīma'' ("Old Citadel" or "Old Palace"), on the hill now occupied by the
Albaicín The Albaicín (), also known as Albayzín (from ar, ٱلْبَيّازِينْ, translit=al-Bayyāzīn), is a district of Granada, in the autonomous community of Andalusia, Spain. It is centered around a hill on the north side of the Darro Rive ...
neighborhood. It was connected to two other fortresses on the Sabika and Mauror hills to the south. On the
Darro River The Darro is a river of the province of Granada, Spain. It is a tributary of the Genil. The river was originally named after the Roman word for gold (aurus) because people used to pan for gold on its banks. This name was then changed by the Arab ...
, between the Zirid citadel and the Sabika hill, was a
sluice gate Sluice ( ) is a word for a channel controlled at its head by a movable gate which is called a sluice gate. A sluice gate is traditionally a wood or metal barrier sliding in grooves that are set in the sides of the waterway and can be considered ...
called ''Bāb al-Difāf'' ("Gate of the Tambourines"), which could be closed to retain water if needed. This gate was part of the fortification connecting the Zirid citadel with the fortress on the Sabika hill and it also formed part of a ''coracha'' (from Arabic ''qawraja''), a type of fortification allowing soldiers from the fortress to access the river and bring back water even during times of siege. The Sabika hill fortress, also known as ''al-Qasaba al-Jadida'' ("the New Citadel"), was later used for the foundations of the current Alcazaba of the Alhambra. Under the Zirid kings Habbus ibn Maksan and Badis, the most powerful figure in the kingdom was the
Jewish Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...
administrator known as
Samuel ha-Nagid Samuel ibn Naghrillah (, ''Sh'muel HaLevi ben Yosef HaNagid''; ''ʾAbū ʾIsḥāq ʾIsmāʿīl bin an-Naghrīlah''), also known as Samuel HaNagid (, ''Shmuel HaNagid'', lit. ''Samuel the Prince'') and Isma’il ibn Naghrilla (born 993; died 1056 ...
(in
Hebrew Hebrew (; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is one of the spoken languages of the Israelites and their longest-surviving descendants, the Jews and Samaritans. It was largely preserved ...
) or Isma'il ibn Nagrilla (in
Arabic Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
). Samuel built his own palace on the Sabika hill, possibly on the site of the current palaces, although nothing remains of it. It reportedly included gardens and water features.


Nasrid period

The period of the
Taifa kingdoms The ''taifas'' (singular ''taifa'', from ar, طائفة ''ṭā'ifa'', plural طوائف ''ṭawā'if'', a party, band or faction) were the independent Muslim principalities and kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal and Spain), re ...
, during which the Zirids ruled, came to an end with the conquest of
al-Andalus Al-Andalus DIN 31635, translit. ; an, al-Andalus; ast, al-Ándalus; eu, al-Andalus; ber, ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵍⵓⵙ, label=Berber languages, Berber, translit=Andalus; ca, al-Àndalus; gl, al-Andalus; oc, Al Andalús; pt, al-Ândalus; es, ...
by the
Almoravids The Almoravid dynasty ( ar, المرابطون, translit=Al-Murābiṭūn, lit=those from the ribats) was an imperial Berber Muslim dynasty centered in the territory of present-day Morocco. It established an empire in the 11th century that ...
from North Africa during the late 11th century. In the mid-12th century they were followed by the
Almohads The Almohad Caliphate (; ar, خِلَافَةُ ٱلْمُوَحِّدِينَ or or from ar, ٱلْمُوَحِّدُونَ, translit=al-Muwaḥḥidūn, lit=those who profess the unity of God) was a North African Berber Muslim empire fo ...
. After 1228 Almohad rule collapsed and local rulers and factions emerged again across the territory of Al-Andalus. With the ''
Reconquista The ' (Spanish, Portuguese and Galician for "reconquest") is a historiographical construction describing the 781-year period in the history of the Iberian Peninsula between the Umayyad conquest of Hispania in 711 and the fall of the Nasrid ...
'' in full swing, the Christian kingdoms of Castile and
Aragon Aragon ( , ; Spanish and an, Aragón ; ca, Aragó ) is an autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. In northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces (from north to sou ...
– under kings Ferdinand III and
James I James I may refer to: People *James I of Aragon (1208–1276) *James I of Sicily or James II of Aragon (1267–1327) *James I, Count of La Marche (1319–1362), Count of Ponthieu *James I, Count of Urgell (1321–1347) *James I of Cyprus (1334–13 ...
, respectively – made major conquests across al-Andalus. Castile captured Cordoba in 1236 and Seville in 1248. Meanwhile, Ibn al-Ahmar (Muhammad I) established what became the last and longest reigning
Muslim Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...
dynasty in the Iberian peninsula, the Nasrids, who ruled the
Emirate of Granada ) , common_languages = Official language: Classical ArabicOther languages: Andalusi Arabic, Mozarabic, Berber, Ladino , capital = Granada , religion = Majority religion: Sunni IslamMinority religions: Ro ...
. Ibn al-Ahmar was a relatively new political player in the region and likely came from a modest background, but he was able to win the support and consent of multiple Muslim settlements under threat from the Castilian advance. Upon settling in Granada in 1238, Ibn al-Ahmar initially resided in the old citadel of the Zirids on the Albaicin hill, but that same year he began construction of the Alhambra as a new residence and citadel. According to an Arabic manuscript since published as the ''Anónimo de Madrid y Copenhague'', During the reign of the Nasrid Dynasty, the Alhambra was transformed into a palatine city, complete with an irrigation system composed of
aqueducts Aqueduct may refer to: Structures *Aqueduct (bridge), a bridge to convey water over an obstacle, such as a ravine or valley *Navigable aqueduct, or water bridge, a structure to carry navigable waterway canals over other rivers, valleys, railw ...
and water channels that provided water for the complex and for other nearby countryside palaces such as the
Generalife The Generalife (; ar, جَنَّة الْعَرِيف, translit=Jannat al-‘Arīf) was a summer palace and country estate of the Nasrid rulers of the Emirate of Granada in Al-Andalus. It is located directly east of and uphill from the Alham ...
. Previously, the old fortresses on the hill had been dependent on rainwater collected from the cistern near the Alcazaba and on what could be brought up from the Darro River below. The creation of the Sultan's Canal (), which brought water from the mountains to the east, solidified the identity of the Alhambra as a palace-city rather than a defensive and
ascetic Asceticism (; from the el, ἄσκησις, áskesis, exercise', 'training) is a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from sensual pleasures, often for the purpose of pursuing spiritual goals. Ascetics may withdraw from the world for their p ...
structure. This first hydraulic system was expanded afterwards and included two long water channels and several sophisticated elevation devices to bring water onto the plateau. Later Nasrid rulers after Ibn al-Ahmar continuously modified the site. Along with the fragile materials themselves, which needed regular repairs, this makes the exact chronology of its development difficult to determine. The only elements preserved from the time of Ibn al-Ahmar are some of the fortification walls, particularly the Alcazaba at the western end of the complex. Ibn al-Ahmar did not have time to complete any major new palaces and he may have initially lived in one of the towers of the Alcazaba, before later moving to a modest house on the site of the current
Palace of Charles V The Palace of Charles V is a Renaissance building in Granada, southern Spain, inside the Alhambra, a former Nasrid palace complex on top of the Sabika hill. Construction began in 1527 but dragged on and was left unfinished after 1637. The building ...
. The oldest major palace for which some remains have been preserved is the structure known as the ''
Palacio del Partal Alto The ''Palacio del Partal Alto'' ("Upper Partal Palace" in Spanish), also known as the ''Palacio de Yusuf III'' ("Palace of Yusuf III") or the ''Palacio del Conde del Tendilla'' ("Palace of the Count of Tendilla"), is a former palace in the Alham ...
'', in an elevated location near the center of the complex, which probably dates from the reign of Ibn al-Ahmar's son, Muhammad II (r. 1273–1302).' To the south was the Palace of the Abencerrajes, and to the east was another private palace, known as the
Palace of the Convent of San Francisco The Palace of the Convent of San Francisco () or Palace of the ex-Convent of San Francisco () is a former medieval Nasrid palace in the Alhambra of Granada, Spain, which was transformed into a Franciscan convent after the Spanish conquest of Gra ...
'','' both of which were probably also originally constructed during the time of Muhammad II''.'' Muhammad III (r. 1302–1309) erected the
Partal Palace Partal Palace () is a palatial structure inside the Alhambra fortress complex located in Granada, Spain. It was originally built in the early 14th century by the Nasrid ruler Muhammad III, making it the oldest surviving palatial structure in ...
, parts of which are still standing today, as well as the Alhambra's main (
congregational Congregational churches (also Congregationalist churches or Congregationalism) are Protestant churches in the Calvinist tradition practising congregationalist church governance, in which each congregation independently and autonomously runs its ...
) mosque (on the site of the current Church of Santa Maria de la Alhambra).' The Partal Palace is the earliest known palace to be built along the northern walls of the complex, with views onto the city below.' It is also the oldest Nasrid palace still standing today.
Isma'il I Ismail I ( fa, اسماعیل, Esmāʿīl, ; July 17, 1487 – May 23, 1524), also known as Shah Ismail (), was the founder of the Safavid dynasty of Iran, ruling as its King of Kings (''Shahanshah'') from 1501 to 1524. His reign is often ...
(r. 1314–1325) undertook a significant remodeling of the Alhambra. His reign marked the beginning of the "classical" period of Nasrid architecture, during which many major monuments in the Alhambra were begun and decorative styles were consolidated. Isma'il decided to build a new palace complex just east of the Alcazaba to serve as the official palace of the sultan and the state, known as the ''Qaṣr al-Sultan'' or ''Dār al-Mulk''. The core of this complex was the Comares Palace, while another wing of the palace, the
Mexuar The Mexuar (; ) is a section of the Nasrid palace complex in the Alhambra of Granada, Spain. It served as the entrance wing of the Comares Palace, the official palace of the sultan and the state, and it housed various administrative functions. Af ...
, extended to the west. The Comares Baths are the best-preserved element from this initial construction, as the rest of the palace was further modified by his successors. Near the main mosque Isma'il I also created the ''Rawda'', the dynastic mausoleum of the Nasrids, of which only partial remains are preserved.'
Yusuf I Abu al-Hajjaj Yusuf ibn Ismail ( ar, أبو الحجاج يوسف بن إسماعيل; 29 June 131819 October 1354), known by the regnal name al-Muayyad billah (, "He who is aided by God"), was the seventh Nasrid ruler of the Emirate of Gran ...
(r. 1333–1354) carried out further work on the Comares Palace, including the construction of the Hall of Ambassadors and other works around the current Mexuar. He also built the Alhambra's main gate, the ''Puerta de la Justicia'', and the ''
Torre de la Cautiva The Torre de la Cautiva () is a tower in the walls of the Alhambra in Granada, Spain. It is one of several towers along the Alhambra's northern wall which were converted into a small palatial residence in the 14th century. It is considered an ex ...
'', one of several small towers with richly-decorated rooms along the northern walls.' Muhammad V's reign (1354–1391, with interruptions) marked the political and cultural apogee of the Nasrid emirate as well as the apogee of Nasrid architecture. Particularly during his second reign (after 1362), there was a stylistic shift towards more innovative architectural layouts and an extensive use of complex ''
muqarnas Muqarnas ( ar, مقرنص; fa, مقرنس), also known in Iranian architecture as Ahoopāy ( fa, آهوپای) and in Iberian architecture as Mocárabe, is a form of ornamented vaulting in Islamic architecture. It is the archetypal form of I ...
'' vaulting. His most significant contribution to the Alhambra was the construction of the Palace of the Lions to the east of the Comares Palace in an area previously occupied by gardens. He also remodeled the Mexuar, created the highly-decorated "Comares Façade" in the ''Patio del Cuarto Dorado'', and redecorated the Court of the Myrtles, giving these areas much of their final appearance.' After Muhammad V, relatively little major construction work occurred in the Alhambra. One exception is the ''Torre de las Infantas'', which dates from the time of Muhammad VII (1392–1408).' The 15th century saw the Nasrid dynasty in decline and in turmoil, with few significant construction projects and a more repetitive, less innovative style of architecture.'


''Reconquista'' and Christian Spanish period

The last Nasrid sultan,
Muhammad XII of Granada Abu Abdallah Muhammad XII ( ar, أبو عبد الله محمد الثاني عشر, Abū ʿAbdi-llāh Muḥammad ath-thānī ʿashar) (c. 1460–1533), known in Europe as Boabdil (a Spanish rendering of the name ''Abu Abdallah''), was the ...
, surrendered the Emirate of Granada in January 1492, without the Alhambra itself being attacked, when the forces of the
Catholic Monarchs The Catholic Monarchs were Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, whose marriage and joint rule marked the ''de facto'' unification of Spain. They were both from the House of Trastámara and were second cousins, being bot ...
, King
Ferdinand II of Aragon Ferdinand II ( an, Ferrando; ca, Ferran; eu, Errando; it, Ferdinando; la, Ferdinandus; es, Fernando; 10 March 1452 – 23 January 1516), also called Ferdinand the Catholic (Spanish: ''el Católico''), was King of Aragon and Sardinia from ...
and Queen
Isabella I of Castile Isabella I ( es, Isabel I; 22 April 1451 – 26 November 1504), also called Isabella the Catholic (Spanish: ''la Católica''), was Queen of Castile from 1474 until her death in 1504, as well as List of Aragonese royal consorts, Queen consort ...
, took the surrounding territory with a force of overwhelming numbers. Muhammad XII moved the remains of his ancestors from the complex, as was verified by
Leopoldo Torres Balbás Leopoldo Torres Balbás (23 May 1888, in Madrid – 21 November 1960, in Madrid) was a Spanish scholar, architect, and restorer. He was an important figure in the early 20th century conservation and restoration of monuments. Much of his work focused ...
in 1925, when he found seventy empty tombs. The remains are now likely to be located in Mondújar in the principality of Lecrín. After the conquest, the Alhambra became a royal palace and property of the
Spanish Crown , coatofarms = File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Spanish_Monarch.svg , coatofarms_article = Coat of arms of the King of Spain , image = Felipe_VI_in_2020_(cropped).jpg , incumbent = Felipe VI , incumbentsince = 19 Ju ...
. Isabella and Ferdinand initially took up residence here and stayed in Granada for several months, up until 25 May 1492. It was during this stay that two major events happened. On 31 March the monarchs signed the
Alhambra Decree The Alhambra Decree (also known as the Edict of Expulsion; Spanish: ''Decreto de la Alhambra'', ''Edicto de Granada'') was an edict issued on 31 March 1492, by the joint Catholic Monarchs of Spain ( Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Arag ...
, which ordered the expulsion of all Jews in Spain who refused to convert.
Christopher Columbus Christopher Columbus * lij, Cristoffa C(or)ombo * es, link=no, Cristóbal Colón * pt, Cristóvão Colombo * ca, Cristòfor (or ) * la, Christophorus Columbus. (; born between 25 August and 31 October 1451, died 20 May 1506) was a ...
, who had also been present to witness the surrender of Granada, presented his plans for an expedition across the Atlantic to the monarchs in the Hall of Ambassadors and on 17 April they signed the contract which set the terms for the expedition which landed in the
Americas The Americas, which are sometimes collectively called America, are a landmass comprising the totality of North and South America. The Americas make up most of the land in Earth's Western Hemisphere and comprise the New World. Along with th ...
later that year. The new Christian rulers began to make additions and alterations to the palace complex. The governorship of the Alhambra was entrusted to the Tendilla family, who were given one of the Nasrid palaces, the ''Palacio del Partal Alto'' (near the Partal Palace), to use as family residence. Iñigo López de Mendoza y Quiñones (d. 1515), the second
Count Count (feminine: countess) is a historical title of nobility in certain European countries, varying in relative status, generally of middling rank in the hierarchy of nobility. Pine, L. G. ''Titles: How the King Became His Majesty''. New York: ...
of
Tendilla Tendilla is a municipality located in the province of Guadalajara, Castile-La Mancha, Spain. According to the 2004 census (INE INE, Ine or ine may refer to: Institutions * Institut für Nukleare Entsorgung, a German nuclear research center * ...
, was present in Ferdinand II's entourage when Muhammad XII surrendered the keys to the Alhambra and he became the Alhambra's first Spanish governor. For almost 24 years after the conquest he made repairs and modifications to its fortifications in order to better protect it against
gunpowder artillery Artillery is a class of heavy military ranged weapons that launch munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry firearms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach defensive walls and fortifications during sieges, ...
attacks. Multiple towers and fortifications – such as the ''Torre de Siete Suelos'', the ''Torre de las Cabezas'', and the ''Torres Bermejas'' – were built or reinforced in this period, as seen by the addition of semi-round bastions. In 1512 the Count was also awarded the property of Mondéjar and subsequently passed on the title of
Marquis A marquess (; french: marquis ), es, marqués, pt, marquês. is a nobleman of high hereditary rank in various European peerages and in those of some of their former colonies. The German language equivalent is Markgraf (margrave). A woman wi ...
of Mondéjar to his descendants.
Charles V Charles V may refer to: * Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1500–1558) * Charles V of Naples (1661–1700), better known as Charles II of Spain * Charles V of France (1338–1380), called the Wise * Charles V, Duke of Lorraine (1643–1690) * Infan ...
(r. 1516–1556) visited the Alhambra in 1526 with his wife
Isabella of Portugal Isabella of Portugal (24 October 1503 – 1 May 1539) was the empress consort and queen consort of her cousin Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, King of Spain, Archduke of Austria, and Duke of Burgundy. She was Queen of Spain and Germany, and La ...
and decided to convert it into a royal residence for his use. He rebuilt or modified portions of the Nasrid palaces to serve as royal apartments, a process which began in 1528 and was completed in 1537. He also demolished a part of the Comares Palace to make way for a monumental new palace, known the Palace of Charles V, designed in the
Renaissance style Renaissance architecture is the European architecture of the period between the early 15th and early 16th centuries in different regions, demonstrating a conscious revival and development of certain elements of ancient Greek and Roman thought a ...
of the period. Construction of the palace began in 1527 but it was eventually left unfinished after 1637. The governorship of the Tendilla-Mondéjar family came to an end in 1717–1718, when
Philip V Philip V may refer to: * Philip V of Macedon (221–179 BC) * Philip V of France (1293–1322) * Philip II of Spain, also Philip V, Duke of Burgundy (1526–1598) * Philip V of Spain Philip V ( es, Felipe; 19 December 1683 – 9 July 1746) was ...
confiscated the family's properties in the Alhambra and dismissed the Marquis of Mondéjar, José de Mendoza Ibáñez de Segovia (1657–1734), from his position as mayor (''alcaide'') of the Alhambra, in retaliation for the Marquis opposing him in the
War of the Spanish Succession The War of the Spanish Succession was a European great power conflict that took place from 1701 to 1714. The death of childless Charles II of Spain in November 1700 led to a struggle for control of the Spanish Empire between his heirs, Phil ...
. The departure of the Tendilla-Mondéjar family marked the beginning of the Alhambra's most severe period of decline. During this period the Spanish state dedicated few resources to it and its management was taken over by self-interested local governors who lived with their families inside the neglected palaces. Over subsequent years the Alhambra was further damaged. Between 1810 and 1812 Granada was occupied by
Napoleon Napoleon Bonaparte ; it, Napoleone Bonaparte, ; co, Napulione Buonaparte. (born Napoleone Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French military commander and political leader who ...
's army during the
Peninsular War The Peninsular War (1807–1814) was the military conflict fought in the Iberian Peninsula by Spain, Portugal, and the United Kingdom against the invading and occupying forces of the First French Empire during the Napoleonic Wars. In Spain ...
. The French troops, under the command of Count Sebastiani, occupied the Alhambra as a fortified position and caused significant damage to the monument. Upon evacuating the city, they attempted to dynamite the whole complex to prevent it from being re-used as a fortified position. They successfully blew up eight towers before the remaining fuses were disabled by Spanish soldier José Garcia, whose actions saved what remains today. In 1821, an earthquake caused further damage.


Recovery and modern restorations

Restoration work was undertaken in 1828 by the architect José Contreras, endowed in 1830 by
Ferdinand VII , house = Bourbon-Anjou , father = Charles IV of Spain , mother = Maria Luisa of Parma , birth_date = 14 October 1784 , birth_place = El Escorial, Spain , death_date = , death_place = Madrid, Spain , burial_plac ...
. After the death of Contreras in 1847, it was continued by his son Rafael (died 1890) and his grandson Mariano Contreras (died 1912). In 1830
Washington Irving Washington Irving (April 3, 1783 – November 28, 1859) was an American short-story writer, essayist, biographer, historian, and diplomat of the early 19th century. He is best known for his short stories "Rip Van Winkle" (1819) and " The Legen ...
lived in Granada and wrote his ''
Tales of the Alhambra ''Tales of the Alhambra'' (1832) is a collection of essays, verbal sketches and stories by American author Washington Irving (1783–1859) inspired by, and partly written during, his 1828 visit to the palace/fortress complex known as the Alhambr ...
'', first published in 1832, which spurred international interest in southern Spain and in its Islamic-era monuments like the Alhambra (an apartment of which he decorated in New England style). Other artists and intellectuals, such as
John Frederick Lewis John Frederick Lewis (1804–1876) was an English Orientalist painter. He specialized in Oriental and Mediterranean scenes in detailed watercolour or oils, very often repeating the same composition in a version in each medium. He lived for ...
and
Owen Jones Owen Jones (born 8 August 1984) is a British newspaper columnist, political commentator, journalist, author, and left-wing activist. He writes a column for ''The Guardian'' and contributes to the ''New Statesman'' and '' Tribune.'' He has two ...
, helped make the Alhambra into an icon of the era with their writings and illustrations during the 19th century. The Contreras family members continued to be the most important architects and conservators of the Alhambra up until 1907. During this period they generally followed a theory of "stylistic restoration", which favoured the construction and addition of elements to make a monument "complete" but not necessarily corresponding to any historical reality. They added elements which they deemed to be representative of what they thought was an "Arabic style", emphasizing the Alhambra's purported "
Oriental The Orient is a term for the East in relation to Europe, traditionally comprising anything belonging to the Eastern world. It is the antonym of ''Occident'', the Western World. In English, it is largely a metonym for, and coterminous with, the ...
" character. For example, in 1858–1859 Rafael Contreras and Juan Pugnaire added Persian-looking spherical domes to the Court of the Lions and to the northern
portico A portico is a porch leading to the entrance of a building, or extended as a colonnade, with a roof structure over a walkway, supported by columns or enclosed by walls. This idea was widely used in ancient Greece and has influenced many cult ...
of the Court of the Myrtles, even though these had nothing to do with Nasrid architecture. In 1868 a revolution deposed Isabella II and the government seized the properties of the Spanish monarchy, including the Alhambra. In 1870 the Alhambra was declared a
National Monument A national monument is a monument constructed in order to commemorate something of importance to national heritage, such as a country's founding, independence, war, or the life and death of a historical figure. The term may also refer to a spec ...
of Spain and the state allocated a budget for its conservation, overseen by the Provincial Commission of Monuments. Mariano Contreras, the last of the Contreras architects to serve as director of conservation of the Alhambra, was appointed as architectural curator in April 1890. His tenure was controversial and his conservation strategy attracted criticism from other authorities. In September 1890 a fire destroyed a large part of the ''Sala de la Barca'' in the Comares Palace, which highlighted the site's vulnerability. A report was commissioned in 1903 which resulted in the creation of a "Special Commission" in 1905 whose task was to oversee conservation and restoration of the Alhambra, but the commission ultimately failed to exercise control due to friction with Contreras. In 1907 Mariano Contreras was replaced with Modesto Cendoya, whose work was also criticized. Cendoya began many excavations in search of new artifacts but often left these works unfinished. He restored some important elements of the site, like the water supply system, but neglected others. Due to continued friction with Cendoya, the Special Commission was dissolved in 1913 and replaced with the Council (''Patronato'') of the Alhambra in 1914, which was charged again with overseeing the site's conservation and Cendoya's work. In 1915 it was linked directly to the Directorate-General of Fine Arts of the Ministry of Public Education (later the Ministry of National Education). Like Mariano Contreras before him, Cendoya continued to clash with the supervisory body and to obstruct their control. He was eventually dismissed from his post in 1923. After Cendoya,
Leopoldo Torres Balbás Leopoldo Torres Balbás (23 May 1888, in Madrid – 21 November 1960, in Madrid) was a Spanish scholar, architect, and restorer. He was an important figure in the early 20th century conservation and restoration of monuments. Much of his work focused ...
was appointed as chief architect from 1923 to 1936. The appointment of Torres Balbás, a trained
archeologist Archaeology or archeology is the scientific study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of Artifact (archaeology), artifacts, architecture, biofact (archaeology), biofacts ...
and
art historian Art history is the study of aesthetic objects and visual expression in historical and stylistic context. Traditionally, the discipline of art history emphasized painting, drawing, sculpture, architecture, ceramics and decorative arts; yet today ...
, marked a definitive shift to a more scientific and systematic approach to the Alhambra's conservation. He endorsed the principles of the 1931 Athens Charter for the Restoration of Monuments, which emphasized regular maintenance, respect for the work of the past, legal protection for heritage monuments, and the legitimacy of modern techniques and materials in restoration so long as these were visually recognizable. Many of the buildings in the Alhambra were affected by his work. Some of the inaccurate changes and additions made by the Contreras architects were reversed. The young architect "opened arcades that had been walled up, re-excavated filled-in pools, replaced missing tiles, completed inscriptions that lacked portions of their stuccoed lettering, and installed a ceiling in the still unfinished palace of Charles V". He also carried out systematic archeological excavations in various parts of the Alhambra, unearthing lost Nasrid structures such as the ''Palacio del Partal Alto'' and the Palace of the Abencerrajes which provided deeper insight into the former palace-city as a whole. The work of Torres Balbás was continued by his assistant, Francisco Prieto Moreno, who was the chief architectural curator from 1936 to 1970. In 1940 a new Council of the Alhambra was created to oversee the site, which has remained in charge ever since. In 1984 the central government in
Madrid Madrid ( , ) is the capital and most populous city of Spain. The city has almost 3.4 million inhabitants and a metropolitan area population of approximately 6.7 million. It is the second-largest city in the European Union (EU), and ...
transferred responsibility for the site to the
Regional Government of Andalusia The Regional Government of Andalusia ( es, Junta de Andalucía) is the government of the Autonomous Community of Andalusia. It consists of the Parliament, the President of the Regional Government and the Government Council. The 2011 budget was 31. ...
and in 1986 new statutes and documents were developed to regulate the planning and protection of the site. In 1984 the Alhambra and Generalife were also listed as a
UNESCO World Heritage Site A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). World Heritage Sites are designated by UNESCO for h ...
. The Alhambra is now one of the most popular tourist destinations in Spain. Research, archeological investigations, and restoration works have also remained ongoing into the 21st century.


Layout

The Alhambra site is about in length and about at its greatest width. It extends from west-northwest to east-southeast and covers an area of about or 35 acres. It stands on a narrow promontory overlooking the ''Vega'' or Plain of Granada and carved by the river Darro on its north side as it descends from the
Sierra Nevada The Sierra Nevada () is a mountain range in the Western United States, between the Central Valley of California and the Great Basin. The vast majority of the range lies in the state of California, although the Carson Range spur lies primarily ...
. The red earth from which the fortress is constructed is a granular aggregate held together by a medium of red clay which gives the resulting layered brick- and stone- reinforced construction (''tapial calicastrado'') its characteristic hue and is at the root of the name of 'the Red Hill'. The Alhambra's most westerly feature is the Alcazaba, a large fortress overlooking the city. Due to touristic demand, modern access runs contrary to the original sequence which began from a principal access via the ''Puerta de la Justicia'' (Gate of Justice) onto a large souq or public market square facing the Alcazaba, now subdivided and obscured by later Christian-era development. From the ''Puerta del Vino'' (Wine Gate) ran the ''Calle Real'' (Royal Street) dividing the Alhambra along its axial spine into a southern residential quarter, with
mosque A mosque (; from ar, مَسْجِد, masjid, ; literally "place of ritual prostration"), also called masjid, is a place of prayer for Muslims. Mosques are usually covered buildings, but can be any place where prayers ( sujud) are performed, ...
s, hamams (bathhouses) and diverse functional establishments, and a greater northern portion, occupied by several palaces of the nobility with extensive landscaped gardens commanding views over the Albaicín. All of this was subservient to the great Tower of the Ambassadors in the ''Palacio Comares'' (Comares Palace), which acted as the royal audience chamber and throne room with its three arched windows dominating the city. The private, internalised universe of the ''Palacio de Los Leones'' (Palace of the Lions) adjoins the public spaces at right angles (see Plan illustration) but was originally connected only by the function of the Comares Baths (or Royal Baths), the ''Mirador de Lindaraja'' serving as the exquisitely decorated focus of meditation and authority overlooking the refined garden courtyard of ''Lindaraja/Daraxa'' toward the city. The rest of the plateau comprises a number of earlier and later Moorish palaces, enclosed by a
fortified wall A defensive wall is a fortification usually used to protect a city, town or other settlement from potential aggressors. The walls can range from simple palisades or earthworks to extensive military fortifications with towers, bastions and gates ...
, with thirteen defensive towers, some such as the ''Torre de la Infanta'' and ''Torre de la'' ''Cautiva'' containing elaborate vertical palaces in miniature. The river Darro passes through a ravine on the north and divides the plateau from the Albaicín district of Granada. Similarly, the Sabika Valley, containing the Alhambra Park, lies on the west and south, and, beyond this valley, the almost parallel ridge of Monte Mauror separates it from the Antequeruela district. Another ravine separates it from the Generalife, the summer pleasure gardens of the emir. Salmerón Escobar notes that the later planting of deciduous elms obscures the overall perception of the layout, so a better reading of the original landscape is given in winter when the trees are bare.


Architecture


General design

The design and decoration of the Nasrid palaces are a continuation of Moorish (western Islamic) architecture from earlier centuries but developed their own characteristics. The combination of carefully-proportioned courtyards, water features, gardens, arches on slender columns, and intricately-sculpted
stucco Stucco or render is a construction material made of aggregates, a binder, and water. Stucco is applied wet and hardens to a very dense solid. It is used as a decorative coating for walls and ceilings, exterior walls, and as a sculptural and a ...
and
tile Tiles are usually thin, square or rectangular coverings manufactured from hard-wearing material such as ceramic, stone, metal, baked clay, or even glass. They are generally fixed in place in an array to cover roofs, floors, walls, edges, or o ...
decoration gives Nasrid architecture qualities that are described as ethereal and intimate. Walls were built mostly in
rammed earth Rammed earth is a technique for constructing foundations, floors, and walls using compacted natural raw materials such as earth, chalk, lime, or gravel. It is an ancient method that has been revived recently as a sustainable building method. ...
, lime concrete, or
brick A brick is a type of block used to build walls, pavements and other elements in masonry construction. Properly, the term ''brick'' denotes a block composed of dried clay, but is now also used informally to denote other chemically cured cons ...
and then covered with
plaster Plaster is a building material used for the protective or decorative coating of walls and ceilings and for Molding (decorative), moulding and casting decorative elements. In English, "plaster" usually means a material used for the interiors of ...
, while wood (mostly
pine A pine is any conifer tree or shrub in the genus ''Pinus'' () of the family Pinaceae. ''Pinus'' is the sole genus in the subfamily Pinoideae. The World Flora Online created by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Missouri Botanical Garden accep ...
) was used for roofs, ceilings, doors, and window shutters. Buildings were designed to be seen from within, with their decoration focused on the inside. The basic unit of Nasrid palace architecture was a rectangular
courtyard A courtyard or court is a circumscribed area, often surrounded by a building or complex, that is open to the sky. Courtyards are common elements in both Western and Eastern building patterns and have been used by both ancient and contemporary ...
with a pool, fountain, or water channel at its center. Courtyards were flanked on two or four sides by halls, often preceded by arcaded porticoes. Many of these structures featured a '' mirador'', a room projecting from the exterior commanding scenic views of gardens or of the city. Buildings were designed with a mathematical proportional system that gives them a harmonious visual quality. The layout of the courtyards, the distribution of windows, and the use of water features were designed with the climate in mind, cooling and ventilating the environment in summer while minimizing cold drafts and maximizing sunlight in winter. Upper-floor rooms were smaller and more enclosed, making them more suited for use during the winter. Courtyards were usually aligned in a north-south direction which allows the main halls to receive direct sunlight at midday during the winter, while during the summer the higher midday sun is blocked by the position and depth of the porticos fronting these halls.


Architects and poets

Little is known about the architects and craftsmen who built the Alhambra, but more is known about the ''Dīwān al-Ins͟hā, or chancery. This institution seems to have played an increasingly important role in the design of buildings, probably because inscriptions came to feature so prominently in their decoration. The head of the chancery was often also the
vizier A vizier (; ar, وزير, wazīr; fa, وزیر, vazīr), or wazir, is a high-ranking political advisor or minister in the near east. The Abbasid caliphs gave the title ''wazir'' to a minister formerly called ''katib'' (secretary), who was a ...
(prime minister) of the sultan. Although not exactly architects, the terms of office of many individuals in these positions coincide with the major phases of construction in the Alhambra, which suggests that they played a role in leading construction projects. The most important figures who held these positions, such as
Ibn al-Jayyab Ibn al-Jayyāb al-Gharnāṭī (); Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī b. Muḥammad b. Suleiman b. ‘Alī b. Suleiman b. Ḥassān al-Anṣārī al-Gharnāṭī (); Spanish var., Ibn al-Ŷayyab, (1274–1349 AD/673–749 AH); he was an Andalusian wri ...
,
Ibn al-Khatib Lisan ad-Din Ibn al-Khatib ( ar, لسان الدين ابن الخطيب, Lisān ad-Dīn Ibn al-Khaṭīb) (Born 16 November 1313, Loja– died 1374, Fes; full name in ar, محمد بن عبد الله بن سعيد بن عبد الله بن ...
, and
Ibn Zamrak Ibn Zamrak () (also Zumruk) or Abu Abduallah Muhammad ibn Yusuf ibn Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Surayhi, (1333–1393) was an Arab Andalusian poet and statesman from Granada, Al-Andalus. Some his poems still decorate the foun ...
, also composed much of the poetry that adorns the walls of the Alhambra. Ibn al-Jayyab served as head of the chancery at various times between 1295 and 1349 under six sultans from Muhammad II to Yusuf I. Ibn al-Khatib served as both head of the chancery and as vizier for various periods between 1332 and 1371, under the sultans Yusuf I and Muhammad V. Ibn Zamrak served as vizier and head of the chancery for periods between 1354 and 1393, under Muhammad V and Muhammad VII.


Decoration

Carved stucco (or ''yesería'' in Spanish) and mosaic tilework ( ''zilīj'' or ''zellij'' in
Arabic Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
; ''alicatado'' in Spanish) was used for wall decoration, while ceilings were generally made in wood, which could be carved and painted in turn. Tile mosaics and wooden ceilings often feature geometric motifs. Tilework was generally used for lower walls or for floors, while stucco was used for upper zones. Stucco was typically carved with vegetal
arabesque The arabesque is a form of artistic decoration consisting of "surface decorations based on rhythmic linear patterns of scrolling and interlacing foliage, tendrils" or plain lines, often combined with other elements. Another definition is "Foli ...
motifs (''ataurique'' in Spanish, from ), epigraphic motifs, geometric motifs, or ''
sebka ''Sebka'' () refers to a type of decorative motif used in western Islamic ("Moorish") architecture and Mudéjar architecture. History and description Various types of interlacing rhombus-like motifs are heavily featured on the surfaces of ...
'' motifs. It could be further sculpted into three-dimensional ''muqarnas'' (''mocárabes'' in Spanish). Arabic inscriptions, a feature especially characteristic of the Alhambra, were carved along the walls and included
Qur'anic The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: , sing.: ...
excerpts, poetry by Nasrid court poets, and the repetition of the Nasrid motto "''wa la ghalib illa-llah''" (). White marble quarried from Macael (in Almeria province) was also used to make fountains and slender columns. The capitals of columns typically consisted of a lower cylindrical section sculpted with stylized acanthus leaves, an upper cubic section with vegetal or geometric motifs, and inscriptions (like the Nasrid motto) running along the base or the top edge. While the stucco decoration, wooden ceilings, and marble capitals of the Alhambra often appear colourless or monochrome today, they were originally painted in bright colours.
Primary colours A set of primary colors or primary colours (see spelling differences) consists of colorants or colored lights that can be mixed in varying amounts to produce a gamut of colors. This is the essential method used to create the perception of a b ...
– red, blue, and (in place of yellow) gold – were the most prominent and were juxtaposed to achieve a certain aesthetic balance, while other colours were used in more nuanced ways in the background.


Inscriptions

The Alhambra features various styles of the Arabic epigraphy that developed under the Nasrid dynasty, and particularly under Yusuf I and Muhammad V. José Miguel Puerta Vílchez compares the walls of the Alhambra to the pages of a manuscript, drawing similarities between the ''zilīj''-covered dados and the geometric manuscript illuminations, and the epigraphical forms in the palace to calligraphic motifs in contemporary Arabic manuscripts. Inscriptions typically ran in vertical or horizontal bands or they were set inside cartouches of round or rectangular shape. Most major inscriptions in the Alhambra use the ''Naskhi'' or cursive script, which was the most common script used in writing after the early Islamic period. ''
Thuluth ''Thuluth'' ( ar, ثُلُث, ' or ar, خَطُّ الثُّلُثِ, '; fa, ثلث, ''Sols''; Turkish: ''Sülüs'', from ' "one-third") is a script variety of Islamic calligraphy. The straight angular forms of Kufic were replaced in the new s ...
'' was a derivation of the cursive script often used for more pompous or formal contexts; favoured, for example, in the preambles of documents prepared by the Nasrid chancery. Many inscriptions in the Alhambra were composed in a mixed ''Naskhi-Thuluth'' script. Bands of cursive script often alternated with friezes or cartouches of Kufic script. Kufic is the oldest form of Arabic calligraphy, but by the 13th century Kufic scripts in the western Islamic world became increasingly stylized in architectural contexts and could be nearly illegible. In the Alhambra, there are many examples of "Knotted" Kufic, a particularly elaborate style where the letters tie together in intricate knots. The extensions of these letters could turn into strips that continued and formed more abstract motifs, or sometimes formed the edges of a cartouche encompassing the rest of the inscription. The texts of the Alhambra include "devout, regal, votive, and Qur'anic phrases and sentences," formed into arabesques, carved into wood and marble, and glazed onto tiles. Poets of the Nasrid court, including Ibn al-Khatīb and Ibn Zamrak, composed poems for the palace. The inscriptions of the Alhambra are also unique for their frequent self-referential nature and use of
personification Personification occurs when a thing or abstraction is represented as a person, in literature or art, as a type of anthropomorphic metaphor. The type of personification discussed here excludes passing literary effects such as "Shadows hold their b ...
. Some inscribed poems, such as those in the Palace of the Lions, talk about the palace or room in which they're situated and are written in the first person, as if the room itself was speaking to the reader. Most of the poetry is inscribed in Nasrid cursive script, while foliate and floral Kufic inscriptions—often formed into arches, columns, enjambments, and "architectural calligrams"—are generally used as decorative elements. Kufic
calligrams A calligram is text arranged in such a way that it forms a thematically related image. It can be a poem, a phrase, a portion of scripture, or a single word; the visual arrangement can rely on certain use of the typeface, calligraphy or handwr ...
, particularly of the words "blessing" ( ''baraka'') and "felicity" ( ''yumn''), are used as decorative motifs in arabesque throughout the palace. Like the rest of the original stucco decoration, many inscriptions were originally painted and enhanced with colours. Studies indicate that the letters were often painted in gold or silver, or in white with black outlines, which would have made them stand out on the decorated backgrounds that were often painted in red, blue, or turquoise (with other colours mixed into the details).


Main structures


Entrance gates

The main gate of the Alhambra is the ''Puerta de la Justicia'' (Gate of Justice), known in Arabic as ''Bab al-Shari'a'' (), a massive gate that served as the main entrance on the south side of the walled complex, built in 1348 during the reign of Yusuf I. The gate consists of a large horseshoe arch leading to a steep ramp passing through a bent passage. The passage turns 90 degrees to the left and then 90 degrees to the right, with an opening above where defenders could throw projectiles onto any attackers below. The image of a hand, whose five fingers symbolized the
Five Pillars of Islam The Five Pillars of Islam (' ; also ' "pillars of the religion") are fundamental practices in Islam, considered to be obligatory acts of worship for all Muslims. They are summarized in the famous hadith of Gabriel. The Sunni and Shia agree on ...
, is carved above this gate on the exterior, while the image of a key, another symbol of faith, is carved on the corresponding place on the inner side. A Christian-era sculpture of the
Virgin Virginity is the state of a person who has never engaged in sexual intercourse. The term ''virgin'' originally only referred to sexually inexperienced women, but has evolved to encompass a range of definitions, as found in traditional, modern ...
and Christ Child was inserted later into another niche just inside the gate. Near the outside of the gate is the ''Pilar de Carlos V'', a Renaissance-style fountain built in 1524 with some further alterations in 1624. At the end of the passage coming from the ''Puerta de la Justicia'' is the ''Plaza de los Aljibes'' ('Place of the Cisterns'), a broad open space which divides the Alcazaba from the Nasrid Palaces. The plaza is named after a large cistern dating to around 1494, commissioned by Iñigo López de Mondoza y Quiñones. The cistern was one of the first works carried out in the Alhambra after the 1492 conquest and it filled what was previously a gully between the Alcazaba and the palaces. On the east side of the square is the ''Puerta del Vino'' (Wine Gate) which leads to Palace of Charles V and to the former residential neighbourhoods (the ''medina'') of the Alhambra. The gate's construction is attributed to the reign of Muhammad III, although the decoration dates from different periods. Both sides of the gate are embellished with ceramic decoration in the spandrels of the arches and stucco decoration above. On the western side of the gate is the carving of a key symbol like the one on the ''Puerta de la Justicia''. The other main gate of the Alhambra was the ''Puerta de las Armas'' ('Gate of Arms'), located on the north side of the Alcazaba, from which a walled ramp leads towards the ''Plaza de los Aljibes'' and the Nasrid Palaces. This was originally the main access point to the complex for the regular residents of the city, since it was accessible from the Albaicín side, but after the Christian conquest the ''Puerta de la Justicia'' was favoured by Ferdinand and Isabella. The gate, one of the earliest structures built in the Alhambra in the 13th century, is one of the Alhambra structures that bears the most resemblance to the Almohad architectural tradition that preceded the Nasrids. The exterior façade of the gate is decorated with a polylobed moulding with glazed tiles inside a rectangular ''
alfiz The alfiz (, from Andalusi Arabic ''alḥíz'', from Standard Arabic ''alḥáyyiz'', meaning 'the container';Al ...
'' frame. Inside the gate's passage is a dome that is painted to simulate the appearance of red brick, a decorative feature characteristic of the Nasrid period. Two other exterior gates existed, both located further east. On the north side is the ''Puerta del Arrabal'' ('Arrabal Gate'), which opens onto the ''Cuesta de los Chinos'' ('Slope of the Pebbles'), the ravine between the Alhambra and the Generalife. It was probably created under Muhammad II and served the first palaces of the Alhambra which were built in this area during his reign. It underwent numerous modifications in the later Christian era of the Alhambra. On the south side is the ''Puerta de los Siete Suelos'' ('Gate of Seven Floors'), which was almost entirely destroyed by the explosions set off by the departing French troops in 1812. The present gate was reconstructed in the 1970s with help of remaining fragments and of multiple old
engravings Engraving is the practice of incising a design onto a hard, usually flat surface by cutting grooves into it with a burin. The result may be a decorated object in itself, as when silver, gold, steel, or glass are engraved, or may provide an in ...
that illustrate the former gate. The original gate was probably built in the mid-14th century and its original Arabic name was ''Bab al-Gudur''. It would have been the main entrance serving the ''medina'', the area occupied by industries and regular houses inside the Alhambra. It was also through here that the Catholic Monarchs first entered the Alhambra on January 2, 1492.


Alcazaba

The Alcazaba or citadel is the oldest part of the Alhambra today. It was the centerpiece of the complicated system of fortifications that protected the area. Its tallest tower, the high ''Torre del Homenaje'' ('Tower of Homage'), was the
keep A keep (from the Middle English ''kype'') is a type of fortified tower built within castles during the Middle Ages by European nobility. Scholars have debated the scope of the word ''keep'', but usually consider it to refer to large towers in c ...
and military command post of the complex. It may have also been the first residence of Ibn al-Ahmar inside the Alhambra while the complex was being constructed. The westernmost tower, the high ''Torre de la Vela'', acted as a watch tower. The flag of Ferdinand and Isabella was first raised above it as a symbol of the Spanish conquest of Granada on 2 January 1492. A bell was added on the tower soon afterward and for centuries it was rung at regular times every day and on special occasions. In 1843 the tower became part of the city's coat of arms. Inside the enclosure of the inner fortress was a residential district that housed the elite guards of the Alhambra. It contained urban amenities like a communal kitchen, a
hammam A hammam ( ar, حمّام, translit=ḥammām, tr, hamam) or Turkish bath is a type of steam bath or a place of public bathing associated with the Islamic world. It is a prominent feature in the culture of the Muslim world and was inherited f ...
, and a water supply cistern, as well as multiple subterranean chambers which served as
dungeons A dungeon is a room or cell in which prisoners are held, especially underground. Dungeons are generally associated with medieval castles, though their association with torture probably belongs more to the Renaissance period. An oubliette (from ...
and silos.


Nasrid palaces

The royal palace complex consists of three main parts, from west to east: the Mexuar, the Comares Palace, and the Palace of the Lions. Collectively, these palaces are also known as the ''Casa Real Vieja'' ('Old Royal Palace'), to distinguish them from the newer palaces erected next to them during the Christian Spanish period.


Mexuar

The Mexuar is the westernmost part of the palace complex. It was analogous to the '' mashwar''s (or ''mechouar''s) of royal palaces in North Africa. It was first built as part of the larger complex begun by Isma'il I which included the Comares Palace. It housed many of the administrative and more public functions of the palace, such as the chancery and the treasury. Its layout consisted of two consecutive courtyards followed by a main hall, all aligned along a central axis from west to east. Little remains of the two western courtyards of the Mexuar today, except for their foundations, a portico, and the water basin of a fountain. The main hall, known as the ''Sala del Mexuar'' or Council Hall, served as a throne hall where the sultan received and judged petitions. This area also granted access to the Comares Palace via the ''Cuarto Dorado'' section on the east side of the Council Hall. Multiple parts of the Mexuar were significantly modified in the post-''Reconquista'' period; notably, the ''Sala del Mexuar'' was converted into a Christian
chapel A chapel is a Christian place of prayer and worship that is usually relatively small. The term has several meanings. Firstly, smaller spaces inside a church that have their own altar are often called chapels; the Lady chapel is a common ty ...
and additions were made to the ''Cuarto Dorado'' to convert it into a residence. Many of these additions were later removed during modern restorations in the 19th and 20th centuries.


Comares Palace

The Comares Palace was the core of a large palace complex begun by Isma'il I in the early 13th century and subsequently modified and refurbished by Yusuf I and Muhammad V over the course of the same century. This new palace complex served as the official palace of the sultan and the state, known in Arabic as the ''Qaṣr al-Sultan'' or ''Dār al-Mulk''. The Comares Palace was accessed from the west through the Mexuar. An internal façade, known as the Comares Façade, stands on the south side of the ''Patio de Cuarto Dorado'' ('Courtyard of the Gilded Room') at the east edge of the Mexuar. This highly-decorated symmetrical façade, with two doors, was the entrance to the palace and likely served in some ceremonial functions.The Comares Palace itself is centered around the ''Patio de los Arrayanes'' ('Court of the Myrtles'), a courtyard measuring 23 to 23.5 metres wide and 36.6 metres long, with its long axis aligned roughly north-to-south. At the middle, aligned with the main axis of the court, is a wide reflective pool. The pool measures 34 metres long and 7,10 meters wide. The myrtle bushes that are the court's namesake grow in hedges along either side of this pool. Two ornate porticos are situated at the north and south ends of the court, leading to further halls and rooms behind them. The court's decoration contained 11 ''qasā'id'' by
Ibn Zamrak Ibn Zamrak () (also Zumruk) or Abu Abduallah Muhammad ibn Yusuf ibn Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Surayhi, (1333–1393) was an Arab Andalusian poet and statesman from Granada, Al-Andalus. Some his poems still decorate the foun ...
, 8 of which remain. Annexed to the east side of the palace are the Comares Baths, a royal hammam that is exceptionally well-preserved. On the north side of the Court of the Myrtles, inside the massive Comares Tower, is the ''Salón de los Embajadores'' ('Hall of the Ambassadors'), the largest room in the Alhambra. It is accessed by passing through the ''Sala de la Barca'', a wide rectangular hall behind the northern portico of the court. The Hall of the Ambassadors is a square chamber measuring 11.3 meters per side and rising to a height of 18.2 metres. This was the throne room or audience chamber of the sultan. The sultan's throne was placed opposite the entrance in front of a recessed double-arched window at the back of the hall. In addition to the extensive tile and stucco decoration of the walls, the interior culminates in a large domed ceiling. The ceiling is made of 8017 interlinked pieces of wood that form an abstract geometric representation of the seven heavens. The hall and its tower project from the walls of the palace, with windows providing views in three directions. In this sense, it was an enlarged version of a ''mirador'', a room from which the palace's inhabitants could gaze outward to the surrounding landscape.


Palace of the Lions

The Palace of the Lions is one of the most famous palaces in
Islamic architecture Islamic architecture comprises the architectural styles of buildings associated with Islam. It encompasses both secular and religious styles from the early history of Islam to the present day. The Islamic world encompasses a wide geographic ar ...
and exemplifies the apogee of Nasrid architecture under the reign of Muhammad V. Its central rectangular courtyard measures about 28.7 meters long and 15.6 meters wide, with its long axis aligned roughly east-to-west. The arches and columns of the surrounding portico are arranged in a complex pattern of single columns alternating with groups of two or three columns, a design that was unique in Islamic architecture. Two ornate pavilions stand at the east and west sides of the courtyard, while the center is occupied by the famed Fountain of the Lions. The fountain consists of a large basin surrounded by twelve stylized lion sculptures, all carved from marble. Along the rim of the fountain's basin is an inscribed poem composed by Ibn Zamrak. This praises the beauty of the fountain and the power of the lions, but it also describes their hydraulic systems and how they worked. Four halls are arranged around the courtyard. The ''Sala de los Mocárabes'' ('Hall of the ''mocárabes'' (''muqarnas'')'), on the west side, was damaged in 1590 by the explosion of a nearby
gunpowder magazine A gunpowder magazine is a magazine (building) designed to store the explosive gunpowder in wooden barrels for safety. Gunpowder, until superseded, was a universal explosive used in the military and for civil engineering: both applications requ ...
and its ceiling was replaced by the current Baroque-style plaster vault in 1714. The ''Sala de los Reyes'' ('Hall of Kings'), on the east side, is subdivided into multiple sections covered by ''muqarnas'' vaults. Opening behind these are several more rooms, three of which contain rounded vault ceilings covered by unique pictorial scenes painted on leather. One painting shows a Nasrid sultan and other dignitaries sitting and discussing together while the two other paintings feature scenes of sports, hunting, and court life. The style of painting was influenced to one extent or another by Christian
Gothic art Gothic art was a style of medieval art that developed in Northern France out of Romanesque art in the 12th century AD, led by the concurrent development of Gothic architecture. It spread to all of Western Europe, and much of Northern, Southern and ...
. On the south side of the courtyard, the ''Sala de los Abencerrajes'' ('Hall of the
Abencerrages The Abencerrages or Abencerrajes (from the Arabic for "Saddler's Son")Chambers Biographical Dictionary, , page 3 were a family or faction that is said to have held a prominent position in the Kingdom of Granada in the 15th century. The name appe ...
') derives its name from a legend according to which the father of
Boabdil Abu Abdallah Muhammad XII ( ar, أبو عبد الله محمد الثاني عشر, Abū ʿAbdi-llāh Muḥammad ath-thānī ʿashar) (c. 1460–1533), known in Europe as Boabdil (a Spanish rendering of the name ''Abu Abdallah''), was the ...
, the last sultan of Granada, having invited the chiefs of that line to a banquet, massacred them here. It is covered by an elaborate ''muqarnas'' vault ceiling, featuring a 16-sided
lantern A lantern is an often portable source of lighting, typically featuring a protective enclosure for the light sourcehistorically usually a candle or a wick in oil, and often a battery-powered light in modern timesto make it easier to carry and h ...
cupola in the shape of an
eight-pointed star In geometry, an octagram is an eight-angled star polygon. The name ''octagram'' combine a Greek numeral prefix, '' octa-'', with the Greek suffix ''-gram''. The ''-gram'' suffix derives from γραμμή (''grammḗ'') meaning "line". Detai ...
, possibly symbolizing the celestial heaven. On the north side of the courtyard is the ''Sala de Dos Hermanas'' ('Hall of Two Sisters'), so-called because of two large slabs of marble that form part of the pavement. Its original Arabic name was ''al-Qubba al-Kubrā'' (), suggesting it had a particular significance. The hall is covered by one of the most remarkable ''muqarnas'' domes in
Islamic art Islamic art is a part of Islamic culture and encompasses the visual arts produced since the 7th century CE by people who lived within territories inhabited or ruled by Muslim populations. Referring to characteristic traditions across a wide ra ...
. The ''muqarnas'' composition consists of at least 5000
prismatic An optical prism is a transparent optical element with flat, polished surfaces that are designed to refract light. At least one surface must be angled — elements with two parallel surfaces are ''not'' prisms. The most familiar type of optical ...
pieces, unfolding from the central summit into sixteen miniature domes right above the level of the windows. To the north of the ''Sala de Dos Hermanas'', and accessed through it, is the ''Mirador de Lindaraja'', a small projecting room with double-arched windows on three sides which overlook the gardens below. The name ''Lindaraja'' is a corruption of Arabic '''Ayn Dar 'Aisha'' (). This small chamber has some of the most sophisticated carved stucco decoration in the Alhambra and retains original mosaic tilework that features very fine Arabic inscriptions. The room is also covered by a unique vault ceiling consisting of a wooden
lattice Lattice may refer to: Arts and design * Latticework, an ornamental criss-crossed framework, an arrangement of crossing laths or other thin strips of material * Lattice (music), an organized grid model of pitch ratios * Lattice (pastry), an orna ...
shaped into an interlacing geometric motif and filled with pieces of coloured glass.


Renaissance apartments and courtyards

To the east of the Comares Palace and the Palace of the Lions is an area of Renaissance-style Christian additions dating primarily from the 16th century. Directly north of the Palace of the Lions is the ''Patio de Lindaraja'' (Lindaraja Courtyard), originally an open garden area but turned into a cloistered garden by the addition of new structures around it during the 16th century. The fountain at its center features a
Baroque The Baroque (, ; ) is a style of architecture, music, dance, painting, sculpture, poetry, and other arts that flourished in Europe from the early 17th century until the 1750s. In the territories of the Spanish and Portuguese empires including t ...
pedestal made in 1626 that supports a Nasrid marble basin installed here at the same time, although a replica now replaces the original basin which is kept at the Alhambra Museum. On the west and north sides of the courtyard, along the upper floors, are six rooms constructed for Charles V between 1528 and 1537, known as the Emperor's Chambers. The most interesting details of the rooms are a marble fireplace sculpted with the emperor's coat of arms and a ceiling of panels painted with pictures of fruits. The paintings were made around 1537 by Julio Aquiles and Alejandro Mayner. To the west of the Lindaraja Courtyard is the smaller ''Patio de la Reja'' ('Courtyard of the Queen'), located between the Emperor's Chambers and the Comares Tower. A gallery was built around the upper floor of the courtyard between 1654 and 1655. Further north is a tower known as the ''Peinador de la Reina'' ('Queen's Robing Room'), formerly known as the Tower of Abu al-Juyyush. This was originally a stand-alone fortification tower in the Alhambra walls that was probably built in the reign of Nasr (r. 1309–1314), also known as Abu al-Juyyush. Yusuf I converted it into a small palatial residence with a lantern ceiling and Muhammad V later added decoration around its entrance. Between 1528 and 1537 it was connected to the Emperor's Chambers via a new elevated gallery and an upper level was added to the tower around the existing lantern ceiling. Between 1539 and 1546 this upper floor was painted by Julio Aquiles and Alejandro Mayner with
mythological Myth is a folklore genre consisting of narratives that play a fundamental role in a society, such as foundational tales or origin myths. Since "myth" is widely used to imply that a story is not objectively true, the identification of a narrat ...
scenes, depictions of Charles V's 1535 invasion of Tunis, and more formal classical-like motifs. Later, in 1618, Nasrid-period columns and capitals from other palaces were integrated into the gallery, some of which were later moved to the Alhambra Museum.


Partal Palace and gardens

To the east of the Palace of the Lions and the Renaissance additions is the Partal Palace, a pavilion structure on the edge of the Alhambra walls. It was built by Muhammad III, which makes it the oldest surviving palace in the Alhambra today, although it has undergone many alterations since then. Its south side has a portico and faces a large reflective pool, while a mirador projects from its north side over the walls. Next to it is a small but richly decorated oratory containing a
mihrab Mihrab ( ar, محراب, ', pl. ') is a niche in the wall of a mosque that indicates the ''qibla'', the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca towards which Muslims should face when praying. The wall in which a ''mihrab'' appears is thus the "qibla w ...
. Beyond the Partal is an area of gardens stretching along the northern wall of the Alhambra. Several towers along this northern wall were converted into small palatial residences during the Nasrid period, including the ''Torre de los Picos'' ('Tower of the Pointed Battlements'), the ''Torre de la Cautiva'' ('Tower of the Captive'), and the ''Torre de las Infantas'' ('Tower of the Princesses'). For tourists visiting the Alhambra today, all these areas are accessible after passing through the main Nasrid Palaces, although the palace-towers are not normally open to visitors.


Palace of Charles V

The palace commissioned by Charles V in the middle of the Alhambra was designed by
Pedro Machuca Pedro Machuca (c. 1490 in Toledo, Spain – 1550 in Granada) is mainly remembered as the Spanish architect responsible for the design of the Palace of Charles V (begun 1528) adjacent to the Alcazar in Granada. The significance of this work is tha ...
, an architect who had trained under
Michelangelo Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni (; 6 March 1475 – 18 February 1564), known as Michelangelo (), was an Italian sculptor, painter, architect, and poet of the High Renaissance. Born in the Republic of Florence, his work was insp ...
in
Rome , established_title = Founded , established_date = 753 BC , founder = King Romulus (legendary) , image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg , map_caption ...
and who was steeped in the culture of the Italian
High Renaissance In art history, the High Renaissance was a short period of the most exceptional artistic production in the Italian states, particularly Rome, capital of the Papal States, and in Florence, during the Italian Renaissance. Most art historians stat ...
and of the artistic circles of
Raphael Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino, better known as Raphael (; or ; March 28 or April 6, 1483April 6, 1520), was an Italian painter and architect of the High Renaissance. List of works by Raphael, His work is admired for its clarity of form, ease of ...
and
Giulio Romano Giulio Romano (, ; – 1 November 1546), is the acquired name of Giulio Pippi, who was an Italian painter and architect. He was a pupil of Raphael, and his stylistic deviations from High Renaissance classicism help define the sixteenth-cent ...
. It was conceived in a contemporary
Renaissance style Renaissance architecture is the European architecture of the period between the early 15th and early 16th centuries in different regions, demonstrating a conscious revival and development of certain elements of ancient Greek and Roman thought a ...
or "Roman" style with an innovative design reflecting the architectural ideals of this period. The construction of a monumental Italian-influenced palace in the heart of the Nasrid-built Alhambra symbolized Charles V's imperial status and the triumph of Christianity over Islam achieved by his grandparents (the Catholic Monarchs). It consists of a massive square structure of stone which encloses a perfectly circular courtyard. The exterior facades are divided into two horizontal zones of decoration, with rustication below and
pilasters In classical architecture, a pilaster is an architectural element used to give the appearance of a supporting column and to articulate an extent of wall, with only an ornamental function. It consists of a flat surface raised from the main wall ...
alternating with other embellishments above. The two main entrance portals, on the western and southern sides, have designs resembling
triumphal arches A triumphal arch is a free-standing monumental structure in the shape of an archway with one or more arched passageways, often designed to span a road. In its simplest form a triumphal arch consists of two massive piers connected by an arch, cro ...
with engaged columns. The pedestals of these columns are carved with reliefs depicting allegorical scenes such as the
Victories The term victory (from Latin ''victoria'') originally applied to warfare, and denotes success achieved in personal Duel, combat, after military operations in general or, by extension, in any competition. Success in a military campaign constitu ...
destroying armaments, representing the emperor's imposition of a universal peace. The upper façade of the southern entrance portal features a Serlian window. Among the other details of the palace façades are a series of bronze rings or knockers which are strictly ornamental, with more Hispanic symbolic imagery such as lion and eagle heads. Pedro Machuca had intended to create plazas with
colonnades In classical architecture, a colonnade is a long sequence of columns joined by their entablature, often free-standing, or part of a building. Paired or multiple pairs of columns are normally employed in a colonnade which can be straight or curve ...
on the east and west sides of the building to serve as a grand new approach to the Alhambra palaces, but these were never executed. Construction of the palace began in 1527. After Machuca's death in 1550 it was continued by his son Luis, who finished the facades and built the internal courtyard. Work was halted for 15 years when the 1568 Morisco Rebellion began. Work was still unfinished when Philip IV visited in 1628 and the project was finally abandoned in 1637, leaving the structure without a roof. It was finally completed after 1923, when Leopoldo Torres Balbás began its restoration. Today, the building houses the Alhambra Museum, which holds objects and artefacts relating to the Alhambra's history, as well as the Fine Arts Museum of Granada, which houses a collection of paintings from Granada dating from the 16th to 20th centuries.


Other Nasrid palaces

Three other major Nasrid-era palaces once existed but were largely destroyed over the centuries. The excavated remains of the ''Palacio del Partal Alto'' ('Upper Partal Palace'), also known as the ''Palacio del Conde del Tendilla'' ('Palace of the Count of Tendilla'), are incorporated today into the Partal Gardens. The palace dates from the time of Muhammad II, with later renovations and modifications, and is the oldest palace in the Alhambra of which traces have been found. The Palace of the Convent of San Francisco (''Palacio del Convento de San Francisco'', also known as the ''Palacio de los Infantes'') is named after the Convent of Saint Francis which was installed here in 1494. The Nasrid palace here was probably first built by Muhammad II but some surviving inscriptions suggest it was significantly remodeled by Muhammad V. Little remains of the Nasrid structure today except for a rectangular courtyard and some of its adjoining rooms, including a richly-decorated chamber with ''muqarnas'' vaulting. Queen Isabella I was originally buried here in 1504 before her body was moved to the
Royal Chapel A royal chapel is a chapel associated with a monarch, a royal court, or in a royal palace. A royal chapel may also be a Chapel (music), body of clergy or musicians serving at a royal court or employed by a monarch. Commonwealth countries Both ...
near the Cathedral. The rest of the present-day building dates from an 18th-century remodeling of the convent and includes a cloistered courtyard. Today it serves as a
Parador A ''parador'' (), in Spain and other Spanish-speaking countries was an establishment where travelers could seek lodging, and usually, food and drink, similar to an inn. In Spain since 1928, a Parador is a state-owned luxury hotel, usually locat ...
(state-owned hotel). The Palace of the Abencerrajes (''Palacio de los Abencerrajes'') was one of the largest palaces in the Alhambra and may also date from the time of Muhammad II. What was left of the palace was blown up by Napoleon's troops in 1812. It then became part of an area of abandoned ruins known as the Secano. Its excavated remains are visible today in the southern part of the complex but they have yet to be fully studied.


Church of Santa Maria and the Alhambra Mosque

Located just east of the Palace of Charles V is the Catholic Church of ''Santa María de la Alhambra'' ('Saint Mary of the Alhambra'), which stands on the site of the former Alhambra Mosque, the congregational mosque of the Alhambra complex. The church was built between 1581 and 1618. It is under the authority of the
Archbishop of Granada The archdiocese of Granada ( la, archidioecesis Granatensis) is an ecclesiastical province of the Catholic Church in Spain.
. The building was designed by architects Juan de Herrera and Juan de Orea and completed by Ambrosio Vico. Inside is a large Baroque
altarpiece An altarpiece is an artwork such as a painting, sculpture or relief representing a religious subject made for placing at the back of or behind the altar of a Christian church. Though most commonly used for a single work of art such as a painting o ...
with gilded ornate columns completed in 1671, although the most impressive centerpiece of the altar, a sculpture of
Our Lady of Sorrows Our Lady of Sorrows ( la, Beata Maria Virgo Perdolens), Our Lady of Dolours, the Sorrowful Mother or Mother of Sorrows ( la, Mater Dolorosa, link=no), and Our Lady of Piety, Our Lady of the Seven Sorrows or Our Lady of the Seven Dolours are names ...
(depicting
Mary Mary may refer to: People * Mary (name), a feminine given name (includes a list of people with the name) Religious contexts * New Testament people named Mary, overview article linking to many of those below * Mary, mother of Jesus, also calle ...
holding the body of
Jesus Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label=Hebrew/Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other names and titles), was a first-century Jewish preacher and religious ...
), was carved between 1750 and 1760 by Torcuato Ruiz del Peral. Every year during
Holy Week Holy Week ( la, Hebdomada Sancta or , ; grc, Ἁγία καὶ Μεγάλη Ἑβδομάς, translit=Hagia kai Megale Hebdomas, lit=Holy and Great Week) is the most sacred week in the liturgical year in Christianity. In Eastern Churches, w ...
, this sculpture is taken out and carried in a procession through the streets of Granada. During processions it is carried on top of a "throne" or platform that is sculpted to resemble the arcades in the Court of the Lions. Little remains of the Alhambra Mosque which stood previously on this site, aside from an ornate bronze lamp now preserved at the National Archaeological Museum in
Madrid Madrid ( , ) is the capital and most populous city of Spain. The city has almost 3.4 million inhabitants and a metropolitan area population of approximately 6.7 million. It is the second-largest city in the European Union (EU), and ...
. According to an inscription on this lamp and to the writings of Ibn al-Khatib, the mosque was commissioned by Muhammad III and completed in 1305. The mosque's main axis was aligned towards the ''
qibla The qibla ( ar, قِبْلَة, links=no, lit=direction, translit=qiblah) is the direction towards the Kaaba in the Sacred Mosque in Mecca, which is used by Muslims in various religious contexts, particularly the direction of prayer for the s ...
'' to the southeast, which also matched the alignment of the main street next to it. The structure consisted of a hypostyle hall with three "naves" separated by rows of three arches. The arches were supported by marble columns with capitals similar in style to those of the earlier Cordoban Caliphate period in the 10th century. The roof was made of wood and the central nave, which led to the mihrab, had a higher ceiling than the two side naves. A slender
minaret A minaret (; ar, منارة, translit=manāra, or ar, مِئْذَنة, translit=miʾḏana, links=no; tr, minare; fa, گل‌دسته, translit=goldaste) is a type of tower typically built into or adjacent to mosques. Minarets are generall ...
stood at the western end of the building. After the Christian conquest, the building was converted to a church but by the late 16th century it was in disrepair. It was finally demolished in 1576, prior to the construction of the present church.


Baths of the mosque

One of the Alhambra Mosque's annexes, the baths (hammam), has been preserved on the east side of the church today and is accessible from the main street. Like other Islamic baths, it provided general hygiene to the local residents as well as the means to perform the ritual ablutions ('' ghusl'') for religious purposes. Although sometimes eroticized in Romantic western literature, visitors attended the baths strictly with members of the same sex and wore cloths or towels around their private parts. These baths were constructed under Muhammad III along with the mosque. They may have been partly demolished in 1534 before being incorporated into a residential house during the 17th and 18th centuries. The preserved remains were significant enough to enable their restoration and reconstruction in 1934. The layout of the baths had a typical sequence of rooms, including a
changing room A changing-room, locker-room, (usually in a sports, theater, or staff context) or changeroom (regional use) is a room or area designated for changing one's clothes. Changing-rooms are provided in a semi-public situation to enable people to ch ...
(''bayt al-maslak͟h'' in Arabic), a
cold room The term refrigeration refers to the process of removing heat from an enclosed space or substance for the purpose of lowering the temperature.International Dictionary of Refrigeration, http://dictionary.iifiir.org/search.phpASHRAE Terminology, ht ...
(''bayt al-barid''), and a hot room (''bayt al-sak͟hun''). Behind the hot room there would have been a boiler room where water was heated and firewood stored nearby. Original fragments of tile and stucco decoration, as well as part of the marble flooring, have been preserved in some of the rooms. The hot room has one small pool and another may have existed where a modern fountain stands today. However, unlike in Christian and earlier
Greco-Roman culture The Greco-Roman civilization (; also Greco-Roman culture; spelled Graeco-Roman in the Commonwealth), as understood by modern scholars and writers, includes the geographical regions and countries that culturally—and so historically—were di ...
, Muslims generally did not favour swimming or immersion in water for their visits to the baths. Private baths, of varying size and importance, were also built as part of the Alhambra's palaces.


Rawda (Nasrid mausoleum)

In the space between the former mosque and the Palace of the Lions stood the ''Rawda'' (spelled ''Rauda'' in Spanish), the royal mausoleum of the Nasrids. The term ''rawda'' () means 'garden' in Arabic, but a number of historic Islamic necropolises or cemeteries were known by this name, including the necropolis of the former Umayyad rulers in Cordoba. The Nasrid mausoleum was first built by Isma'il I in the early 14th century, though an earlier cemetery may have already existed there previously. The structure no longer stands today but it has been studied by archeologists and its foundations are still visible. The necropolis consisted of a rectangular enclosure which was accessed through a small horseshoe-arch gate preserved today on its north side. Inside the enclosure was a square mausoleum chamber covered by a roof with a central square lantern. (The presence of the lantern is indicated by the remains of four pillars in the center of the structure.) Some rectangular rooms were adjoined to the side of this chamber. The mausoleum was preceded by a rectangular courtyard. This layout was similar to some earlier mausoleums in North Africa and to the later
Saadian Tombs The Saadian Tombs (, , ) are a historic royal necropolis in Marrakesh, Morocco, located on the south side of the Kasbah Mosque, inside the royal kasbah (citadel) district of the city. They date to the time of the Saadian dynasty and in particul ...
in Marrakesh. Like the nearby mosque, the mausoleum was aligned with the ''qibla''. It was decorated with carved stucco and tilework, remains of which have been uncovered in excavations. The windows of the central lantern were closed with wooden latticework, an example of which is preserved in the Alhambra Museum today. The most important persons, such as the Nasrid rulers, were buried inside this mausoleum, but in the open space between the mausoleum and the outer enclosure wall were other graves belonging to less important figures. The tombs of important figures were covered with marble slabs on top of which were pyramidal or
prismatic An optical prism is a transparent optical element with flat, polished surfaces that are designed to refract light. At least one surface must be angled — elements with two parallel surfaces are ''not'' prisms. The most familiar type of optical ...
stones known as ''maqabriyya''s, while lesser tombs outside where framed by stone curbs that made them look like miniature gardens. At the heads of important graves were marble tombstones carved with detailed inscriptions, some examples of which are preserved at the Alhambra Museum today. In 1574, during construction of the nearby Palace of Charles V, the tombstones of Muhammad II, Isma'il I, Yusuf I and Yusuf III were discovered. When Torres Balbás investigated the site in 1925-1926 he found 70 more graves inside the enclosure. Almost all the graves were already empty, as Muhammad XII, the last sultan of Granada, arranged to have the remains of his ancestors moved to an unknown site at Mondújar, in the
Alpujarras The Alpujarra (, Arabic: ''al-bussarat'') is a natural and historical region in Andalusia, Spain, on the south slopes of the Sierra Nevada and the adjacent valley. The average elevation is above sea level. It extends over two provinces, ...
.


Generalife

To the east of the Alhambra and outside its walls is the Generalife (from ), a Nasrid-era country estate which was first built by Muhammad II and Muhammad III in the late 13th and early 14th centuries. It underwent multiple modifications under later Nasrid rulers and then by Christian Spanish builders in the 16th century. It features several rectangular garden courtyards with decorated pavilions at either end. A large area of landscaped gardens from the 20th century occupies the approach to the former palace today. The Nasrid palace was originally linked to the Alhambra by a walled corridor that crossed the valley between them.


Other outlying structures

The main approach to the Alhambra today is through the Alhambra Woods in the valley on its south side. The outer entrance to the woods is through the ''Puerta de las Granadas'' ('Gate of the Pomegranates'), a formal Renaissance-style gate built in 1536 over the remains of an earlier Islamic-era gate. Within the woods is the ''Puerta de Birambla'' (from Arabic ''Bab al-Ramla''), one of the former Islamic-era gates in Granada's city walls which was demolished between 1873 and 1884 and then reconstructed here in 1933. To the south of the ''Puerta de las Granadas'' are the ''Torres Bermejas'' ('Vermilion Towers'), a group of three adjacent towers on the Mauror Hill. Their origin is not clear, but the oldest remains found here date from the late 8th century or early 9th century. They may have been inhabited by Muhammad I (the founder of the Nasrid dynasty). In the 16th century, during the Christian Spanish era, an artillery bastion was added to them on the northwest side. During the Nasrid period there were several other country estates and palaces to the east of the Alhambra and the Generalife, located on the mountainside and taking advantage of the water supply system which ran through this area. The two best-known examples are the ''Palacio de los Alijares'' and the ''Dar al-'Arusa'' (), both of which were built in the 14th century and then abandoned some time after the 1492 conquest. Only traces of them remain today. They were probably richly decorated like the Alhambra palaces and were accompanied by gardens and amenities like hammams. Also nearby is the ''Silla del Moro'' ('Seat of the Moor'), a ruined structure on the hilltop overlooking the Generalife. It was once a fort and monitoring post that protected the water supply infrastructure in this area.


Water supply system

Water was provided to both the Alhambra and the Generalife by the ''Acequia del Sultan'' (also known as the ''Acequia del Rey'' or ''Acequia Real''), which still exists in large part today. It draws water from the Darro River at an uphill location in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada, about 6.1 kilometers east of the Alhambra. A smaller branch known as the ''Acequia del Tercio'' also splits off from it several kilometers upstream and proceeded along higher ground before arriving at the top point of the Generalife's palace and gardens. The main branch, proceeding along lower ground, also arrives at the Generalife palace and supplies water to its iconic ''Patio de la Acequia''. Both canals generally ran along the surface but some parts ran through tunnels cut directly into the
bedrock In geology, bedrock is solid Rock (geology), rock that lies under loose material (regolith) within the crust (geology), crust of Earth or another terrestrial planet. Definition Bedrock is the solid rock that underlies looser surface mater ...
. After arriving at the Generalife, the canals turn towards the southeast and run past the gardens. They then join together before turning back towards the Alhambra, where the water enters via an arched aqueduct next to the ''Torre del Agua'' ('Water Tower') at the Alhambra's eastern tip. From here it is channeled through the citadel via a complex system of conduits (''acequias'') and water tanks (''albercones'') which create the celebrated interplay of light, sound and surface in the palaces.


Historic furnishings and art objects

While the walls and rooms of the Alhambra are devoid of furnishings today, they would have originally been decorated and filled with many objects such as carpets, floor cushions, and tapestries or similar objects to be hung on the walls. The custom of sitting on the ground explains why some of the windows in the miradors (lookout rooms) were situated so low, where the eyeline of seated persons would be. Among the most famous objects from the Nasrid palaces are the "Alhambra vases", a type of large Hispano-Moresque ware from the Nasrid period that were mostly found in the Alhambra. They stood on display in parts of the palace, probably in the corners of rooms. Their practical function, if any, is unclear but they probably served as accessories to compliment the architecture. They stood about 125 centimeters tall on average, making them the largest lusterware pieces ever made. They were shaped like amphorae with narrow bases, bulging body, and narrow ribbed necks flanked by flat handles shaped like wings. They were decorated with Arabic inscriptions and other motifs, with the most common colours being
cobalt blue Cobalt blue is a blue pigment made by sintering cobalt(II) oxide with aluminum(III) oxide (alumina) at 1200 °C. Chemically, cobalt blue pigment is cobalt(II) oxide-aluminium oxide, or cobalt(II) aluminate, CoAl2O4. Cobalt blue is lighter ...
, white, and gold. Ten vases of this kind have survived and began to be documented in the 18th century, making their way into museums afterwards. The earliest examples are dated to the late 13th or early 14th century, but the most elegant examples date from the late 14th or early 15th century. It's unclear where exactly they were produced, as there were several centers of ceramic production in the Nasrid kingdom, including Granada and
Málaga Málaga (, ) is a municipality of Spain, capital of the Province of Málaga, in the autonomous community of Andalusia. With a population of 578,460 in 2020, it is the second-most populous city in Andalusia after Seville and the sixth most pop ...
. One of the best examples is the 14th-century Vase of the Gazelles, now kept at the Alhambra Museum. It stands 135 centimeters tall and is named after the image of confronted gazelles painted on its body. Smaller jars and vases were also kept in niches in the walls and entrances of many rooms of the Alhambra. A ''taqa'', a niche set into the walls under an archway (in the
jambs A jamb (from French ''jambe'', "leg"), in architecture, is the side-post or lining of a doorway or other aperture. The jambs of a window outside the frame are called “reveals.” Small shafts to doors and windows with caps and bases are known ...
), was a characteristic element of Nasrid architecture where such jars were kept, possibly filled with water for visitors. Examples of these niches are found in the entrance to the Hall of Ambassadors. Another significant surviving object from the Alhambra is an elaborate bronze lamp that once hung in the main mosque, dated to 1305. The main section of the lamp is conical in shape, tied to a shaft or stem above which is punctuated with small spherical sections. The bronze is pierced to create Arabic inscriptions in a ''Naskhi'' script and a background of vegetal Arabesque motifs. After the 1492 conquest it was confiscated and made part of the treasury of
Cardinal Cisneros Cardinal or The Cardinal may refer to: Animals * Cardinal (bird) or Cardinalidae, a family of North and South American birds **'' Cardinalis'', genus of cardinal in the family Cardinalidae **''Cardinalis cardinalis'', or northern cardinal, t ...
. It is now on display at the National Archaeological Museum in Madrid, although a replica is also kept at the Alhambra Museum.


Influence


In literature

Parts of the following works are set in the Alhambra: *
Washington Irving Washington Irving (April 3, 1783 – November 28, 1859) was an American short-story writer, essayist, biographer, historian, and diplomat of the early 19th century. He is best known for his short stories "Rip Van Winkle" (1819) and " The Legen ...
's ''
Tales of the Alhambra ''Tales of the Alhambra'' (1832) is a collection of essays, verbal sketches and stories by American author Washington Irving (1783–1859) inspired by, and partly written during, his 1828 visit to the palace/fortress complex known as the Alhambr ...
''. This is a collection of essays, verbal sketches, and stories. Irving lived in the palace while writing the book and was instrumental in introducing the site to Western audiences. *
Radwa Ashour Radwa Ashour ( ar, رضوى عاشور) (26 May 1946 – 30 November 2014) was an Egyptian novelist. Life Ashour was born in El-Manial to Mustafa Ashour, a lawyer and literature enthusiast, and Mai Azzam, a poet and an artist. She graduate ...
's *
Salman Rushdie Sir Ahmed Salman Rushdie (; born 19 June 1947) is an Indian-born British-American novelist. His work often combines magic realism with historical fiction and primarily deals with connections, disruptions, and migrations between Eastern and Wes ...
's ''
The Moor's Last Sigh ''The Moor's Last Sigh'' is the fifth novel by Salman Rushdie, published in 1995. It is set in the Indian cities of Bombay and Cochin. Title and influences The title is taken from the story of Muhammad XII of Granada, Boabdil, the last Moor ...
'' *
Amin Maalouf Amin Maalouf (; ar, أمين معلوف; born 25 February 1949) is a Lebanese-born French"Amin ...
's ''
Leo Africanus Joannes Leo Africanus (born al-Hasan Muhammad al-Wazzan, ar, الحسن محمد الوزان ; c. 1494 – c. 1554) was an Andalusian diplomat and author who is best known for his 1526 book '' Cosmographia et geographia de Affrica'', later ...
'', depicting the reconquest of Granada by the
Catholic Monarchs The Catholic Monarchs were Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, whose marriage and joint rule marked the ''de facto'' unification of Spain. They were both from the House of Trastámara and were second cousins, being bot ...
. * Philippa Gregory's ''
The Constant Princess ''The Constant Princess'' is a historical fiction novel by Philippa Gregory, published in 2005. The novel depicts a highly fictionalized version of the life of Catherine of Aragon and her rise to power in England. Plot summary Catalina of Ara ...
'', depicting Catalina the Infanta of Spain as she lived in the Alhambra after her parents took Granada. *
Federico García Lorca Federico del Sagrado Corazón de Jesús García Lorca (5 June 1898 – 19 August 1936), known as Federico García Lorca ( ), was a Spanish poet, playwright, and theatre director. García Lorca achieved international recognition as an emblemat ...
's play ''
Doña Rosita the Spinster ''Doña Rosita the Spinster'' ( es, Doña Rosita la soltera) is a period play by the 20th-century Spanish dramatist Federico García Lorca. It is subtitled "or The Language of the Flowers" and described as "a poem of 1900 Granada, divided into v ...
'', mentioned by title character Doña Rosita in her song/speech to the Manola sisters. *
Paulo Coelho Paulo Coelho de Souza (, ; born 24 August 1947) is a Brazilian lyricist and novelist and a member of the Brazilian Academy of Letters since 2002. His novel ''The Alchemist'' became an international best-seller and he has published 28 more books ...
's novel ''
The Alchemist An alchemist is a person who practices alchemy. Alchemist or Alchemyst may also refer to: Books and stories * ''The Alchemist'' (novel), the translated title of a 1988 allegorical novel by Paulo Coelho * ''The Alchemist'' (play), a play by Be ...
'' *
Ali Smith Ali Smith CBE FRSL (born 24 August 1962) is a Scottish author, playwright, academic and journalist. Sebastian Barry described her in 2016 as "Scotland's Nobel laureate-in-waiting". Early life and education Smith was born in Inverness on 24 Au ...
's ''
The Accidental ''The Accidental'' is a 2005 novel by Scottish author Ali Smith. It follows a middle-class English family who are visited by an uninvited guest, Amber, while they are on holiday in a small village in Norfolk. Amber's arrival has a profound e ...
'' *
George Bernard Shaw George Bernard Shaw (26 July 1856 – 2 November 1950), known at his insistence simply as Bernard Shaw, was an Irish playwright, critic, polemicist and political activist. His influence on Western theatre, culture and politics extended from ...
's play ''
Man and Superman ''Man and Superman'' is a four-act drama written by George Bernard Shaw in 1903. The series was written in response to a call for Shaw to write a play based on the Don Juan theme. ''Man and Superman'' opened at the Royal Court Theatre in London ...
'' *
László Krasznahorkai László Krasznahorkai (; born 5 January 1954) is a Hungarian novelist and screenwriter known for difficult and demanding novels, often labeled postmodern, with dystopian and melancholic themes. Several of his works, including his novels '' ...
's ''
Seiobo There Below ''Seiobo There Below'' () is a 2008 novel by the Hungarian writer László Krasznahorkai. It has an episodic narrative which focuses on artists of different times and places, some of which are historical people and some of which are fictional. A th ...
'' *
Hanya Yanagihara Hanya Yanagihara (born 1974) is an American novelist, editor, and travel writer. She grew up in Hawaii. She is best known for her bestselling novel ''A Little Life'', which was shortlisted for the 2015 Booker Prize, and for being the editor-in-ch ...
's ''A Little Life''


In music

The plot of the ''Ballet-héroïque'' entitled '' Zaïde, reine de Grenade'', by the French
Baroque The Baroque (, ; ) is a style of architecture, music, dance, painting, sculpture, poetry, and other arts that flourished in Europe from the early 17th century until the 1750s. In the territories of the Spanish and Portuguese empires including t ...
composer
Joseph-Nicolas-Pancrace Royer Joseph-Nicolas-Pancrace Royer (12 May 1703 – 11 January 1755) was a French composer, harpsichordist, organist, and administrator.Lionel Sawkins and David Fuller"Royer, Joseph-Nicolas-Pancrace" Grove Music Online. Biography Born in Turin, Roy ...
(c. 1705–1755), takes place at the Alhambra. Alhambra has directly inspired musical compositions including
Francisco Tárrega Francisco de Asís Tárrega Eixea (21 November 185215 December 1909) was a Spanish composer and classical guitarist of the late Romantic period. He is known for such pieces as Capricho Árabe and ''Recuerdos de la Alhambra''. He is often calle ...
's famous tremolo study for guitar ''
Recuerdos de la Alhambra ''Recuerdos de la Alhambra'' (Memories of the Alhambra) is a classical guitar piece composed in Málaga by Spanish composer and guitarist Francisco Tárrega.Library of Guitar Classics, AMSCO Publications, 1998 It requires the tremolo technique an ...
'', as well as
Claude Debussy (Achille) Claude Debussy (; 22 August 1862 – 25 March 1918) was a French composer. He is sometimes seen as the first Impressionist composer, although he vigorously rejected the term. He was among the most influential composers of the ...
's piece for two pianos composed in 1901, ''Lindaraja'', and the prelude, ''La Puerta del Vino'', from the second book of preludes composed from 1912 to 1913.
Isaac Albéniz Isaac Manuel Francisco Albéniz y Pascual (; 29 May 1860 – 18 May 1909) was a Spanish virtuoso pianist, composer, and conductor. He is one of the foremost composers of the Post-Romantic era who also had a significant influence on his conte ...
wrote a piano suite ''Recuerdos de viaje'', which included a piece called "En La Alhambra", while his suite ''
Iberia The Iberian Peninsula (), ** * Aragonese and Occitan: ''Peninsula Iberica'' ** ** * french: Péninsule Ibérique * mwl, Península Eibérica * eu, Iberiar penintsula also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in southwestern Europe, defi ...
'' contained a piece called "El Albaicín". Albéniz also composed an uncompleted ''Suite Alhambra''. "En los Jardines del Generalife", the first movement of
Manuel de Falla Manuel de Falla y Matheu (, 23 November 187614 November 1946) was an Andalusian Spanish composer and pianist. Along with Isaac Albéniz, Francisco Tárrega, and Enrique Granados, he was one of Spain's most important musicians of the first hal ...
's ''
Noches en los Jardines de España ''Nights in the Gardens of Spain'' ( es, Noches en los jardines de España), G. 49, is a piece of music by the Spanish composer Manuel de Falla. Falla was Andalusian and the work refers to the Hispano-Arabic past of this region (Al-Andalus). F ...
'', and other pieces by composers such as
Ruperto Chapí Ruperto Chapí y Lorente (27 March 1851 – 25 March 1909) was a Spanish composer, and co-founder of the Spanish Society of Authors and Publishers. Biography Chapí was born at Villena, the son of a Valencian barber. He trained in his home to ...
(''Los Gnomos de la Alhambra'', 1891),
Tomás Bretón Tomás Bretón y Hernández (29 December 1850 – 2 December 1923) was a Spanish conductor and composer. Biography Tomás Bretón was born in Salamanca. He completed his musical studies at the School of Fine Arts in his hometown, where he ea ...
, and many others are included in a stream referred to by scholars as ''Alhambrismo''. In 1976, filmmaker Christopher Nupen filmed ''The Song of the Guitar'' at the Alhambra which was an hour-long program featuring the legendary Spanish guitarist,
Andrés Segovia Andrés Segovia Torres, 1st Marquis of Salobreña (21 February 1893 – 2 June 1987) was a Spanish virtuoso classical guitarist. Many professional classical guitarists were students of Segovia or their students. Segovia's contribution to the m ...
. British composer
Peter Seabourne Peter Seabourne (born 1960) is an English contemporary classical composer based in Lincolnshire, England. Biography Seabourne studied at Clare College, Cambridge with Robin Holloway, and University of York with David Blake. In 1984 he was jo ...
wrote an extended piano cycle ''Steps Volume 3: Arabesques'' (2008–2012) based on shared experiences of the Alhambra with his painter aunt Ann Seabourne, and a movement from his Steps Volume 1 is entitled "El Suspiro del Moro" inspired by the legend of the expulsion of the last Moorish King of Granada. In 2000,
Julian Anderson Julian Anderson (born 6 April 1967) is a British composer and teacher of composition. Biography Anderson was born in London. He studied at Westminster School, then with John Lambert at the Royal College of Music, with Alexander Goehr at Cambri ...
wrote a piece for contemporary chamber ensemble, ''Alhambra Fantasy''. In pop and folk music, Alhambra is the subject of the
Ghymes Ghymes is a band, consisting of Hungarians living in Slovakia, founded at the University of Education in Nitra in 1984, by musicians with different preliminary musical experiences from classical through rock and Renaissance music. Folk elements ha ...
song of the same name. The rock band
Grateful Dead The Grateful Dead was an American rock music, rock band formed in 1965 in Palo Alto, California. The band is known for its eclectic style, which fused elements of rock, Folk music, folk, country music, country, jazz, bluegrass music, bluegrass, ...
released a song called "Terrapin Station" on the 1977 album of the same name. It consisted of a series of small compositions penned by Robert Hunter and put to music by
Jerry Garcia Jerome John Garcia (August 1, 1942 – August 9, 1995) was an American musician best known for being the principal songwriter, lead guitarist, and a vocalist with the rock band Grateful Dead, which he co-founded and which came to prominence ...
; a lyrical section of this suite was called "Alhambra". In September 2006, Canadian singer/composer
Loreena McKennitt Loreena Isobel Irene McKennitt, (born February 17, 1957) is a Canadian singer-songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, and composer who writes, records, and performs world music with Celtic and Middle Eastern influences. McKennitt is known for her r ...
performed live at the Alhambra. The resulting video recordings premiered on
PBS The Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) is an American public broadcasting, public broadcaster and Non-commercial activity, non-commercial, Terrestrial television, free-to-air television network based in Arlington, Virginia. PBS is a publicly fu ...
and were later released as a 3-disc DVD/CD set called ''
Nights from the Alhambra ''Nights from the Alhambra'' is a live album and DVD from the Canadian singer, songwriter, accordionist, harpist, and pianist, Loreena McKennitt and is her first live concert DVD.Basque Basque may refer to: * Basques, an ethnic group of Spain and France * Basque language, their language Places * Basque Country (greater region), the homeland of the Basque people with parts in both Spain and France * Basque Country (autonomous co ...
pop group
Mocedades Mocedades () is a Spanish singing group from the Basque Country, who represented Spain in the Eurovision Song Contest in 1973 with the hit song "Eres Tú". Since June 2014, ''Mocedades'' has been the name of two bands: one with Izaskun Uranga ...
performed a song called "Juntos En La Alhambra". ''
Alhambra The Alhambra (, ; ar, الْحَمْرَاء, Al-Ḥamrāʾ, , ) is a palace and fortress complex located in Granada, Andalusia, Spain. It is one of the most famous monuments of Islamic architecture and one of the best-preserved palaces of the ...
'' is the title of an EP recording by
Canadian Canadians (french: Canadiens) are people identified with the country of Canada. This connection may be residential, legal, historical or cultural. For most Canadians, many (or all) of these connections exist and are collectively the source of ...
rock band,
The Tea Party The Tea Party is a Canadian rock band with industrial rock, blues, progressive rock, and Middle Eastern music influences, dubbed " Moroccan roll" by the media. Active throughout the 1990s and up until 2005, the band re-formed in 2011. The Tea P ...
, containing acoustic versions of a few of their songs. Alhambra and
Albaicín The Albaicín (), also known as Albayzín (from ar, ٱلْبَيّازِينْ, translit=al-Bayyāzīn), is a district of Granada, in the autonomous community of Andalusia, Spain. It is centered around a hill on the north side of the Darro Rive ...
are mentioned in the Mägo de Oz song named "El Paseo de los Tristes" from the album entitled ''Gaia II''. On California rapper
Dom Kennedy Dominic Ross Hunn (born August 22, 1984), better known by his stage name Dom Kennedy, is an American rapper from Leimert Park, Los Angeles, California. Since 2008, Kennedy has released 5 independent mixtapes, most notably his 2010 critically accl ...
's 2015 album ''
By Dom Kennedy ''By Dom Kennedy'' is the third studio album by American rapper Dom Kennedy. The album was released on June 2, 2015. The album features the lone guest appearance from Bonic of Philly's Most Wanted. Commercial performance The album debuted at numb ...
'', there is a song entitled "Alhambra".


In mathematics

The Alhambra tiles are remarkable in that they contain nearly all, if not all, of the seventeen mathematically possible
wallpaper group A wallpaper is a mathematical object covering a whole Euclidean plane by repeating a motif indefinitely, in manner that certain isometries keep the drawing unchanged. To a given wallpaper there corresponds a group of such congruent transformatio ...
s. This is a unique accomplishment in world architecture.
M. C. Escher Maurits Cornelis Escher (; 17 June 1898 – 27 March 1972) was a Dutch graphic artist who made mathematically inspired woodcuts, lithographs, and mezzotints. Despite wide popular interest, Escher was for most of his life neglected in t ...
's visit in 1922 and study of the Moorish use of symmetries in the Alhambra tiles inspired his subsequent work on
tessellation A tessellation or tiling is the covering of a surface, often a plane (mathematics), plane, using one or more geometric shapes, called ''tiles'', with no overlaps and no gaps. In mathematics, tessellation can be generalized to high-dimensional ...
, which he called "regular divisions of the plane".


In film

Marcel L'Herbier Marcel L'Herbier (; 23 April 1888 – 26 November 1979) was a French filmmaker who achieved prominence as an avant-garde theorist and imaginative practitioner with a series of silent films in the 1920s. His career as a director continued unti ...
's 1921 film ''
El Dorado El Dorado (, ; Spanish for "the golden"), originally ''El Hombre Dorado'' ("The Golden Man") or ''El Rey Dorado'' ("The Golden King"), was the term used by the Spanish in the 16th century to describe a mythical tribal chief (''zipa'') or king o ...
'' features many scenes shot in and around the Alhambra palace. This was the first time permission had been granted for a feature film company to shoot inside the Alhambra palace and L'Herbier gave prominent place to its gardens, fountains and geometric architectural patterns, which became some of the film's most memorable images. Animated films by Spanish director Juan Bautista Berasategui such as ''Ahmed, El Principe de la Alhambra'' and ''El Embrujo del Sur'' are based on stories in
Washington Irving Washington Irving (April 3, 1783 – November 28, 1859) was an American short-story writer, essayist, biographer, historian, and diplomat of the early 19th century. He is best known for his short stories "Rip Van Winkle" (1819) and " The Legen ...
's ''
Tales of the Alhambra ''Tales of the Alhambra'' (1832) is a collection of essays, verbal sketches and stories by American author Washington Irving (1783–1859) inspired by, and partly written during, his 1828 visit to the palace/fortress complex known as the Alhambr ...
''. The Alhambra stands in for Baghdad in the 1958 adventure film ''
The 7th Voyage of Sinbad ''The 7th Voyage of Sinbad'' is a 1958 Technicolor heroic fantasy adventure film directed by Nathan H. Juran and starring Kerwin Mathews, Torin Thatcher, Kathryn Grant, Richard Eyer, and Alec Mango. It was distributed by Columbia Pictures ...
''. Interior palace scenes, including in the Tower of Comares, the Court of the Myrtles, and the Court of the Lions, were shot at night so as not to disturb tourists. The Patio de los Aljibes, backed by the Alcazaba—standing in for a prison yard—was filmed by day. The
Court of the Lions The Court of the Lions ( es, Patio de los Leones; ar, بهو السباع) or Palace of the Lions ( es, Palacio de los Leones) is a palace in the heart of the Alhambra, a historic citadel formed by a complex of palaces, gardens and forts in Grana ...
was depicted in ''
Assassin's Creed ''Assassin's Creed'' is an open-world, action-adventure, and stealth game franchise published by Ubisoft and developed mainly by its studio Ubisoft Montreal using the game engine Anvil and its more advanced derivatives. Created by Patrice D ...
'' (2016) when Sultan
Muhammad XII Abu Abdallah Muhammad XII ( ar, أبو عبد الله محمد الثاني عشر, Abū ʿAbdi-llāh Muḥammad ath-thānī ʿashar) (c. 1460–1533), known in Europe as Boabdil (a Spanish rendering of the name ''Abu Abdallah''), was the ...
surrenders the 'Apple of Eden', a powerful artifact in the center of the movie plot, in exchange for his son's safe return. Both the Court of the Lions and Granada's Albaicin are featured on the animated film '' Tad Jones: The Hero Returns''. The fictional Broadway theatre (the interior actually
Auckland Auckland (pronounced ) ( mi, Tāmaki Makaurau) is a large metropolitan city in the North Island of New Zealand. The List of New Zealand urban areas by population, most populous urban area in the country and the List of cities in Oceania by po ...
,
New Zealand New Zealand ( mi, Aotearoa ) is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and over 700 smaller islands. It is the sixth-largest island count ...
's Civic Theatre), in which Kong is displayed as the 'Eighth Wonder of the World' in 2005's ''
King Kong King Kong is a fictional giant monster resembling a gorilla, who has appeared in various media since 1933. He has been dubbed The Eighth Wonder of the World, a phrase commonly used within the franchise. His first appearance was in the novelizat ...
'', is named "The Alhambra". 2018 South Korean television series ''
Memories of the Alhambra ''Memories of the Alhambra'' () is a 2018 South Korean television series, starring Hyun Bin and Park Shin-hye. Primarily set in Spain (and in South Korea in later episodes), the series centers on a company CEO and a hostel owner who get entang ...
'' is based in Granada, Spain with the Alhambra palace as the backdrop of an AR game within the series. Many features and stories of the palace were used as clues and characters for the game progression and AR Alhambra was depicted as ‘a place of magic’ and ‘Mecca for Gamers’ to establish the Gaming plot in the story.


In astronomy

There is a
main belt The asteroid belt is a torus-shaped region in the Solar System, located roughly between the orbits of the planets Jupiter and Mars. It contains a great many solid, irregularly shaped bodies, of many sizes, but much smaller than planets, called ...
asteroid An asteroid is a minor planet of the inner Solar System. Sizes and shapes of asteroids vary significantly, ranging from 1-meter rocks to a dwarf planet almost 1000 km in diameter; they are rocky, metallic or icy bodies with no atmosphere. ...
named
Alhambra The Alhambra (, ; ar, الْحَمْرَاء, Al-Ḥamrāʾ, , ) is a palace and fortress complex located in Granada, Andalusia, Spain. It is one of the most famous monuments of Islamic architecture and one of the best-preserved palaces of the ...
.


In architecture

The Alhambra was often remembered nostalgically in some Muslim societies after the Christian conquest of 1492 and may have influenced later examples of Islamic architecture. For example, several monuments constructed by the
Saadian dynasty The Saadi Sultanate (also rendered in English as Sa'di, Sa'did, Sa'dian, or Saadian; ar, السعديون, translit=as-saʿdiyyūn) was a state which ruled present-day Morocco and parts of West Africa in the 16th and 17th centuries. It was l ...
, which ruled
Morocco Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to ...
in the 16th and 17th centuries, appear to imitate prototypes found in the Alhambra, particularly the Court of the Lions. The Alhambra also inspired a number of buildings in
Moorish Revival architecture Moorish Revival or Neo-Moorish is one of the exotic revival architectural styles that were adopted by architects of Europe and the Americas in the wake of Romanticist Orientalism. It reached the height of its popularity after the mid-19th centur ...
: *
Isaac M. Wise Temple The Isaac M. Wise Temple (formerly the Plum Street Temple) is the historic synagogue erected for Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise and his congregation in Cincinnati, Ohio. Wise was among the founders of American Reform Judaism. The temple building was de ...
(synagogue in
Cincinnati Cincinnati ( ) is a city in the U.S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Hamilton County. Settled in 1788, the city is located at the northern side of the confluence of the Licking and Ohio rivers, the latter of which marks the state line wit ...
,
Ohio Ohio () is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States. Of the fifty U.S. states, it is the 34th-largest by area, and with a population of nearly 11.8 million, is the seventh-most populous and tenth-most densely populated. The sta ...
) *
Villa Zorayda Villa Zorayda (also known as the Zorayda Castle) is a house at 83 King Street in St. Augustine, Florida. Built in 1883 by the eccentric Boston millionaire Franklin W. Smith as his winter home, it was inspired by the 12th-century Moorish A ...
(villa in St. Augustine, Florida) * Villa Alhambra (villa in
Malta Malta ( , , ), officially the Republic of Malta ( mt, Repubblika ta' Malta ), is an island country in the Mediterranean Sea. It consists of an archipelago, between Italy and Libya, and is often considered a part of Southern Europe. It lies ...
)


See also

*
12 Treasures of Spain The 12 Treasures of Spain ( es, 12 Tesoros de España) was a project that selected the purported "Twelve Treasures of the Spain, Kingdom of Spain". The contest was conducted by broadcasters Antena 3 (Spain), Antena 3 and Cadena COPE, COPE. The fin ...
*
Alfarje ''Alfarje'' (meaning "paneled ceiling" in Spanish) is a type of horizontal wooden ceiling primarily found in Islamic (or Moorish) architecture and Mudéjar architecture. The word derives from Andalusi Arabic ''al-farsh'', meaning "bed", relate ...
*
History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes The early domes of the Middle Ages, particularly in those areas recently under Byzantine control, were an extension of earlier Roman architecture. The domed church architecture of Italy from the sixth to the eighth centuries followed that of the ...
*
Islamic garden An Islamic garden is generally an expressive estate of land that includes themes of water and shade. Their most identifiable architectural design reflects the ''charbagh'' (or ''chahār bāgh'') quadrilateral layout with four smaller gardens di ...


Notes


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *


Further reading

*Arnold, Felix (2017). ''Islamic Palace Architecture in the Western Mediterranean: A History''. Oxford University Press.
ISBN The International Standard Book Number (ISBN) is a numeric commercial book identifier that is intended to be unique. Publishers purchase ISBNs from an affiliate of the International ISBN Agency. An ISBN is assigned to each separate edition and ...
  9780190624552. (See chapter 5 for most relevant sections) * * * *Grabar, Oleg (1978). ''The Alhambra''. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. * *Lowney, Chris (2005). ''A Vanished World: Medieval Spain's Golden Age of Enlightenment''. New York:
Simon & Schuster Simon & Schuster () is an American publishing company and a subsidiary of Paramount Global. It was founded in New York City on January 2, 1924 by Richard L. Simon and M. Lincoln Schuster. As of 2016, Simon & Schuster was the third largest publ ...
, Inc. *Menocal, Maria, Rosa (2002). ''The Ornament of the World''. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. *Ruggles, D. Fairchild (2000). ''Gardens, Landscape, and Vision in the Palaces of Islamic Spain'', Philadelphia: Pennsylvania State University Press. *Ruggles, D. Fairchild (2008). "Alhambra," in ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'', third edition. Leiden: E. J. Brill. *Ruggles, D. Fairchild (2011). ''Islamic Gardens and Landscapes''. University of Pennsylvania Press. *


External links

*
Alhambra in turgranada.es
Official site for tourism of the province of Granada.

Masterpieces of Islamic Architecture.
InFocus: La Alhambra & Generalife (Granada, Spain)
a
HitchHikers Handbook
*Paul F. Hoye, 1967

'' Saudi Aramco World'' * Murphy, James Cavanah, 1816
The Alhamra (Alhambra) at Granada
''islamic-arts.org''
Al-Andalus: the art of Islamic Spain
an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Alhambra (see index) *High-resolution 360° Panoramas of&nbs
Alhambra , Art Atlas
{{Authority control Arabic architecture Azulejos in buildings in Andalusia Bien de Interés Cultural landmarks in the Province of Granada Buildings and structures completed in 1333 Buildings and structures in Granada Castles in Andalusia Gardens in Spain Granada Islamic art of Spain Islamic gardens Moorish architecture in Spain Nasrid architecture Nasrid dynasty Open-air museums in Spain Palaces in Andalusia Royal residences in Spain Spanish gardens Visionary environments World Heritage Sites in Spain Articles containing video clips